関: Lr

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a radioactive transuranic element synthesized from californium (同)Lr, atomic number 103

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ローレンシウム(人工の放射性金属元素;化学記号『Lw』)
lawrenciumの化学記号

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出典(authority):フリー百科事典『ウィキペディア（Wikipedia）』「2012/09/04 10:58:57」(JST)

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"Lr" redirects here. For other uses, see LR.

Lawrencium is a radioactive synthetic chemical element with the symbol Lr (formerly Lw) and atomic number 103. In the periodic table of the elements, it is a period 7 d-block element and the last element of the actinide series. Chemistry experiments have confirmed that lawrencium behaves as the heavier homologue to lutetium and is chemically similar to other actinides.

Lawrencium was first synthesized by the nuclear-physics team led by Albert Ghiorso on February 14, 1961, at the Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory of the University of California. The first atoms of lawrencium were produced by bombarding a three-milligram target consisting of three isotopes of the element californium with boron-10 and boron-11 nuclei from the Heavy Ion Linear Accelerator. The team suggested the name lawrencium, and the symbol "Lw", but IUPAC changed the symbol to "Lr" in 1963.^[1] It was the last element of the actinide series to be produced.

All isotopes of lawrencium are radioactive; its most stable known isotope is lawrencium-262, with a half-life of approximately 3.6 hours. All its isotopes except for lawrencium-260, -261 and -262 decay with a half-life of less than a minute.

1 History
- 1.1 Discovery
- 1.2 Naming
2 Characteristics
- 2.1 Electronic structure
- 2.2 Experimental chemical properties
  - 2.2.1 Gaseous phase
  - 2.2.2 Aqueous phase
3 Nucleosynthesis
- 3.1 Fusion
- 3.2 Hot fusion
- 3.3 Decay products
4 Isotopes
- 4.1 Nuclear isomerism
5 See also
6 References
7 Further reading
8 External links

History

Discovery

Lawrencium was first synthesized by the nuclear-physics team of Albert Ghiorso, Torbjørn Sikkeland, Almon Larsh, Robert M. Latimer, and their co-workers on February 14, 1961, at the Lawrence Radiation Laboratory (now called the Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory) at the University of California. The first atoms of lawrencium were produced by bombarding a three-milligram target consisting of three isotopes of the element californium with boron-10 and boron-11 nuclei from the Heavy Ion Linear Accelerator (HILAC).^[2] The Berkeley team reported that the isotope ²⁵⁷Lr was detected in this manner, and that it decayed by emitting an 8.6 MeV alpha particle with a half-life of about eight seconds. This identification was later corrected to be ²⁵⁸Lr.^[2]

252
98Cf + 11
5B → 263–x
103Lr → 258
103Lr + 5 1
0n

In 1967, nuclear-physics researchers in Dubna, Russia, reported that they were not able to confirm assignment of an alpha emitter with a half-life of eight seconds to ²⁵⁷Lr.^[3] This isotope was later deduced to be ²⁵⁸Lr. Instead, the Dubna team reported an isotope with a half-life of about 45 seconds as ²⁵⁶Lr.^[4]

243
95Am + 18
8O → 261–x
103Lr → 256
103Lr + 5 1
0n

Further experiments have demonstrated an actinide chemistry for the new element, so by 1970 it was known that lawrencium is the last actinide.^[5] In 1971, the nuclear physics team at the University of California at Berkeley successfully performed a whole series of experiments aimed at measuring the nuclear decay properties of the lawrencium isotopes with mass numbers from 255 through 260.^[6]

In 1992, the IUPAC Trans-fermium Working Group (TWG) officially recognized the nuclear physics teams at Dubna and Berkeley as the co-discoverers of lawrencium.^[7]

Naming

The origin of the name, ratified by the American Chemical Society, is in reference to the nuclear-physicist Ernest O. Lawrence, of the University of California, who invented the cyclotron particle accelerator. The symbol Lw was used originally,^[2] but the element was assigned the Lr symbol.^[7] In August 1997, the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) ratified the name lawrencium and the symbol Lr during a meeting in Geneva.^[7]

Characteristics

Electronic structure

Lawrencium is element 103 in the periodic table. It is the first member of the 6d-block; in accordance with the Madelung rule, its electronic configuration should be [Rn]7s²5f¹⁴6d¹. However, results from quantum mechanical research have suggested that this configuration is incorrect, and is in fact [Rn]7s²5f¹⁴7p¹. A direct measurement of this is not possible. Though early calculations gave conflicting results,^[8] more recent studies and calculations confirm the suggestion.^[9]^[10]

A strict correlation between the periodic table blocks and the orbital-shell configurations for neutral atoms would classify lawrencium as a transition metal because it could be classed as a d-block element. However, lawrencium is classified as an actinide element according to the IUPAC recommendations.^[11]

Experimental chemical properties

Summary of all lawrencium compounds known
Formula	Names(s)
LrCl₃	lawrencium trichloride ; lawrencium(III) chloride

Gaseous phase

The first gaseous-phase studies of lawrencium were reported in 1969 by a nuclear physics team at the Flerov Laboratory of Nuclear Reactions (FLNR) in the Soviet Union. They used the nuclear reaction ²⁴³Am+¹⁸O to produce lawrencium nuclei, which they then exposed to a stream of chlorine gas, and a volatile chloride product was formed. This product was deduced to be ²⁵⁶LrCl₃, and this confirmed that lawrencium is a typical actinide element.^[12]

Aqueous phase

The first aqueous-phase studies of lawrencium were reported in 1970 by a nuclear physics team at the Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory in California. This team used the nuclear reaction ²⁴⁹Cf+¹¹B to produce lawrencium nuclei. They were able to show that lawrencium forms a trivalent ion, similar to those of the other actinide elements, but in contrast with that of nobelium. Further experiments in 1988 confirmed the formation of a trivalent lawrencium(III) ion using anion-exchange chromatography using α-hydroxyisobutyrate (α-HIB) complex. Comparison of the elution time with other actinides allowed a determination of 88.6 picometers for the ionic radius for Lr³⁺. Attempts to reduce lawrencium in the lawrencium(III) ionization state to lawrencium(I) using the potent reducing agent hydroxylamine hydrochloride were unsuccessful.

Nucleosynthesis

Fusion

²⁰⁵Tl(⁵⁰Ti,xn)^255-xLr (x=2?)

This reaction was studied in a series of experiments in 1976 by Yuri Oganessian and his team at the FLNR. Evidence was provided for the formation of ²⁵³Lr in the 2n exit channel.

²⁰³Tl(⁵⁰Ti,xn)^253-xLr

This reaction was studied in a series of experiments in 1976 by Yuri Oganessian and his team at the FLNR.

²⁰⁸Pb(⁴⁸Ti,pxn)^255-xLr (x=1?)

This reaction was reported in 1984 by Yuri Oganessian at the FLNR. The team was able to detect decays of ²⁴⁶Cf, a descendant of ²⁵⁴Lr.

²⁰⁸Pb(⁴⁵Sc,xn)^253-xLr

This reaction was studied in a series of experiments in 1976 by Yuri Oganessian and his team at the FLNR. Results are not readily available.

²⁰⁹Bi(⁴⁸Ca,xn)^257-xLr (x=2)

This reaction has been used to study the spectroscopic properties of ²⁵⁵Lr. The team at GANIL used the reaction in 2003 and the team at the FLNR used it between 2004-2006 to provide further information for the decay scheme of ²⁵⁵Lr. The work provided evidence for an isomeric level in ²⁵⁵Lr.

Hot fusion

²⁴³Am(¹⁸O,xn)^261-xLr (x=5)

This reaction was first studied in 1965 by the team at the FLNR. They were able to detect activity with a characteristic decay of 45 seconds, which was assigned to ²⁵⁶Lr or ²⁵⁷Lr. Later work suggests an assignment to ²⁵⁶Lr. Further studies in 1968 produced an 8.35–8.60 MeV alpha activity with a half-life of 35 seconds. This activity was also initially assigned to ²⁵⁶Lr or ²⁵⁷Lr and later to solely ²⁵⁶Lr.

²⁴³Am(¹⁶O,xn)^259-xLr (x=4)

This reaction was studied in 1970 by the team at the FLNR. They were able to detect an 8.38 MeV alpha activity with a half-life of 20s. This was assigned to ²⁵⁵Lr.

²⁴⁸Cm(¹⁵N,xn)^263-xLr (x=3,4,5)

This reaction was studied in 1971 by the team at the LBNL in their large study of lawrencium isotopes. They were able to assign alpha activities to ²⁶⁰Lr,²⁵⁹Lr and ²⁵⁸Lr from the 3-5n exit channels.

²⁴⁸Cm(¹⁸O,pxn)^265-xLr (x=3,4)

This reaction was studied in 1988 at the LBNL in order to assess the possibility of producing ²⁶²Lr and ²⁶¹Lr without using the exotic ²⁵⁴Es target. It was also used to attempt to measure an electron capture (EC) branch in ^261mRf from the 5n exit channel. After extraction of the Lr(III) component, they were able to measure the spontaneous fission of ²⁶¹Lr with an improved half-life of 44 minutes. The production cross-section was 700 pb. On this basis, a 14% electron capture branch was calculated if this isotope was produced via the 5n channel rather than the p4n channel. A lower bombarding energy (93 MeV c.f. 97 MeV) was then used to measure the production of ²⁶²Lr in the p3n channel. The isotope was successfully detected and a yield of 240 pb was measured. The yield was lower than expected compared to the p4n channel. However, the results were judged to indicate that the ²⁶¹Lr was most likely produced by a p3n channel and an upper limit of 14% for the electron capture branch of ^261mRf was therefore suggested.

²⁴⁶Cm(¹⁴N,xn)^260-xLr (x=3?)

This reaction was studied briefly in 1958 at the LBNL using an enriched ²⁴⁴Cm target (5% ²⁴⁶Cm). They observed a ~9 MeV alpha activity with a half-life of ~0.25 seconds. Later results suggest a tentative assignment to ²⁵⁷Lr from the 3n channel

²⁴⁴Cm(¹⁴N,xn)^258-xLr

This reaction was studied briefly in 1958 at the LBNL using an enriched ²⁴⁴Cm target (5% ²⁴⁶Cm). They observed a ~9 MeV alpha activity with a half-life of ~0.25s. Later results suggest a tentative assignment to ²⁵⁷Lr from the 3n channel with the ²⁴⁶Cm component. No activities assigned to reaction with the ²⁴⁴Cm component have been reported.

²⁴⁹Bk(¹⁸O,αxn)^263-xLr (x=3)

This reaction was studied in 1971 by the team at the LBNL in their large study of lawrencium isotopes. They were able to detect an activity assigned to ²⁶⁰Lr. The reaction was further studied in 1988 to study the aqueous chemistry of lawrencium. A total of 23 alpha decays were measured for ²⁶⁰Lr, with a mean energy of 8.03 MeV and an improved half-life of 2.7 minutes. The calculated cross-section was 8.7 nb.

²⁵²Cf(¹¹B,xn)^263-xLr (x=5,7??)

This reaction was first studied in 1961 at the University of California by Albert Ghiorso by using a californium target (52% ²⁵²Cf). They observed three alpha activities of 8.6, 8.4 and 8.2 MeV, with half-lives of about 8 and 15 seconds, respectively. The 8.6 MeV activity was tentatively assigned to ²⁵⁷Lr. Later results suggest a reassignment to ²⁵⁸Lr, resulting from the 5n exit channel. The 8.4 MeV activity was also assigned to ²⁵⁷Lr. Later results suggest a reassignment to ²⁵⁶Lr. This is most likely from the 33% ²⁵⁰Cf component in the target rather than from the 7n channel. The 8.2 MeV was subsequently associated with nobelium.

²⁵²Cf(¹⁰B,xn)^262-xLr (x=4,6)

This reaction was first studied in 1961 at the University of California by Albert Ghiorso by using a californium target (52% ²⁵²Cf). They observed three alpha activities of 8.6, 8.4 and 8.2 MeV, with half-lives of about 8 and 15 seconds, respectively. The 8.6 MeV activity was tentatively assigned to ²⁵⁷Lr. Later results suggest a reassignment to ²⁵⁸Lr. The 8.4 MeV activity was also assigned to ²⁵⁷Lr. Later results suggest a reassignment to ²⁵⁶Lr. The 8.2 MeV was subsequently associated with nobelium.

²⁵⁰Cf(¹⁴N,αxn)^260-xLr (x=3)

This reaction was studied in 1971 at the LBNL. They were able to identify a 0.7s alpha activity with two alpha lines at 8.87 and 8.82 MeV. This was assigned to ²⁵⁷Lr.

²⁴⁹Cf(¹¹B,xn)^260-xLr (x=4)

This reaction was first studied in 1970 at the LBNL in an attempt to study the aqueous chemistry of lawrencium. They were able to measure a Lr³⁺ activity. The reaction was repeated in 1976 at Oak Ridge and 26s ²⁵⁶Lr was confirmed by measurement of coincident X-rays.

²⁴⁹Cf(¹²C,pxn)^260-xLr (x=2)

This reaction was studied in 1971 by the team at the LBNL. They were able to detect an activity assigned to ²⁵⁸Lr from the p2n channel.

²⁴⁹Cf(¹⁵N,αxn)^260-xLr (x=2,3)

This reaction was studied in 1971 by the team at the LBNL. They were able to detect an activities assigned to ²⁵⁸Lr and ²⁵⁷Lr from the α2n and α3n and channels. The reaction was repeated in 1976 at Oak Ridge and the synthesis of ²⁵⁸Lr was confirmed.

²⁵⁴Es + ²²Ne – transfer

This reaction was studied in 1987 at the LLNL. They were able to detect new spontaneous fission (SF) activities assigned to ²⁶¹Lr and ²⁶²Lr, resulting from transfer from the ²²Ne nuclei to the ²⁵⁴Es target. In addition, a 5 ms SF activity was detected in delayed coincidence with nobelium K-shell X-rays and was assigned to ²⁶²No, resulting from the electron capture of ²⁶²Lr.

Decay products

Isotopes of lawrencium have also been identified in the decay of heavier elements. Observations to date are summarised in the table below:

List of lawrencium isotopes produced as other nuclei decay products
Parent nuclide	Observed lawrencium isotope
²⁶⁷Bh, ²⁶³Db	²⁵⁹Lr
²⁷⁸Uut, ²⁷⁴Rg, ²⁷⁰Mt, ²⁶⁶Bh, ²⁶²Db	²⁵⁸Lr
²⁶¹Db	²⁵⁷Lr
²⁷²Rg, ²⁶⁸Mt, ²⁶⁴Bh, ²⁶⁰Db	²⁵⁶Lr
²⁵⁹Db	²⁵⁵Lr
²⁶⁶Mt, ²⁶²Bh, ²⁵⁸Db	²⁵⁴Lr
²⁶¹Bh, ²⁵⁷Db^g,m	²⁵³Lr^g,m
²⁶⁰Bh, ²⁵⁶Db	²⁵²Lr

Isotopes

Main article: Isotopes of lawrencium

Summary of all lawrencium isotopes known
Isotope	Year discovered	discovery reaction
²⁵²Lr	2001	²⁰⁹Bi(⁵⁰Ti,3n)
²⁵³Lr^g	1985	²⁰⁹Bi(⁵⁰Ti,2n)
²⁵³Lr^m	2001	²⁰⁹Bi(⁵⁰Ti,2n)
²⁵⁴Lr	1985	²⁰⁹Bi(⁵⁰Ti,n)
²⁵⁵Lr	1970	²⁴³Am(¹⁶O,4n)
²⁵⁶Lr	1961? 1965? 1968? 1971	²⁵²Cf(¹⁰B,6n)
²⁵⁷Lr	1958? 1971	²⁴⁹Cf(¹⁵N,α3n)
²⁵⁸Lr	1961? 1971	²⁴⁹Cf(¹⁵N,α2n)
²⁵⁹Lr	1971	²⁴⁸Cm(¹⁵N,4n)
²⁶⁰Lr	1971	²⁴⁸Cm(¹⁵N,3n)
²⁶¹Lr	1987	²⁵⁴Es + ²²Ne
²⁶²Lr	1987	²⁵⁴Es + ²²Ne

Eleven isotopes of lawrencium plus one isomer have been synthesized with ²⁶²Lr being the longest-lived and the heaviest, with a half-life of 216 minutes. ²⁵²Lr is the lightest isotope of lawrencium to be produced to date.

Nuclear isomerism

A study of the decay properties of ²⁵⁷Db (see dubnium) in 2001 by Hessberger et al. at the GSI provided some data for the decay of ²⁵³Lr. Analysis of the data indicated the population of two isomeric levels in ²⁵³Lr from the decay of the corresponding isomers in ²⁵⁷Db. The ground state was assigned spin and parity of 7/2-, decaying by emission of an 8794 KeV alpha particle with a half-life of 0.57s. The isomeric level was assigned spin and parity of 1/2-, decaying by emission of an 8722 KeV alpha particle with a half-life of 1.49 s.

Recent work on the spectroscopy of ²⁵⁵Lr formed in the reaction ²⁰⁹Bi(⁴⁸Ca,2n)²⁵⁵Lr has provided evidence for an isomeric level.

References

^ Emsley, John (2001). Nature's Building Blocks. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 459–460. ISBN 0-19-850340-7. http://www.google.ru/books?id=j-Xu07p3cKwC&pg=PA459#v=onepage&q&f=false. Retrieved February 17, 2012.
^ ^a ^b ^c Ghiorso, Albert; Sikkeland, T.; Larsh, A. E.; Latimer, R. M. (1961). "New Element, Lawrencium, Atomic Number 103". Phys. Rev. Lett. 6 (9): 473. Bibcode 1961PhRvL...6..473G. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.6.473.
^ Flerov, G. N.; et al. (1967). At. En. 106: 476.
^ (Russian) Donets, E. D.; Shchegolev, V.A.; Ermakov, V. A. (1965). Nucl. Phys. 19: 109.
^ Kaldor, Uzi; Wilson, Stephen (2005). Theoretical chemistry and physics of heavy and superheavy elementpage = 57. Springer. ISBN 1-4020-1371-X.
^ Eskola, Kari; Eskola, Pirkko; Nurmia, Matti; Albert Ghiorso Lawrence Radiation Laboratory, University of California (1971). "Studies of Lawrencium Isotopes with Mass Numbers 255 Through 260". Phys. Rev. C 4 (2): 632–642. Bibcode 1971PhRvC...4..632E. doi:10.1103/PhysRevC.4.632.
^ ^a ^b ^c Greenwood, Norman N. (1997). "Recent developments concerning the discovery of elements 101–111". Pure & Appl. Chem 69 (1): 179–184. doi:10.1351/pac199769010179.
^ Nugent, L.J.; Vander Sluis, K.L.; Fricke, Burhard; Mann, J.B. (1974). "Electronic configuration in the ground state of atomic lawrencium". Phys. Rev. A 9 (6): 2270–72. Bibcode 1974PhRvA...9.2270N. doi:10.1103/PhysRevA.9.2270. https://kobra.bibliothek.uni-kassel.de/bitstream/urn:nbn:de:hebis:34-2008091523764/1/Fricke_electronic_1974.pdf.
^ Eliav, E.; Kaldor U.; Ishikawa Y. (1995). "Transition energies of ytterbium, lutetium, and lawrencium by the relativistic coupled-cluster method". Phys. Rev. A 52: 291–296. Bibcode 1995PhRvA..52..291E. doi:10.1103/PhysRevA.52.291.
^ Zou, Yu; Froese Fischer C. (2002). "Resonance Transition Energies and Oscillator Strengths in Lutetium and Lawrencium". Phys. Rev. Lett. 88 (2): 183001. Bibcode 2002PhRvL..88b3001M. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.88.023001. PMID 12005680.
^ IUPAC "Provisional Recommendations for the Nomenclature of Inorganic Chemistry (2004)"
^ (Russian)Chuburkov, Yu. T.; Belov, V. Z.; Tsaletka, R., Shalaevskiy, M. R.; Zvara, I. (1969). "Experiments on Chemistry of Element 103: Absorption of the Chloride from a Gas Flux". Radiokhimiya 11: 394–399.

External links

WebElements.com – Lawrencium

English Journal

First successful ionization of Lr (Z = 103) by a surface-ionization technique.

Sato TK, Sato N, Asai M, Tsukada K, Toyoshima A, Ooe K, Miyashita S, Schädel M, Kaneya Y, Nagame Y, Osa A, Ichikawa S, Stora T, Kratz JV.SourceAdvanced Science Research Center, Japan Atomic Energy Agency (JAEA), 2-4 Shirakata-shirane, Tokai-mura, Ibaraki 319-1195, Japan. sato.tetsuya@jaea.go.jp
The Review of scientific instruments.Rev Sci Instrum.2013 Feb;84(2):023304. doi: 10.1063/1.4789772.
We have developed a surface ionization ion-source as part of the JAEA-ISOL (Isotope Separator On-Line) setup, which is coupled to a He/CdI2 gas-jet transport system to determine the first ionization potential of the heaviest actinide lawrencium (Lr, Z = 103). The new ion-source is an improved versio
PMID 23464201

Direct mapping of nuclear shell effects in the heaviest elements.

Minaya Ramirez E, Ackermann D, Blaum K, Block M, Droese C, Düllmann ChE, Dworschak M, Eibach M, Eliseev S, Haettner E, Herfurth F, Heßberger FP, Hofmann S, Ketelaer J, Marx G, Mazzocco M, Nesterenko D, Novikov YN, Plaß WR, Rodríguez D, Scheidenberger C, Schweikhard L, Thirolf PG, Weber C.SourceHelmholtz-Institut Mainz, 55099 Mainz, Germany.
Science (New York, N.Y.).Science.2012 Sep 7;337(6099):1207-10. doi: 10.1126/science.1225636. Epub 2012 Aug 9.
Quantum-mechanical shell effects are expected to strongly enhance nuclear binding on an "island of stability" of superheavy elements. The predicted center at proton number Z = 114, 120, or 126 and neutron number N = 184 has been substantiated by the recent synthesis of new elements up to Z = 118. Ho
PMID 22878498

Relativistic correlating basis sets for actinide atoms from 90Th to 103Lr.

Noro T, Sekiya M, Osanai Y, Koga T, Matsuyama H.SourceDivision of Chemistry, Graduate School of Science, Hokkaido University, Sapporo, Hokkaido, Japan. tashi@sci.hokduai.ac.jp
Journal of computational chemistry.J Comput Chem.2007 Dec;28(16):2511-6.
For 14 actinide atoms from (90)Th to (103)Lr, contracted Gaussian-type function sets are developed for the description of correlations of the 5f, 6d, and 7s electrons. Basis sets for the 6d orbitals are also prepared, since the orbitals are important in molecular environments despite their vacancy i
PMID 17508413

Related Pictures

★リンクテーブル★

リンク元

「Lr」

Lawrencium
	103Lr
	nobelium ← lawrencium → rutherfordium
Appearance
	unknown
General properties
Name, symbol, number	lawrencium, Lr, 103
Pronunciation	i/ləˈrɛnsiəm/; lə-REN-see-əm
Element category	actinide; sometimes considered a transition metal
Group, period, block	n/a, 7, d
Standard atomic weight	[262]
Electron configuration	[Rn] 7s2 5f14 7p1; 2, 8, 18, 32, 32, 8, 3
Physical properties
Phase	solid presumably
Atomic properties
Oxidation states	3
Ionization energies	1st: 443.8 kJ·mol−1
	2nd: 1428.0 kJ·mol−1
	3rd: 2219.1 kJ·mol−1
Miscellanea
CAS registry number	22537-19-5
Most stable isotopes
	Main article: Isotopes of lawrencium
	v; t; e; · r

　　[★] ローレンシウム

関: lawrencium

[0] Emsley, John (2001). Nature's Building Blocks. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 459–460. ISBN 0-19-850340-7. http://www.google.ru/books?id=j-Xu07p3cKwC&pg=PA459#v=onepage&q&f=false. Retrieved February 17, 2012.

[Lr-1] Ghiorso, Albert; Sikkeland, T.; Larsh, A. E.; Latimer, R. M. (1961). "New Element, Lawrencium, Atomic Number 103". Phys. Rev. Lett. 6 (9): 473. Bibcode 1961PhRvL...6..473G. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.6.473.

[2] Flerov, G. N.; et al. (1967). At. En. 106: 476.

[3] (Russian) Donets, E. D.; Shchegolev, V.A.; Ermakov, V. A. (1965). Nucl. Phys. 19: 109.

[4] Kaldor, Uzi; Wilson, Stephen (2005). Theoretical chemistry and physics of heavy and superheavy elementpage = 57. Springer. ISBN 1-4020-1371-X.

[5] Eskola, Kari; Eskola, Pirkko; Nurmia, Matti; Albert Ghiorso Lawrence Radiation Laboratory, University of California (1971). "Studies of Lawrencium Isotopes with Mass Numbers 255 Through 260". Phys. Rev. C 4 (2): 632–642. Bibcode 1971PhRvC...4..632E. doi:10.1103/PhysRevC.4.632.

[qqq-6] Greenwood, Norman N. (1997). "Recent developments concerning the discovery of elements 101–111". Pure & Appl. Chem 69 (1): 179–184. doi:10.1351/pac199769010179.

[7] Nugent, L.J.; Vander Sluis, K.L.; Fricke, Burhard; Mann, J.B. (1974). "Electronic configuration in the ground state of atomic lawrencium". Phys. Rev. A 9 (6): 2270–72. Bibcode 1974PhRvA...9.2270N. doi:10.1103/PhysRevA.9.2270. https://kobra.bibliothek.uni-kassel.de/bitstream/urn:nbn:de:hebis:34-2008091523764/1/Fricke_electronic_1974.pdf.

[8] Eliav, E.; Kaldor U.; Ishikawa Y. (1995). "Transition energies of ytterbium, lutetium, and lawrencium by the relativistic coupled-cluster method". Phys. Rev. A 52: 291–296. Bibcode 1995PhRvA..52..291E. doi:10.1103/PhysRevA.52.291.

[9] Zou, Yu; Froese Fischer C. (2002). "Resonance Transition Energies and Oscillator Strengths in Lutetium and Lawrencium". Phys. Rev. Lett. 88 (2): 183001. Bibcode 2002PhRvL..88b3001M. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.88.023001. PMID 12005680.

[10] IUPAC "Provisional Recommendations for the Nomenclature of Inorganic Chemistry (2004)"

[11] (Russian)Chuburkov, Yu. T.; Belov, V. Z.; Tsaletka, R., Shalaevskiy, M. R.; Zvara, I. (1969). "Experiments on Chemistry of Element 103: Absorption of the Chloride from a Gas Flux". Radiokhimiya 11: 394–399.

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