knowledgeable

　 　

WordNet

1. alert and fully informed; "a knowing collector of rare books"; "surprisingly knowledgeable about what was going on" (同)knowing
2. capable of being acknowledged

PrepTutorEJDIC

1. 博識の,物知りの / 策にたけた

Wikipedia preview

出典(authority):フリー百科事典『ウィキペディア（Wikipedia）』「2013/02/19 01:54:40」(JST)

wiki en

[Wiki en表示]

For other uses, see Knowledge (disambiguation).

Personification of knowledge (Greek Επιστημη, Episteme) in Celsus Library in Ephesus, Turkey.

Knowledge is a familiarity with someone or something, which can include facts, information, descriptions, or skills acquired through experience or education. It can refer to the theoretical or practical understanding of a subject. It can be implicit (as with practical skill or expertise) or explicit (as with the theoretical understanding of a subject); it can be more or less formal or systematic. In philosophy, the study of knowledge is called epistemology; the philosopher Plato famously defined knowledge as "justified true belief." However, no single agreed upon definition of knowledge exists, though there are numerous theories to explain it. The following quote from Bertrand Russell's "Theory of Knowledge" illustrates the difficulty in defining knowledge: "The question how knowledge should be defined is perhaps the most important and difficult of the three with which we shall deal. This may seem surprising: at first sight it might be thought that knowledge might be defined as belief which is in agreement with the facts. The trouble is that no one knows what a belief is, no one knows what a fact is, and no one knows what sort of agreement between them would make a belief true. Let us begin with belief."

Knowledge acquisition involves complex cognitive processes: perception, communication, association and reasoning; while knowledge is also said to be related to the capacity of acknowledgment in human beings.

Theories of knowledge

Robert Reid, Knowledge (1896). Thomas Jefferson Building, Washington, D.C.

See also: Epistemology

“	The eventual demarcation of philosophy from science was made possible by the notion that philosophy's core was "theory of knowledge," a theory distinct from the sciences because it was their foundation… Without this idea of a "theory of knowledge," it is hard to imagine what "philosophy" could have been in the age of modern science.	”
	— Richard Rorty, Philosophy and the Mirror of Nature

The definition of knowledge is a matter of on-going debate among philosophers in the field of epistemology. The classical definition, described but not ultimately endorsed by Plato, specifies that a statement must meet three criteria in order to be considered knowledge: it must be justified, true, and believed. Some claim that these conditions are not sufficient, as Gettier case examples allegedly demonstrate. There are a number of alternatives proposed, including Robert Nozick's arguments for a requirement that knowledge 'tracks the truth' and Simon Blackburn's additional requirement that we do not want to say that those who meet any of these conditions 'through a defect, flaw, or failure' have knowledge. Richard Kirkham suggests that our definition of knowledge requires that the evidence for the belief necessitates its truth.

In contrast to this approach, Wittgenstein observed, following Moore's paradox, that one can say "He believes it, but it isn't so," but not "He knows it, but it isn't so." He goes on to argue that these do not correspond to distinct mental states, but rather to distinct ways of talking about conviction. What is different here is not the mental state of the speaker, but the activity in which they are engaged. For example, on this account, to know that the kettle is boiling is not to be in a particular state of mind, but to perform a particular task with the statement that the kettle is boiling. Wittgenstein sought to bypass the difficulty of definition by looking to the way "knowledge" is used in natural languages. He saw knowledge as a case of a family resemblance. Following this idea, "knowledge" has been reconstructed as a cluster concept that points out relevant features but that is not adequately captured by any definition.

Communicating knowledge

Los portadores de la antorcha
Sculpture by Anna Hyatt Huntington about the transmission of knowledge from one generation to the next

(Ciudad Universitaria, Madrid, Spain)

Symbolic representations can be used to indicate meaning and can be thought of as a dynamic process. Hence the transfer of the symbolic representation can be viewed as one ascription process whereby knowledge can be transferred. Other forms of communication include observation and imitation, verbal exchange, and audio and video recordings. Philosophers of language and semioticians construct and analyze theories of knowledge transfer or communication.^{[citation needed]}

While many would agree that one of the most universal and significant tools for the transfer of knowledge is writing (of many kinds), argument over the usefulness of the written word exists nonetheless, with some scholars skeptical of its impact on societies. In his collection of essays Technopoly, Neil Postman demonstrates the argument against the use of writing through an excerpt from Plato's work Phaedrus (Postman, Neil (1992) Technopoly, Vintage, New York, pp 73). In this excerpt the scholar Socrates recounts the story of Thamus, the Egyptian king and Theuth the inventor of the written word. In this story, Theuth presents his new invention "writing" to King Thamus, telling Thamus that his new invention "will improve both the wisdom and memory of the Egyptians" (Postman, Neil (1992) Technopoly, Vintage, New York, pp 74). King Thamus is skeptical of this new invention and rejects it as a tool of recollection rather than retained knowledge. He argues that the written word will infect the Egyptian people with fake knowledge as they will be able to attain facts and stories from an external source and will no longer be forced to mentally retain large quantities of knowledge themselves (Postman, Neil (1992) Technopoly, Vintage, New York,pp 74).

Andrew Robinson also highlights, in his work The Origins of Writing, the possibility for writing to be used to spread false information and therefore the ability of the written word to decrease social knowledge (Robinson, Andrew (2003) The Origins of Writing in Crowley and Heyer (eds) Communication in History: Technology, Culture, Society, Boston pp 34). People are often internalizing new information which they perceive to be knowledge but in reality fill their minds with false knowledge.

The above points are moot in the modern world. Verbal communication lends itself to the spread of falsehoods much more so than written, as there is no record of exactly what was said or who originally said it (usually neither the source nor the content can be verified). Gossip and rumors are common examples. As to value of writing, the extent of human knowledge is now so great that it is only possible to record it and to communicate it through writing. Major libraries today can have millions of books of knowledge (in addition to works of fiction). It is only recently that audio and video technology for recording knowledge have become available and the use of these still requires replay equipment and electricity. Verbal teaching and handing down of knowledge is limited to those few who would have contact with the transmitter person - far too limited for today's world. Writing is still the most available and most universal of all forms of recording and transmitting knowledge. It stands unchallenged as mankind's primary technology of knowledge transfer down through the ages and to all cultures and languages of the world.

Situated knowledge

Situated knowledge is knowledge specific to a particular situation. It is a term coined by Donna Haraway as an extension of the feminist approaches of “successor science” suggested by Sandra Harding, one which “offers a more adequate, richer, better account of a world, in order to live in it well and in critical, reflexive relation to our own as well as others’ practices of domination and the unequal parts of privilege and oppression that makes up all positions.” This situation partially transforms science into a narrative, which Arturo Escobar explains as, “neither fictions nor supposed facts.” This narrative of situation is historical textures woven of fact and fiction, and as Escobar explains further, “even the most neutral scientific domains are narratives in this sense,” insisting that rather than a purpose dismissing science as a trivial matter of contingency, “it is to treat (this narrative) in the most serious way, without succumbing to its mystification as ‘the truth’ or to the ironic skepticism common to many critiques.”

Haraway’s argument stems from the limitations of the human perception, as well as the overemphasis of the sense of vision in science. According to Haraway, vision in science has been, “used to signify a leap out of the marked body and into a conquering gaze from nowhere.” This is the “gaze that mythically inscribes all the marked bodies, that makes the unmarked category claim the power to see and not be seen, to represent while escaping representation.” This causes a limitation of views in the position of science itself as a potential player in the creation of knowledge, resulting in a position of “modest witness”. This is what Haraway terms a “god trick”, or the aforementioned representation while escaping representation. In order to avoid this, “Haraway perpetuates a tradition of thought which emphasizes the important of the subject in terms of both ethical and political accountability” .

Some methods of generating knowledge, such as trial and error, or learning from experience, tend to create highly situational knowledge. One of the main attributes of the scientific method is that the theories it generates are much less situational than knowledge gained by other methods.^{[citation needed]} Situational knowledge is often embedded in language, culture, or traditions. This integration of situational knowledge is an allusion to the community, and its attempts at collecting subjective perspectives into an embodiment “of views from somewhere.”

Knowledge generated through experience is called knowledge "a posteriori", meaning afterwards. The pure existence of a term like "a posteriori" means this also has a counterpart. In this case that is knowledge "a priori", meaning before. The knowledge prior to any experience means that there are certain "assumptions" that one takes for granted. For example if you are being told about a chair it is clear to you that the chair is in space, that it is 3D. This knowledge is not knowledge that one can "forget", even someone suffering from amnesia experiences the world in 3D.^{[citation needed]}

Even though Haraway’s arguments are largely based on feminist studies, this idea of different worlds, as well as the skeptic stance of situated knowledge is present in the main arguments of post-structuralism. Fundamentally, both argue the contingency of knowledge on the presence of history; power, and geography, as well as the rejection of universal rules or laws or elementary structures; and the idea of power as an inherited trait of objectification.

Partial knowledge

One discipline of epistemology focuses on partial knowledge. In most cases, it is not possible to understand an information domain exhaustively; our knowledge is always incomplete or partial. Most real problems have to be solved by taking advantage of a partial understanding of the problem context and problem data, unlike the typical math problems one might solve at school, where all data is given and one is given a complete understanding of formulas necessary to solve them.^{[citation needed]}

This idea is also present in the concept of bounded rationality which assumes that in real life situations people often have a limited amount of information and make decisions accordingly.

Scientific knowledge

The development of the scientific method has made a significant contribution to how knowledge is acquired. To be termed scientific, a method of inquiry must be based on gathering observable and measurable evidence subject to specific principles of reasoning and experimentation. The scientific method consists of the collection of data through observation and experimentation, and the formulation and testing of hypotheses. Science, and the nature of scientific knowledge have also become the subject of Philosophy. As science itself has developed, knowledge has developed a broader usage which has been developing within biology/psychology—discussed elsewhere as meta-epistemology, or genetic epistemology, and to some extent related to "theory of cognitive development".    

Sir Francis Bacon, "Knowledge is Power"

Note that "epistemology" is the study of knowledge and how it is acquired. Science is "the process used everyday to logically complete thoughts through inference of facts determined by calculated experiments." Sir Francis Bacon was critical in the historical development of the scientific method; his works established and popularized an inductive methodology for scientific inquiry. His famous aphorism, "knowledge is power", is found in the Meditations Sacrae (1597).

Until recent times, at least in the Western tradition, it was simply taken for granted that knowledge was something possessed only by humans — and probably adult humans at that. Sometimes the notion might stretch to (ii) Society-as-such, as in (e.g.) "the knowledge possessed by the Coptic culture" (as opposed to its individual members), but that was not assured either. Nor was it usual to consider unconscious knowledge in any systematic way until this approach was popularized by Freud.

Other biological domains where "knowledge" might be said to reside, include: (iii) the immune system, and (iv) in the DNA of the genetic code. See the list of four "epistemological domains":   Popper, (1975); and Traill (2008: Table S, page 31)—also references by both to Niels Jerne.

Such considerations seem to call for a separate definition of "knowledge" to cover the biological systems. For biologists, knowledge must be usefully available to the system, though that system need not be conscious. Thus the criteria seem to be:

• The system should apparently be dynamic and self-organizing (unlike a mere book on its own).
• The knowledge must constitute some sort of representation of "the outside world", or ways of dealing with it (directly or indirectly).
• Some way must exist for the system to access this information quickly enough for it to be useful.

Scientific knowledge may not involve a claim to certainty, maintaining skepticism means that a scientist will never be absolutely certain when they are correct and when they are not. It is thus an irony of proper scientific method that one must doubt even when correct, in the hopes that this practice will lead to greater convergence on the truth in general.

Religious meaning of knowledge

In many expressions of Christianity, such as Catholicism and Anglicanism, knowledge is one of the seven gifts of the Holy Spirit.

The Old Testament's tree of the knowledge of good and evil contained the knowledge that separated Man from God: "And the LORD God said, Behold, the man is become as one of us, to know good and evil…" (Genesis 3:22)

In Gnosticism divine knowledge or gnosis is hoped to be attained. In Thelema knowledge and conversation with one's Holy Guardian Angel is the purpose of life.^{[citation needed]}

विद्या दान (Vidya Daan) i.e. knowledge sharing is a major part of Daan, a tenet of all Dharmic Religions. Hindu Scriptures present two kinds of knowledge, Paroksh Gyan and Prataksh Gyan. Paroksh Gyan (also spelled Paroksha-Jnana) is secondhand knowledge: knowledge obtained from books, hearsay, etc. Prataksh Gyan (also spelled Prataksha-Jnana) is the knowledge borne of direct experience, i.e., knowledge that one discovers for oneself. Jnana yoga ("path of knowledge") is one of three main types of yoga expounded by Krishna in the Bhagavad Gita. (It is compared and contrasted with Bhakti Yoga and Karma yoga.)

In Islam, knowledge (Arabic: علم, ʿilm) is given great significance. "The Knowing" (al-ʿAlīm) is one of the 99 names reflecting distinct attributes of God. The Qur'an asserts that knowledge comes from God (2:239) and various hadith encourage the acquisition of knowledge. Muhammad is reported to have said "Seek knowledge from the cradle to the grave" and "Verily the men of knowledge are the inheritors of the prophets". Islamic scholars, theologians and jurists are often given the title alim, meaning "knowledgable".^{[citation needed]}

In Jewish tradition, knowledge (Hebrew: דעת da'ath) is considered one of the most valuable traits a person can acquire. Observant Jews recite three times a day in the Amidah "Favor us with knowledge, understanding and discretion that come from you. Exalted are you, Existent-One, the gracious giver of knowledge." The Tanakh states, "A wise man gains power, and a man of knowledge maintains power", and "knowledge is chosen above gold".

See also

• Outline of knowledge - guide to the subject of knowledge presented as a tree structured list of its subtopics.
• a priori and a posteriori
• Analytic-synthetic distinction
• Descriptive knowledge
• Epistemic logic
• Explicit knowledge
• Figurative system of human knowledge
• Intelligence
• Intuition (as an unconscious form of knowledge)
• Knowledge discovery
• Knowledge engineering
• Knowledge relativity
• Knowledge retrieval
• Learning
• Metaknowledge
• Philosophical skepticism
• Post-structuralism
• Procedural knowledge
• Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge
• Tacit knowledge
• Wisdom

References

External links

• Knowledge at PhilPapers
• The Value of Knowledge entry in the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
• The Analysis of Knowledge entry in the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
• Knowledge by Acquaintance vs. Description entry in the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
• Knowledge at the Indiana Philosophy Ontology Project
• Knowledge entry in the Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy

UpToDate Contents

全文を閲覧するには購読必要です。 To read the full text you will need to subscribe.

• 1. キノコ中毒のマネージメント management of mushroom poisoning
• 2. 陣痛および出産への備え preparation for labor and childbirth
• 3. Spondylolysis and spondylolisthesis in child and adolescent athletes: Management
• 4. 末期腎不全患者のケアにおける倫理的問題 ethical issues in the care of the patient with end stage renal disease
• 5. Approach to acute knee pain and injury in children and skeletally immature adolescents

English Journal

• Nurses' perceptions of communication training in the ICU.

• Radtke JV, Tate JA, Happ MB.SourceDepartment of Acute & Tertiary Care, University of Pittsburgh School of Nursing, 336 Victoria Building, 3500 Victoria Street, Pittsburgh, PA 15261, United States.
• Intensive & critical care nursing : the official journal of the British Association of Critical Care Nurses.Intensive Crit Care Nurs.2012 Feb;28(1):16-25. Epub 2011 Dec 14.
• OBJECTIVE: To describe the experience and perceptions of nurse study participants regarding a communication intervention (training and communication tools) for use with nonspeaking, critically ill patients. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY/DESIGN: Small focus groups and an individual interview were conducted wi
• PMID 22172745

• The association between self-efficacy and hypertension self-care activities among african american adults.

• Warren-Findlow J, Seymour RB, Brunner Huber LR.SourceDepartment of Public Health Sciences, The University of North Carolina Charlotte, 9201 University City Boulevard, Charlotte, NC, 28223, USA, jwarren1@uncc.edu.
• Journal of community health.J Community Health.2012 Feb;37(1):15-24.
• Chronic disease management requires the individual to perform varying forms of self-care behaviors. Self-efficacy, a widely used psychosocial concept, is associated with the ability to manage chronic disease. In this study, we examine the association between self-efficacy to manage hypertension and
• PMID 21547409

Japanese Journal

• アイデンティティ論の歴史化 : 批判人類学の視点から(<特集>アイデンティティと帰属をめぐるアポリア-理論・継承・歴史)

• 太田 好信
• 文化人類学 78(2), 245-264, 2013-09-30
• 本論の目的は、アイデンティティ論を歴史化することである。より具体的には、冷戦構造時代の入口と出口という二つの時間においてアイデンティティ論がリベラリズムとの親和性を背景に形成されたことを指摘する。ホルクハイマーとアドルノの『啓蒙の弁証法』とタウシグの『ミメーシスと他者性』の読解を通して、本論の方法論となっている歴史化という手法を提示する。歴史化とは、理論が可能になる状況を含めて理論を検討することで …
• NAID 110009657427

• 和声学に基づく合唱譜自動作成システム "CMY" -転回系の実装と評価-

• エバンズベンジャミンルカ ,棟方 渚,小野 哲雄
• 情報処理学会研究報告. [音楽情報科学] 2013-MUS-100(37), 1-4, 2013-08-24
• 現代の音楽は多種多様に発展しており,特に自動作曲プログラムなどの進展は顕著である.しかしパターンマッチングや確率モデルに基づいたシステムの動作は,作曲家が楽曲を創作する過程や思考とは大きく異なり,ユーザによる作曲過程の調整が難しい.出力だけでなく,作曲過程にも楽譜データを利用するシステムの方が,従来システムに比べ,音楽の知識を持つユーザにはより使いやすいと考える.これまで我々は,楽譜データに基づく …
• NAID 110009599066

• 新人保育者の語りに見る外国につながりのある子どものいる保育

• 内田 千春
• 共栄大学研究論集 (11), 273-286, 2013-03-31
• 本研究は、外国につながりのある子どもがいる教室で営まれる乳幼児保育の現況と課題を探ることを目的としている。愛知・三重県内の保育所で勤務する4 人の若手保育者の新人としての経験に関する語りを研究対象にデータ収集を行った。面接調査の結果、地域のリソースや現場研修の機会に差があること、子どもへの対応より保護者対応に強い危機意識をもっていることなどが示された。一方外国籍の子どもへの対応として保育者らが課題 …
• NAID 110009559737

Related Links

• knowledgeableの意味 - 英和辞書 - goo辞書

knowledgeableとは。意味や和訳。[形]知性のある，博識な；理解力のある；（…に）精通している((about ...)). （またknowl・edg・a・ble）knowl・edge・a・ble・ness[名] knowl・edge・a・bly[副] - goo辞書は国語、英和、和英、中国語 ...

• knowledgeable - 辞書すべて - goo辞書

knowledgeableの意味は？goo辞書は無料で使える日本最大級の辞書サービスです。国語辞典、英和辞典、和英辞典、類語辞典、中国語辞典、百科事典などを提供しています。 ... カミュ 名言一覧 | Wiki 希望とは一般に信じられている事と ...

Related Pictures