運動機能障害

WordNet

machine that converts other forms of energy into mechanical energy and so imparts motion
a nonspecific agent that imparts motion; "happiness is the aim of all men and the motor of all action"
(medicine) any disturbance in the functioning of an organ or body part or a disturbance in the functioning of a social group; "erectile dysfunction"; "sexual relationship dysfunction" (同)disfunction
the act of driving an automobile

PrepTutorEJDIC

(電気の)『モーター』,電動機 / エンジン,(特に)内燃機関 / 《英》自動車(motorcar) / 《名詞の前にのみ用いて》 / モーターの;エンジンの;自動車の / モーター(エンジン)による,自動車による / (神経・筋肉について)運動の / 自動車で行く / …‘を'自動車で運ぶ
機能障害,機能不全
自動車運転〈技術〉,ドライブ
気のきいた言葉

Wikipedia preview

出典(authority):フリー百科事典『ウィキペディア（Wikipedia）』「2013/03/28 23:39:50」(JST)

wiki en

A motor skill is a learned sequence of movements that combine to produce a smooth, efficient action in order to master a particular task. The development of motor skill occurs in the motor cortex, the region of the cerebral cortex that controls voluntary muscle groups. Motor skills are done by motor neurons which are also known as efferent neurons.^[1]

Development of motor skills

Due to the immaturity of the human nervous system at the time of birth, children grow continually throughout their childhood years. Many factors contribute to the ability and the rate that children develop their motor skills. Uncontrollable factors include: genetic or inherited traits and children with learning disorders. A child born to short and overweight parents is much less likely to be an athlete than a child born to two athletically built parents. Controllable factors include: the environment/society and culture they are born to. A child born in the city is much less likely to have the same opportunities to explore, hike, or trek the outdoors than one born in the rural area. For a child to successfully develop motor skills, he or she must receive many opportunities to physically explore the surroundings.

Infantile: Early movements made by very young infants are largely reflexive. An infant is exposed to a variety of perceptual experiences through the senses. Gradually, the infant learns that certain involuntary, reflexive movements can result in pleasurable sensory experiences, and will attempt to repeat the motions voluntarily in order to experience the pleasurable sensation.

6 months – can sit straight
12 months – takes first steps
24 months – can jump
36 months – can cut with scissors; runs on toes

Influences to development

Stress and arousal: stress and anxiety is the result of an imbalance between demand and the capacity of the individual. Arousal is the state of interest in the skill. The optimal performance level is moderate stress or arousal. An example of too low of arousal state is an overqualified worker performing repetitive jobs. An example of stress level too high is an anxious pianist at a recital.

Fatigue: the deterioration of performance when a stressful task is continued for a long time, similar to the muscular fatigue experienced when exercised for a rapid rate or lengthy period of time. Fatigue is caused by over-arousal. Fatigue impacts an individual in many ways: perceptual changes in which visual acuity or awareness drops, slowing of performance (reaction times or movements speed), irregularity of timing, and disorganization of performance.

Vigilance: the effect of the loss of vigilance is the same as fatigue, but is otherwise caused by the lack of arousal. Some tasks include jobs that require little work and high attention. ^[2]

Stages of Motor learning

The stages to motor learning are the cognitive phase, the associative phase, and the autonomous phase.

Cognitive Phase: When a learner is new to a specific task, the primary thought process starts with, “what needs to be done?” Considerable cognitive activity is required so that the learner can determine appropriate strategies to adequately reflect the desired goal. Good strategies are retained and inefficient strategies are discarded. The performance is greatly improved in a short amount of time.

Associative Phase: the learner has determined the most effective way to do the task and starts to make subtle adjustments in performance. Improvements are more gradual and movements become more consistent. This phase can last for a long time. The skills in this phase are fluent, efficient and aesthetically pleasing.

Autonomous Phase: this phase may take several months to years to reach. The phase is dubbed because the performer can now “automatically” complete the task without having to pay any attention to. Examples include walking and talking or sight reading while doing simple arithmetic.^[3]

Feedback

During the learning process of a motor skill, feedback is the positive or negative response that tells the learner how well the task was completed. Inherent feedback: after completing the skill, inherent feedback is the sensory information that tells the learner how well the task was completed. A basketball player will note that he or she made a mistake when the ball misses the hoop. Another example is a diver knowing that a mistake was made when the entrance into the water is painful and undesirable. Augmented feedback: in contrast to inherent feedback, augmented feedback is information that supplements or “augments” the inherent feedback. For example, when a person is driving over a speed limit and is pulled over by the police. Although the car did not do any harm, the policeman gives augmented feedback to the driver in order for him to drive more safely. Another example is a private tutor for a new student of a field of study. Augmented feedback decreases the amount of time to master the motor skill and increases the performance level of the prospect. Transfer of motor skills: the gain or loss in the capability for performance in one task as a result of practice and experience on some other task. An example would be the comparison of initial skill of a tennis player and non-tennis player when playing table tennis for the first time. An example of a negative transfer is if it takes longer for a typist to adjust to a randomly assigned letters of the keyboard compared to a new typist. Retention: the performance level of a particular skill after a period of no use.^[3]

Types of tasks

Continuous tasks: activities like swimming, bicycling, running; the performance level is just as proficient as before even after years of no use.

Discrete tasks: an instrument or a sport, the performance level drops significantly but will be better than a new learner. The relationship between the two tasks is that continuous tasks usually use gross motor skills and discrete tasks use finer motor skills.^[3]

Gross motor skills

Gross motor skill require the use of large muscle groups to perform tasks like walking, balancing, crawling. The skill required is not extensive and therefore are usually associated with continuous tasks. Much of the development of these skills occurs during early childhood. The performance level of gross motor skill remains unchanged after periods of non-use.^[4]

Fine motor skills

Fine motor skill require the use of smaller muscle groups to perform tasks that are precise in nature. Activities like playing the piano and playing video games are examples of using fine motor skills. Generally, there is a retention loss of fine motor skills over a period of non-use. Discrete tasks usually require more fine motor skill than gross motor skills. ^[4]

Sex differences in motor skills

Men and women differ in motor skill ability. In general, men are better at gross motor skills while women are better at fine motor skills.^{[citation needed]} Sex differences in brain physiology are often cited by scientists to explain these differences. ^[5] Many of the regions of the brain responsible for motor skill reside in the frontal lobe, basal ganglia, and cerebellum.

The regions of the frontal lobe responsible for motor skill include the primary motor cortex, the supplemental motor area and the premotor cortex. The primary motor cortex is located on the precentral gyrus and is often visualized as the motor homunculus. By stimulating certain areas of the motor strip and observing where it had an effect, Pennfield and Rassmussen were able to map out the motor homunculus. Areas on the body that have complex movements, such as the hands, have a bigger representation on the motor homunculus. ^[6]

The supplemental motor area, which is just anterior to the primary motor cortex, is involved with postural stability and adjustment as well as coordinating sequences of movement. The premotor cortex, which is just below the supplemental motor area, integrates sensory information from the posterior parietal cortex and is involved with sensory guided planning of movement and begins the programming of movement.

The basal ganglia are an area in the brain where sex differences in brain physiology is evident. The basal ganglia are a group of nuclei in the brain that are responsible for a variety of functions, some of which include movement. The globus pallidus and putamen are two nuclei of the basal ganglia which are both involved in motor skills. The globus pallidus is involved with voluntary motor movement, while the putamen is involved with motor learning. Even after controlling for the naturally larger volume of the male brain, it was found that males have a larger volume of both the globus pallidus and putamen. ^[7]

The cerebellum is an additional area of the brain important for motor skills. The cerebellum controls fine motor skills as well as balance and coordination. Although women tend to have better fine motor skills, the cerebellum has a larger volume in males than in females, even after correcting for that fact that males naturally have a larger brain volume.^[8]

Hormornes are an additional factor that contributes to sex differences in motor skill. For instance, women perform better on manual dexterity tasks during times of high estradiol and progesterone levels, as opposed to when these hormones are low such as during menstruation. ^[9]

An evolutionary perspective also helps to explain how sex differences in motor skills may have developed. For instance, it used to be that men were the hunters and provided food for the family, while women stayed at home taking care of the children and doing domestic work. Most of the tasks men did involved gross motor skill such as chasing after prey, throwing spears and fighting. Women on the other hand used their fine motor skills the most in order to handle domestic tools and accomplish other tasks that required fine motor control. ^[10]

References

^ Eran, D, and G.C. Leonardo. "Neuroplasticity Subserving Motor Skill Learning." Elsevier Inc.. (2011): 443-454. Web. 22 Mar. 2013. <http://journals1.scholarsportal.info.myaccess.library.utoronto.ca/tmp/5451868636154089593.pdf>.
^ Kurtz, Lisa A. (2007). Understanding Motor Skills in Children with Dyspraxia, ADHD, Autism, and Other Learning Disabilities: A Guide to Improving Coordination (JKP Essentials Series) (Jkp Essentials). Jessica Kingsley Pub. ISBN 1-84310-865-8.
^ ^a ^b ^c Lee, Timothy Donald; Schmidt, Richard Penrose (1999). Motor control and learning: a behavioral emphasis. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics. ISBN 0-88011-484-3.
^ ^a ^b Stallings, Loretta M. (1973). Motor Skills: Development and Learning. Boston: WCB/McGraw-Hill. ISBN 0-697-07263-0.
^ Joseph, R. (2000). The evolution of sex differences in language, sexuality, and visual–spatial skills . Archives of Sexual Behavior, 29(1), 35-66. doi: 10763428
^ Schott, G. (1993). Penfield's homunculus: a note on cerebral cartography. Journal of Neuroly, Neurosurgery, and Psychiatry, 56(4), 329-333. doi: 8482950
^ Rijpkema, M., Everaerd, D., van der Pol, C., Franke, B., Tendolkar, I., & Fernandez, G. (2012).Normal sexual dimorphism in the human basal ganglia. Human Brain Mapping, 33(5), 1246–1252. doi: 10.1002/hbm.21283.
^ Raz, N., Gunning-Dixon, F., Head, D., Williamson, A., & Acker, J. (2001). Age and sex differences in the cerebellum and the ventral pons: A prospective mr study of healthy adults. American Journal of Neuroradiology, 22(6), 1161–1167. doi: 11415913.
^ Becker, J., Berkley, K., Geary, N., Hampson, E., Herman, J., & Young, E. (2008). Sex differences in the brain: From genes to behavior. (p. 156). New York, NY: Oxford University Press, Inc.
^ Joseph, R. (2000). The evolution of sex differences in language, sexuality, and visual–spatial skills . Archives of Sexual Behavior, 29(1), 35-66. doi: 10763428

External links

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Motor skills

Section about motor learning and control in the Wikibook "Stuttering"'

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1. 筋萎縮性側索硬化症およびその他の運動ニューロン疾患の診断 diagnosis of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis and other forms of motor neuron disease
2. 筋萎縮性側索硬化症およびその他の運動ニューロン疾患の臨床的特徴 clinical features of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis and other forms of motor neuron disease
3. 協調運動発達障害：臨床的特徴および診断 developmental coordination disorder clinical features and diagnosis
4. 緩和ケアにおける嚥下障害および誤嚥：定義、影響、病態生理、および病因 swallowing disorders and aspiration in palliative care definition consequences pathophysiology and etiology
5. 幼児および小児における精密な神経学的評価 detailed neurologic assessment of infants and children

English Journal

Severe amygdala dysfunction in a MAPT transgenic mouse model of frontotemporal dementia.

Cook C1, Dunmore JH1, Murray ME1, Scheffel K1, Shukoor N1, Tong J1, Castanedes-Casey M1, Phillips V1, Rousseau L1, Penuliar MS1, Kurti A1, Dickson DW2, Petrucelli L2, Fryer JD3.Author information 1Department of Neuroscience, Mayo Clinic Jacksonville, Jacksonville, FL, USA.2Department of Neuroscience, Mayo Clinic Jacksonville, Jacksonville, FL, USA; Neurobiology of Disease Program, Mayo Graduate School, Rochester, MN, USA.3Department of Neuroscience, Mayo Clinic Jacksonville, Jacksonville, FL, USA; Neurobiology of Disease Program, Mayo Graduate School, Rochester, MN, USA. Electronic address: fryer.john@mayo.edu.AbstractFrontotemporal dementia with parkinsonism linked to chromosome 17 (FTDP-17) is a neurodegenerative tauopathy caused by mutations in the tau gene (MAPT). Individuals with FTDP-17 have deficits in learning, memory, and language, in addition to personality and behavioral changes that are often characterized by a lack of social inhibition. Several transgenic mouse models expressing tau mutations have been tested extensively for memory or motor impairments, though reports of amygdala-dependent behaviors are lacking. To this end, we tested the rTg4510 mouse model on a behavioral battery that included amygdala-dependent tasks of exploration. As expected, rTg4510 mice exhibit profound impairments in hippocampal-dependent learning and memory tests, including contextual fear conditioning. However, rTg4510 mice also display an abnormal hyperexploratory phenotype in the open-field assay, elevated plus maze, light-dark exploration, and cued fear conditioning, indicative of amygdala dysfunction. Furthermore, significant tau burden is detected in the amygdala of both rTg4510 mice and human FTDP-17 patients, suggesting that the rTg4510 mouse model recapitulates the behavioral disturbances and neurodegeneration of the amygdala characteristic of FTDP-17.
Neurobiology of aging.Neurobiol Aging.2014 Jul;35(7):1769-77. doi: 10.1016/j.neurobiolaging.2013.12.023. Epub 2013 Dec 26.
Frontotemporal dementia with parkinsonism linked to chromosome 17 (FTDP-17) is a neurodegenerative tauopathy caused by mutations in the tau gene (MAPT). Individuals with FTDP-17 have deficits in learning, memory, and language, in addition to personality and behavioral changes that are often characte
PMID 24503275

Abnormal functional connectivity of the medial cortex in euthymic bipolar II disorder.

Marchand WR1, Lee JN2, Johnson S3, Gale P2, Thatcher J2.Author information 1George E. Wahlen Veterans Affairs Medical Center, 500 Foothill Drive, Salt Lake City, UT 84148, USA; University of Utah, 201 Presidents Circle, Salt Lake City, UT 84112, USA. Electronic address: wmarchand@me.com.2George E. Wahlen Veterans Affairs Medical Center, 500 Foothill Drive, Salt Lake City, UT 84148, USA; University of Utah, 201 Presidents Circle, Salt Lake City, UT 84112, USA.3George E. Wahlen Veterans Affairs Medical Center, 500 Foothill Drive, Salt Lake City, UT 84148, USA.AbstractThis project utilized functional MRI (fMRI) and a motor activation paradigm to investigate neural circuitry in euthymic bipolar II disorder. We hypothesized that circuitry involving the cortical midline structures (CMS) would demonstrate abnormal functional connectivity. Nineteen subjects with recurrent bipolar disorder and 18 controls were studied using fMRI and a motor activation paradigm. We used functional connectivity analyses to identify circuits with aberrant connectivity. We found increased functional connectivity among bipolar subjects compared to healthy controls in two CMS circuits. One circuit included the medial aspect of the left superior frontal gyrus and the dorsolateral region of the left superior frontal gyrus. The other included the medial aspect of the right superior frontal gyrus, the dorsolateral region of the left superior frontal gyrus and the right medial frontal gyrus and surrounding region. Our results indicate that CMS circuit dysfunction persists in the euthymic state and thus may represent trait pathology. Future studies should address whether these circuits contribute to relapse of illness. Our results also suggest the possibility that aberrations of superior frontal circuitry may impact default mode network and cognitive processes.
Progress in neuro-psychopharmacology & biological psychiatry.Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry.2014 Jun 3;51:28-33. doi: 10.1016/j.pnpbp.2014.01.004. Epub 2014 Jan 16.
This project utilized functional MRI (fMRI) and a motor activation paradigm to investigate neural circuitry in euthymic bipolar II disorder. We hypothesized that circuitry involving the cortical midline structures (CMS) would demonstrate abnormal functional connectivity. Nineteen subjects with recur
PMID 24440372

Superoxide dismutase 1 mutation in a cellular model of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis shifts energy generation from oxidative phosphorylation to glycolysis.

Allen SP1, Rajan S1, Duffy L1, Mortiboys H1, Higginbottom A1, Grierson AJ1, Shaw PJ2.Author information 1Sheffield Institute for Translational Neuroscience (SITraN), University of Sheffield, Sheffield, UK.2Sheffield Institute for Translational Neuroscience (SITraN), University of Sheffield, Sheffield, UK. Electronic address: pamela.shaw@sheffield.ac.uk.AbstractAmyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) is a fatal neurodegenerative disorder involving the progressive degeneration of motor neurons in the brain and spinal cord. Mitochondrial dysfunction plays a key role in ALS disease progression and has been observed in several ALS cellular and animal models. Here, we show that fibroblasts isolated from ALS cases with a Cu/Zn superoxide dismutase (SOD1) I113T mutation recapitulate these mitochondrial defects. Using a novel technique, which measures mitochondrial respiration and glycolytic flux simultaneously in living cells, we have shown that SOD1 mutation causes a reduction in mitochondrial respiration and an increase in glycolytic flux. This causes a reduction in adenosine triphosphate produced by oxidative phosphorylation and an increase in adenosine triphosphate produced by glycolysis. Switching the energy source from glucose to galactose caused uncoupling of mitochondria with increased proton leak in SOD1(I113T) fibroblasts. Assessment of the contribution of fatty acid oxidation to total respiration, suggested that fatty acid oxidation is reduced in SOD1 ALS fibroblasts, an effect which can be mimicked by starving the control cells of glucose. These results highlight the importance of understanding the interplay between the major metabolic pathways, which has the potential to lead to strategies to correct the metabolic dysregulation observed in ALS cases.
Neurobiology of aging.Neurobiol Aging.2014 Jun;35(6):1499-509. doi: 10.1016/j.neurobiolaging.2013.11.025. Epub 2013 Dec 3.
Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) is a fatal neurodegenerative disorder involving the progressive degeneration of motor neurons in the brain and spinal cord. Mitochondrial dysfunction plays a key role in ALS disease progression and has been observed in several ALS cellular and animal models. Here,
PMID 24439480