This article is about the natural physiological process in the nervous system. For the therapeutic electromagnetic or chemical stimulation of nerve cells, see Neuromodulation (medicine).
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Neuromodulation is the physiological process by which a given neuron uses one or more neurotransmitters to regulate diverse populations of neurons. This is in contrast to classical synaptic transmission, in which one presynaptic neuron directly influences a single postsynaptic partner. Neuromodulators secreted by a small group of neurons diffuse through large areas of the nervous system, affecting multiple neurons. Examples of neuromodulators include dopamine, serotonin, acetylcholine, histamine and others.
Neuromodulation can be conceptualized as a neurotransmitter that is not reabsorbed by the pre-synaptic neuron or broken down into a metabolite. Such neuromodulators end up spending a significant amount of time in the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF), influencing (or "modulating") the activity of several other neurons in the brain. For this reason, some neurotransmitters are also considered to be neuromodulators, such as serotonin and acetylcholine.[citation needed]
Neuromodulation is often contrasted with classical fast synaptic transmission. In both cases the transmitter acts on local postsynaptic receptors, but in neuromodulation, the receptors are typically G-protein coupled receptors while in classical chemical neurotransmission, they are ligand-gated ion channels. Neurotransmission that involves metabotropic receptors (like G-protein linked receptors) often also involves voltage-gated ion channels, and is relatively slow. Conversely, neurotransmission that involves exclusively ligand-gated ion channels is much faster. A related distinction is also sometimes drawn between modulator and driver synaptic inputs to a neuron, but here the emphasis is on modulating ongoing neuronal spiking versus causing that spiking.
Contents
- 1 Neuromuscular systems
- 2 Volume transmission
- 3 The major neurotransmitter systems
- 3.1 Comparison
- 3.2 Noradrenaline system
- 3.3 Dopamine system
- 3.3.1 Dopamine pharmacology
- 3.4 Serotonin system
- 3.4.1 Serotonin pharmacology
- 3.5 GABA
- 3.6 Neuropeptides
- 4 Other uses
- 5 References
- 6 External links
Neuromuscular systems
Neuromodulators may alter the output of a physiological system by acting on the associated inputs (for instance, central pattern generators). However, modeling work suggests that this alone is insufficient,[1] because the neuromuscular transformation from neural input to muscular output may be tuned for particular ranges of input. Stern et al. (2007) suggest that neuromodulators must act not only on the input system but must change the transformation itself to produce the proper contractions of muscles as output.[1]
Volume transmission
Neurotransmitter systems are systems of neurons in the brain expressing certain types of neurotransmitters, and thus form distinct systems. Activation of the system causes effects in large volumes of the brain, called volume transmission. Volume transmission is the diffusion through the brain extracellular fluid of neurotransmitters released at points that may be remote from the target cells with the resulting activation of extrasynaptic receptors, and with a longer time course than for transmission at a single synapse.[2]
The major neurotransmitter systems
The major neurotransmitter systems are the noradrenaline (norepinephrine) system, the dopamine system, the serotonin system and the cholinergic system. Drugs targeting the neurotransmitter of such systems affects the whole system, and explains the mode of action of many drugs.
Most other neurotransmitters, on the other hand, e.g. glutamate, GABA and glycine, are used very generally throughout the central nervous system.
Comparison
Neuromodulator systems
System |
Origin |
[3] Targets |
[3] Effects[3] |
Noradrenaline system |
Locus coeruleus |
adrenergic receptors in:
- spinal cord
- thalamus
- hypothalamus
- striatum
- neocortex
- cingulate gyrus
- cingulum
- hippocampus
- amygdala
|
- arousal (Arousal is a physiological and psychological state of being awake or reactive to stimuli)
- reward system
|
Lateral tegmental field |
|
Dopamine system |
dopamine pathways:
- mesocortical pathway
- mesolimbic pathway
- nigrostriatal pathway
- tuberoinfundibular pathway
|
Dopamine receptors at pathway terminations. |
motor system, reward system, cognition, endocrine, nausea |
Serotonin system |
caudal dorsal raphe nucleus |
Serotonin receptors in:
- deep cerebellar nuclei
- cerebellar cortex
- spinal cord
|
Increase (introversion), mood, satiety, body temperature and sleep, while decreasing nociception. |
rostral dorsal raphe nucleus |
Serotonin receptors in:
- thalamus
- striatum
- hypothalamus
- nucleus accumbens
- neocortex
- cingulate gyrus
- cingulum
- hippocampus
- amygdala
|
Cholinergic system |
Pedunculopontine nucleus and dorsolateral tegmental nuclei (pontomesencephalotegmental complex) |
(mainly) M1 receptors in:
- brainstem[4]
- deep cerebellar nuclei[4]
- pontine nuclei[4]
- locus ceruleus[4]
- raphe nucleus[4]
- lateral reticular nucleus[4]
- inferior olive[4]
- thalamus[5]
- tectum[5]
- basal ganglia[5]
- basal forebrain[5]
|
- muscle and motor control system
- learning
- short-term memory
- arousal
- reward
|
basal optic nucleus of Meynert |
(mainly) M1 receptors in:
|
medial septal nucleus |
(mainly) M1 receptors in:
|
Noradrenaline system
Further reading: Norepinephrine#Norepinephrine system
The noradrenaline system consists of just 1500 neurons on each side of the brain, primarily in the locus coeruleus. This is diminutive compared to the more than 100 billion neurons in the brain. As with dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra, neurons in the locus caeruleus tend to be melanin-pigmented. In spite of their small number, when activated, the system plays major roles in the brain, as seen in table above. Noradrenaline is released from the neurons, and acts on adrenergic receptors.
Dopamine system
Further reading: Dopamine#Functions in the brain
The dopamine or dopaminergic system consists of several pathways, originating from the ventral tegmentum or substantia nigra as examples. It acts on dopamine receptors.
Parkinson's disease is at least in part related to dropping out of dopaminergic cells in deep-brain nuclei, primarily the melanin-pigmented neurons in the substantia nigra but secondarily the noradrenergic neurons of the locus ceruleus. Treatments potentiating the effect of dopamine precursors have been proposed and effected, with moderate success.
Dopamine pharmacology
- Cocaine, for example, blocks the reuptake of dopamine, leaving these neurotransmitters in the synaptic gap longer.
- AMPT prevents the conversion of tyrosine to L-DOPA, the precursor to dopamine; reserpine prevents dopamine storage within vesicles; and deprenyl inhibits monoamine oxidase (MAO)-B and thus increases dopamine levels.
Serotonin system
Further reading: Serotonin#Gross anatomy
The serotonin system in the CNS contains only 1% of total body serotonin, the rest being found as transmitters in the peripheral nervous system[citation needed]. It travels around the brain along the medial forebrain bundle and acts on serotonin receptors. In the peripheral nervous system (such as in the gut wall) serotonin regulates vascular tone.
Serotonin pharmacology
- Prozac or fluoxetine, a selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor (SSRI), is a widely used antidepressant that blocks the reuptake of serotonin. Although changes in neurochemistry are found immediately after taking an antidepressant, symptoms will not begin to improve until 4 to 6 weeks after administration.[6]
- Monoamine oxidase inhibitors are thought to change the rate of oxidation of biogenic amines within the brain. A lack of oxidation means that more neurotransmitters (specifically monoamines such as dopamine or serotonin) are available for release into synapses. MOAIs take several weeks to alleviate the symptoms of depression.[6]
- Tricyclic antidepressants block the reuptake of biogenic amines from the synapse, back into the neuron. They typically take 4 to 6 weeks to alleviate any symptoms of depression. They are considered to have immediate and long-term effects.[6]
GABA
Gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) has an inhibitory effect on brain and spinal cord activity.[6]
Neuropeptides
- Opioid peptides - a large family of endogenous neuropeptides that are widely distributed throughout the central and peripheral nervous system. Opiate drugs such as heroin and morphine act at the receptors of these neurotransmitters.[6]
- Endorphins
- Enkephalins
- Dynorphins
Other uses
Neuromodulation also refers to an emerging class of medical therapies that target the nervous system for restoration of function (such as in cochlear implants), relief of pain, or control of symptoms, such as tremor seen in movement disorders like Parkinson's disease. The therapies consist primarily of targeted electrical stimulation, or infusion of medications into the cerebrospinal fluid using intrathecal drug delivery, such as baclofen for spasticity. Electrical stimulation devices include deep brain stimulation systems (DBS), colloquially referred to as "brain pacemakers", spinal cord stimulators (SCS), which are implanted using minimally invasive procedures, or transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation devices, which are fully external, among others.[7]
References
- ^ a b Stern, E; Fort TJ; Millier MW; Peskin CS; Brezina V (2007). "Decoding modulation of the neuromuscular transform". Neurocomputing 70 (6954): 1753. doi:10.1016/j.neucom.2006.10.117. PMC 2745187. PMID 19763188. Retrieved 2007-04-07.
- ^ Castaneda-Hernandez, Gilberto C.; Bach-y-Rita, Paul (2003). "Volume Transmission and Pain Perception". The Scientific World JOURNAL 3: 677–683. doi:10.1100/tsw.2003.53.
- ^ a b c Unless else specified in boxes, then ref is: Rang, H. P. (2003). Pharmacology. Edinburgh: Churchill Livingstone. pp. 474 for noradrenaline system, page 476 for dopamine system, page 480 for serotonin system and page 483 for cholinergic system. ISBN 0-443-07145-4.
- ^ a b c d e f g Woolf NJ, Butcher LL. (1989). Cholinergic systems in the rat brain: IV. Descending projections of the pontomesencephalic tegmentum. Brain Res Bull. 23(6):519-40. PMID 2611694
- ^ a b c d Woolf NJ, Butcher LL. (1986). Cholinergic systems in the rat brain: III. Projections from the pontomesencephalic tegmentum to the thalamus, tectum, basal ganglia, and basal forebrain. Brain Res Bull. 16(5):603-37. PMID 3742247
- ^ a b c d e Kandel, Eric R (1991). Principles of Neural Science. East Norwalk, Connecticut: Appleton & Lang. p. 872–873. ISBN 0838580343.
- ^ Krames, Elliot S.; Peckham, P. Hunter; Rezai, Ali R., eds. (2009). Neuromodulation, Vol. 1-2. Academic Press. pp. 1–1200. ISBN 9780123742483. Retrieved September 6, 2012.
External links
- North American Neuromodulation Society
- Neuromodulation and Neural Plasticity
- International Neuromodulation Society
- Scolarpedia article on neuromodulation
Neuromodulation
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Types |
- ♦ Enzyme: Inducer
- Inhibitor
- ♦ Ion channel: Opener
- Blocker
- ♦ Receptor: Agonist
- Antagonist
- Positive allosteric modulator (PAM)
- Negative allosteric modulator (NAM)
- Inverse agonist
- ♦ Transporter [Reuptake]: Enhancer (RE)
- Inhibitor (RI)
- Releaser (RA)
- ♦ Miscellaneous: Precursor
- Cofactor
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|
Classes |
Enzyme
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see Enzyme inhibition
|
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Ion channel
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- Calcium channel blocker (CCB)
- Potassium channel blocker (PCB)
- Sodium channel blocker (SCB)
- Potassium channel opener (PCO)
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Receptor &
transporter
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BA/M
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Adrenergic
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- Adrenergic receptor agonist (α
- β (1
- 2))
- Adrenergic receptor antagonist (α (1
- 2), β)
- Adrenergic reuptake inhibitor (ARI)
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Dopaminergic
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- Dopamine receptor agonist
- Dopamine receptor antagonist
- Dopamine reuptake inhibitor (DRI)
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Histamitic
|
- Histamine receptor agonist
- Histamine receptor antagonist (H1
- H2
- H3)
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Serotonergic
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- Serotonin receptor agonist
- Serotonin Receptor Antagonist (5-HT3)
- Serotonin reuptake inhibitor (SRI)
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|
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AA
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GABAergic
|
- GABA receptor agonist
- GABA receptor antagonist
- GABA reuptake inhibitor (GRI)
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Glutamitic
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- Glutamate receptor agonist (AMPA)
- Glutamate receptor antagonist (NMDA)
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Cholinergic
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- Acetylcholine receptor agonist (Muscarinic
- Nicotinic)
- Acetylcholine receptor antagonist (Muscarinic
- Nicotinic (Ganglionic
- Muscular))
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Endocannabinoid
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- Cannabinoid receptor agonist
- Cannabinoid receptor antagonist
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Opioid
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- Opioid receptor agonist
- Opioid receptor antagonist
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Other
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- Adenosine reuptake inhibitor (AdoRI)
- Angiotensin II receptor antagonist
- Endothelin receptor antagonist
- NK1 receptor antagonist
- Vasopressin receptor antagonist
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|
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Miscellaneous
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- Cofactor (see Enzyme cofactors)
- Precursor (see Amino acids)
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Nervous system (TA A14, GA 9)
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|
Central nervous system |
- Meninges
- Spinal cord
- Brain
- Rhombencephalon
- Medulla oblongata
- Pons
- Cerebellum
- Mesencephalon
- Prosencephalon
- Diencephalon
- Telencephalon
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Peripheral nervous system |
Somatic
|
- Sensory nerve
- Motor nerve
- Cranial nerve
- Spinal nerve
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Autonomic
|
- Sympathetic
- Parasympathetic
- Enteric nervous system
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anat (n/s/m/p/4/e/b/d/c/a/f/l/g)/phys/devp
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noco (m/d/e/h/v/s)/cong/tumr, sysi/epon, injr
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proc, drug (N1A/2AB/C/3/4/7A/B/C/D)
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anat (h/r/t/c/b/l/s/a)/phys (r)/devp/prot/nttr/nttm/ntrp
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noco/auto/cong/tumr, sysi/epon, injr
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Neuroscience
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- Affective neuroscience
- Behavioral epigenetics
- Behavioral neurology
- Behavioral genetics
- Behavioral neuroscience
- Brain–computer interface
- Cellular neuroscience
- Chronobiology
- Clinical neurophysiology
- Clinical neuroscience
- Cognitive neuroscience
- Computational neuroscience
- Connectomics
- Cultural neuroscience
- Educational neuroscience
- Evolutionary neuroscience
- Imaging genetics
- Integrative neuroscience
- Molecular cellular cognition
- Molecular neuroscience
- Motor or Movement neuroscience
- Neural development
- Neural engineering
- Neural network (artificial)
- Neural network (biological)
- Neural signal processing
- Neural tissue regeneration
- Neuroanatomy
- Neuroanthropology
- Neurobioengineering
- Neurobiology
- Neurobiotics
- Neurocardiology
- Neurochemistry
- Neurochip
- Neurocriminology
- Neurodegeneration
- Neurodevelopmental disorders
- Neurodiversity
- Neuroeconomics
- Neuroeducation
- Neuroembryology
- Neuroendocrinology
- Neuroepidemiology
- Neuroepistemology
- Neuroesthetics
- Neuroethics
- Neuroethology
- Neurogastroenterology
- Neurogenetics
- Neurohistory
- Neuroimaging
- Neuroimmunology
- Neuroinformatics
- Neurointensive care
- Neurolaw
- Neurolinguistics
- Neurology
- Neuromanagement
- Neuromarketing
- Neurometrics
- Neuromodulation
- Neuromorphology
- Neuromonitoring
- Neurooncology
- Neuro-ophthalmology
- Neuropathology
- Neuropharmacology
- Neurophenomenology
- Neurophilosophy
- Neurophysics
- Neurophysiology
- Neuroplasticity
- Neuropolitics
- Neuroprosthetics
- Neuropsychiatry
- Neuro-psychoanalysis
- Neuropsychology
- Neuroradiology
- Neurorehabilitation
- Neurorobotics
- Neurosociology
- Neurosurgery
- Neurotechnology
- Neurotheology
- Neurotology
- Neurotoxin
- Neurotransmitter
- Neurovirology
- Paleoneurology
- Psychiatry
- Sensory neuroscience
- Social neuroscience
- Systems neuroscience
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Cell physiology: Cell signaling / Signal transduction
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|
Signaling pathways |
- GPCR
- RTK
- Notch
- JAK-STAT
- Akt/PKB
- Fas apoptosis
- Hippo
- PI3K/AKT/mTOR pathway
- Integrin receptors
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|
Agents |
Receptor ligands |
- Hormones
- Neurotransmitters/Neuropeptides/Neurohormones
- Cytokines
- Growth factors
- Signaling molecules
|
|
Receptors |
- Cell surface
- Intracellular
- Co-receptor
|
|
2nd messenger |
- cAMP-dependent pathway
- Ca2+ signaling
- Lipid signaling
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|
Assistants: |
- Signal transducing adaptor protein
- Scaffold protein
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|
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Transcription factors |
- General
- Transcription preinitiation complex
- TFIID
- TFIIH
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|
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By distance |
- Juxtacrine
- Autocrine / Paracrine
- Endocrine
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Other concepts |
- Intracrine action
- Neurocrine signaling
- Synaptic transmission
- Chemical synapse
- Neuroendocrine signaling
- Exocrine signalling
- Mechanotransduction
- Phototransduction
- Ion channel gating
- Gap junction
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|
B trdu: iter (nrpl/grfl/cytl/horl), csrc (lgic, enzr, gprc, igsr, intg, nrpr/grfr/cytr), itra (adap, gbpr, mapk), calc, lipd; path (hedp, wntp, tgfp+mapp, notp, jakp, fsap, hipp, tlrp)
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Human brain: forebrain (cerebrum, cerebral cortex, cerebral hemispheres, grey matter) (TA A14.1.09.002–240, 301–320, GA 9.818–826)
|
|
Frontal lobe |
Superolateral |
Prefrontal |
- Superior frontal gyrus
- Middle frontal gyrus
- Inferior frontal gyrus: 11l
- 47-Pars orbitalis
- Broca's area
- 44-Pars opercularis
- 45-Pars triangularis
- Superior frontal sulcus
- Inferior frontal sulcus
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|
Precentral |
- Precentral gyrus
- Precentral sulcus
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|
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Medial/inferior |
Prefrontal |
- Superior frontal gyrus
- Medial frontal gyrus
- Paraterminal gyrus/Paraolfactory area
- Straight gyrus
- Orbital gyri/Orbitofrontal cortex
- Ventromedial prefrontal cortex
- Subcallosal area
- Olfactory sulcus
- Orbital sulci
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Precentral |
- Paracentral lobule
- Paracentral sulcus
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|
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Both |
- Primary motor cortex
- Premotor cortex
- Supplementary motor area
- Supplementary eye field
- Frontal eye fields
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|
|
Parietal lobe |
Superolateral |
- Superior parietal lobule
- Inferior parietal lobule
- 40-Supramarginal gyrus
- 39-Angular gyrus
- Parietal operculum
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|
Medial/inferior |
- Paracentral lobule
- Precuneus
- Marginal sulcus
|
|
Both |
- Postcentral gyrus/primary somatosensory cortex
- Secondary somatosensory cortex
- Posterior parietal cortex
|
|
|
Occipital lobe |
Superolateral |
- Occipital pole of cerebrum
- Lateral occipital gyrus
- Lunate sulcus
- Transverse occipital sulcus
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|
Medial/inferior |
- Primary visual cortex
- Cuneus
- Lingual gyrus
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|
|
Temporal lobe |
Superolateral |
- Transverse temporal gyrus/Primary auditory cortex
- Superior temporal gyrus
- Middle temporal gyrus
- Superior temporal sulcus
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|
Medial/inferior |
- Fusiform gyrus
- Medial temporal lobe
- Inferior temporal gyrus
- Inferior temporal sulcus
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|
|
Interlobar
sulci/fissures |
Superolateral |
- Central (frontal+parietal)
- Lateral (frontal+parietal+temporal)
- Parieto-occipital
- Preoccipital notch
|
|
Medial/inferior |
- Medial longitudinal
- Cingulate (frontal+cingulate)
- Collateral (temporal+occipital)
- Callosal sulcus
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|
|
Limbic lobe |
Parahippocampal gyrus |
- anterior
- Entorhinal cortex
- Perirhinal cortex
- Posterior parahippocampal gyrus
- Prepyriform area
|
|
Cingulate cortex/gyrus |
- Subgenual area
- Anterior cingulate
- Posterior cingulate
- Isthmus of cingulate gyrus: Retrosplenial cortex
|
|
Hippocampal formation |
- Hippocampal sulcus
- Fimbria of hippocampus
- Dentate gyrus
- Rhinal sulcus
|
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Other |
- Supracallosal gyrus
- Uncus
- Amygdala
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|
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Insular lobe |
- Long gyrus of insula
- Short gyri of insula
- Circular sulcus of insula
|
|
General |
- Operculum
- Poles of cerebral hemispheres
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Some categorizations are approximations, and some Brodmann areas span gyri.
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anat (n/s/m/p/4/e/b/d/c/a/f/l/g)/phys/devp
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noco (m/d/e/h/v/s)/cong/tumr, sysi/epon, injr
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proc, drug (N1A/2AB/C/3/4/7A/B/C/D)
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Human brain: diencephalon (TA A14.1.08, GA 9.807)
|
|
Epithalamus |
Surface |
- Pineal body
- Habenula
- Habenular trigone
- Habenular commissure
|
|
Grey matter |
- Pretectal area
- Habenular nuclei
- Subcommissural organ
|
|
|
Thalamus |
Surface |
- Stria medullaris of thalamus
- Thalamic reticular nucleus
- Taenia thalami
|
|
Grey matter/
nuclei |
- paired: AN
- Ventral
- Lateral
- Metathalamus
- midline: MD
- Intralaminar
- Midline nuclear group
- Interthalamic adhesion
|
|
White matter |
- Mammillothalamic fasciculus
- Pallidothalamic tracts
- Ansa lenticularis
- Lenticular fasciculus
- Thalamic fasciculus
- PCML
- Medial lemniscus
- Trigeminal lemniscus
- Spinothalamic tract
- Lateral lemniscus
- Dentatothalamic tract
- Acoustic radiation
- Optic radiation
- Subthalamic fasciculus
- Anterior trigeminothalamic tract
|
|
|
Hypothalamus |
Surface |
- Median eminence/Tuber cinereum
- Mammillary body
- Infundibulum
|
|
Grey matter |
Autonomic zones |
- Anterior (parasympathetic/heat loss)
- Posterior (sympathetic/heat conservation)
|
|
Endocrine |
- posterior pituitary: Paraventricular
- magnocellular
- parvocellular
- Supraoptic
- other: Arcuate (dopamine/GHRH)
- Preoptic (GnRH)
- Suprachiasmatic (melatonin)
|
|
Emotion |
- Lateral
- Ventromedial
- Dorsomedial
|
|
|
White matter |
- afferent
- SN → Medial forebrain bundle
- efferent
- Mammillothalamic fasciculus → AN, Stria terminalis → Amygdala, Dorsal longitudinal fasciculus → SC
|
|
Pituitary |
- Posterior is diencephalon, but anterior is glandular
|
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Subthalamus |
- Subthalamic nucleus
- Zona incerta
|
|
Ventricular system:
Third ventricle |
- recesses:
- Optic recess
- Infundibular recess
- Suprapineal recess
- Pineal recess
- Hypothalamic sulcus
- Tela chorioidea of third ventricle
- Apertures: Interventricular/Monro
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anat (n/s/m/p/4/e/b/d/c/a/f/l/g)/phys/devp
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noco (m/d/e/h/v/s)/cong/tumr, sysi/epon, injr
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proc, drug (N1A/2AB/C/3/4/7A/B/C/D)
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Human brain: mesencephalon (midbrain) (TA A14.1.06, GA 9.800)
|
|
Tectum
(Dorsal) |
Surface |
- Corpora quadrigemina: Inferior colliculi
- Brachium of inferior colliculus
- Superior colliculi
- Brachium of superior colliculus
|
|
Grey matter |
|
|
White: Sensory/ascending |
- Spinotectal tract
- Central tegmental tract
|
|
White: Motor/descending |
|
|
|
Peduncle
(Ventral) |
Tegmentum |
White: Sensory/ascending |
- lemnisci
- Ascending MLF
- Vestibulo-oculomotor fibers
- Spinothalamic tract
- Anterior trigeminothalamic tract
- Dentatothalamic tract
|
|
White: Motor/descending |
- Rubrospinal tract
- Rubro-olivary tract
- Descending MLF
|
|
Grey: cranial nuclei |
- GSA
- V: Mesencephalic- GSE
- III: Oculomotor, IV: Trochlear- GVE
- III: Edinger–Westphal
|
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Grey: other |
- Periaqueductal gray/Raphe nuclei
|
|
- Ventral tegmental area
- Pedunculopontine nucleus
- Red nucleus
|
|
|
|
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Ventricular system |
|
|
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Base |
White: Motor/descending |
- Cerebral crus: Corticospinal tract
- Corticobulbar tract
- Corticopontine tract/Frontopontine fibers/Temporopontine fibers
|
|
Grey: Substantia nigra |
- Pars compacta
- Pars reticulata
|
|
Surface |
- Superior cerebellar peduncle
- Decussation of superior cerebellar peduncles
- Interpeduncular fossa
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anat (n/s/m/p/4/e/b/d/c/a/f/l/g)/phys/devp
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noco (m/d/e/h/v/s)/cong/tumr, sysi/epon, injr
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proc, drug (N1A/2AB/C/3/4/7A/B/C/D)
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Human brain: rhombencephalon, myelencephalon: medulla (TA A14.1.04, GA 9.767)
|
|
Dorsal |
Surface |
- Posterior median sulcus
- Posterolateral sulcus
- Area postrema
- Vagal trigone
- Hypoglossal trigone
- Medial eminence
|
|
Grey: Cranial nuclei |
afferent: |
- GVA: VII,IX,X: Solitary/tract/Dorsal respiratory group
- SVA: Gustatory nucleus
- GSA: VIII-v
|
|
efferent: |
- GSE: XII
- GVE: IX,X,XI: Ambiguus
- SVE: X: Dorsal
- IX: Inferior salivatory nucleus
|
|
|
Grey: other |
- Gracile nucleus
- Cuneate nucleus
- Accessory cuneate nucleus
|
|
White: Sensory/ascending |
- Sensory decussation
- Medial lemniscus
- Inferior cerebellar peduncle
- Ascending dorsal longitudinal fasciculus
- MLF, III, IV and VI
|
|
White: Motor/descending |
- Descending dorsal longitudinal fasciculus
- MLF, III, IV and VI
|
|
|
Ventral |
White: Motor/descending |
- Motor decussation
- Olivocerebellar tract
- Rubro-olivary tract
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Grey matter |
- Ventral respiratory group
- Arcuate nucleus of medulla
- Inferior olivary nucleus
- Rostral ventromedial medulla
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Surface |
- Anterior median fissure
- Anterolateral sulcus
- Olive
- Pyramid
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Grey: Raphe/
reticular |
- Reticular formation
- Gigantocellular
- Parvocellular
- Ventral
- Lateral
- Paramedian
- Raphe nuclei
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anat (n/s/m/p/4/e/b/d/c/a/f/l/g)/phys/devp
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noco (m/d/e/h/v/s)/cong/tumr, sysi/epon, injr
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proc, drug (N1A/2AB/C/3/4/7A/B/C/D)
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