microphallus

Microphallus
Scientific classification
Kingdom:	Animalia
Phylum:	Platyhelminthes
Class:	Trematoda
Subclass:	Digenea
Order:	Plagiorchiida
Family:	Microphallidae
Genus:	Microphallus; Ward, 1901
Species
	Microphallus abortivus; Microphallus basodactylophallus; Microphallus bassodactylus; Microphallus breviatus; Microphallus claviformis; Microphallus fonti; Microphallus hoffmanni; Microphallus limuli; Microphallus nicolli; Microphallus opacus; Microphallus papillorobustus; Microphallus piriformes; Microphallus pirum; Microphallus primas; Microphallus pseudopygmaeus; Microphallus pygmaeus; Microphallus sabanensis; Microphallus similis; Microphallus turgidus;
Synonyms
	Carneophallus

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出典(authority):フリー百科事典『ウィキペディア（Wikipedia）』「2016/01/01 00:21:01」(JST)

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Microphallus is a genus of parasitic trematodes (flukes) in the family Microphallidae. The Greek name means "tiny penis".

Hosts

They are parasitic on a variety of molluscs, crustaceans, birds, and mammals, some species having complex life cycles involving more than one host.

For example, Microphallus piriformes parasitizes the rough periwinkle (Littorina saxatilis); when these are eaten by herring gulls it infects the bird and lays its eggs in the bird's feces to infect new periwinkles.

Other intermediate hosts include, for example New Zealand mud snail Potamopyrgus antipodarum^[2]^[3] and others.

Parasite-host interactions

Several species are notable for manipulating or influencing their hosts. Microphallus piriformes causes its host, the rough periwinkle, to move upwards, making it more vulnerable to predation by herring gulls. Microphallus pseudopygmaeus chemically castrates (parasitic castration) its host, the snail Onoba aculeus, and causes it to grow larger than normal (it is not clear if this gigantism benefits the host or parasite or if it is a non-adaptive side-effect).^[4] Microphallus papillorobustus causes its host, the lagoon sand shrimp (Gammarus insensibilis) to swim upwards, making it more vulnerable to predation.^[5] Some species of this genus "hitch-hike" on the manipulations of other species; for example, Microphallus hoffmanni parasitizes the same sand shrimps as Microphallus papillorobustus but does not manipulate the shrimps itself, instead benefiting from the latter's manipulation of the host.

Life cycle

Microphallus sp. is a widespread and locally common undescribed parasite in New Zealand lakes and streams. Multilocus allozyme genotype data show that Microphallus is a single outbred species with high levels of gene flow among South Island populations. The parasite exclusively uses Potamopyrgus antipodarum as the intermediate host, and the final hosts are waterfowl. Embryonated Microphallus eggs are ingested from sediment and hatch in the snail's gut, penetrate the intestine, and migrate to the gonads and digestive gland. Following successful establishment, the parasite then undergoes asexual reproduction, replacing much of the host's reproductive tissue and digestive gland, which results in complete sterilization of the snail. The first visible parasite developmental stages (blastocercariae) are detectable after approximately 75 days post-exposure and metacercariae are common by 90 days post-exposure at 16°C in the lab. The life cycle is completed when snails containing metacercariae are consumed by waterfowl.^[2]

References

The article incorporates CC-BY-2.0 text from reference.^[2]

^ Ward H. B. (1901) "Notes on the parasites of lake fish III. On the structure of the copulatory organs in Microphallus nov.gen.". Tr. Amer. Micr. Soc. 22: 175-187.
^ ^a ^b ^c Osnas E. E. & Lively C. M. (31 May 2005) "Immune response to sympatric and allopatric parasites in a snail-trematode interaction". Frontiers in Zoology 2: 8. doi:10.1186/1742-9994-2-8
^ Levri E. P. & Fisher L. M. (2000) "The Effect of a Trematode Parasite (Microphallus Sp.) on the Response of the Freshwater Snail Potamopyrgus antipodarum to Light and Gravity". Behaviour 137(9): 1141-1151.
^ Gorbushin A. M. & Levakin I. A. (1999) "The effect of Trematode parthenitae on the growth of Onoba aculeus, Littorina saxatilis and L. obtusata (Gastropoda: Prosobranchia)". J. Mar. Biol. Ass. UK 79: 273–279.
^ Thomas F., Fauchier J. & Lafferty K. D. (2002) "Conflict of interest between a nematode and a trematode in an amphipod host: test of the "sabotage" hypothesis". Behav. Ecol. Sociobiol. 51: 296-301.

UpToDate Contents

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English Journal

Long-term clinical course in three patients with MAMLD1 mutations.

Fujisawa Y1, Fukami M, Hasegawa T, Uematsu A, Muroya K, Ogata T.
Endocrine journal.Endocr J.2016 Sep 30;63(9):835-839. Epub 2016 Jul 6.
Although MAMLD1 on chromosome Xq28 is known as a causative gene for 46,XY disorders of sex development, clinical information is virtually limited in patients of infancy to early childhood. Here, we report long-term genital and hormonal findings in three previously described Japanese patients with MA
PMID 27383042

Within-population covariation between sexual reproduction and susceptibility to local parasites.

Gibson AK1, Xu JY2, Lively CM2.
Evolution; international journal of organic evolution.Evolution.2016 Sep;70(9):2049-60. doi: 10.1111/evo.13001. Epub 2016 Jul 27.
Evolutionary biology has yet to reconcile the ubiquity of sex with its costs relative to asexual reproduction. Here, we test the hypothesis that coevolving parasites maintain sex in their hosts. Specifically, we examined the distributions of sexual reproduction and susceptibility to local parasites
PMID 27402345

Influence of a Trematode Parasite (Microphallus turgidus) on Grass Shrimp (Palaemonetes pugio) Response to Refuge and Predator Presence.

Gonzalez ST1.
The Journal of parasitology.J Parasitol.2016 Aug 25. [Epub ahead of print]
The grass shrimp (Palaemonetes pugio) is a staple prey species in the diet of many ecologically and economically important species such as blue crab and striped bass and is commonly infected with a trematode parasite, Microphallus turgidus. To complete its life cycle, M. turgidus must be consumed as
PMID 27560362

Japanese Journal

Comparison of topical versus parenteral testosterone in children with microphallic hypospadias

NERLI R. B.,KOURA Ashish,PRABHA Vikram,REDDY Mallikarjun
Pediatric surgery international 25(1), 57-59, 2009-01-01
NAID 10027483796

Mutational Analysis of Androgen Receptor (AR) Gene in 46, XY Patients with Ambiguous Genitalia and Normal Testosterone Secretion : Endocrinological Characteristics of Three Patients with AR Gene Mutations

Miyamoto Junko,Asanuma Hiroshi,Nakai Hideo,Hasegawa Tomonobu,Nawata Hajime,Hasegawa Yukihiro
Clinical pediatric endocrinology 15(4), 151-162, 2006-10
NAID 110006794334

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