ketogenic

• ケトン体を産生する

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出典(authority):フリー百科事典『ウィキペディア（Wikipedia）』「2016/09/13 00:43:32」(JST)

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Ketogenesis pathway. The three ketone bodies (acetoacetate, acetone, and beta-hydroxy-butyrate) are marked within an orange box

Ketogenesis is the biochemical process by which organisms produce a group of substances collectively known as ketone bodies by the breakdown of fatty acids and ketogenic amino acids. This process supplies energy to certain organs (particularly the brain) under circumstances such as fasting, but insufficient ketogenesis can cause hypoglycemia and excessive production of ketone bodies leads to a dangerous state known as ketoacidosis.

Production

Ketone bodies are produced mainly in the mitochondria of liver cells, and synthesis can occur in response to an unavailability of blood glucose, such as during fasting.

Ketogenesis takes place in the setting of low glucose levels in the blood, after exhaustion of other cellular carbohydrate stores, such as glycogen. It can also take place when there is insufficient insulin (e.g. in diabetes), particularly during periods of "ketogenic stress" such as intercurrent illness.

The production of ketone bodies is then initiated to make available energy that is stored as fatty acids. Fatty acids are enzymatically broken down in β-oxidation to form acetyl-CoA. Under normal conditions, acetyl-CoA is further oxidized by the citric acid cycle (TCA/Krebs cycle) and then by the mitochondrial electron transport chain to release energy. However, if the amounts of acetyl-CoA generated in fatty-acid β-oxidation challenge the processing capacity of the TCA cycle; i.e. if activity in TCA cycle is low due to low amounts of intermediates such as oxaloacetate, acetyl-CoA is then used instead in biosynthesis of ketone bodies via acetoacyl-CoA and β-hydroxy-β-methylglutaryl-CoA (HMG-CoA). Deaminated amino acids that are ketogenic, such as leucine, also feed TCA cycle, forming acetoacetate & ACoA and thereby produce ketones. Besides its role in the synthesis of ketone bodies, HMG-CoA is also an intermediate in the synthesis of cholesterol, but the steps are compartmentalised. Ketogenesis occurs in the mitochondria, whereas cholesterol synthesis occurs in the cytosol, hence both the processes are independently regulated.

Ketone bodies

The three ketone bodies, each synthesized from acetyl-CoA molecules, are:

• Acetoacetate, which can be converted by the liver into β-hydroxybutyrate, or spontaneously turn into acetone
• Acetone, which is generated through the decarboxylation of acetoacetate, either spontaneously or through the enzyme acetoacetate decarboxylase. It can then be further metabolized either by CYP2E1 into hydroxyacetone (acetol) and then via propylene glycol to pyruvate, lactate and acetate (usable for energy) and propionaldehyde, or via methylglyoxal to pyruvate and lactate.
• β-hydroxybutyrate (not technically a ketone according to IUPAC nomenclature) is generated through the action of the enzyme D-β-hydroxybutyrate dehydrogenase on acetoacetate.

Regulation

Ketogenesis may or may not occur, depending on levels of available carbohydrates in the cell or body. This is closely related to the paths of acetyl-CoA:

• When the body has ample carbohydrates available as energy source, glucose is completely oxidized to CO₂; acetyl-CoA is formed as an intermediate in this process, first entering the citric acid cycle followed by complete conversion of its chemical energy to ATP in oxidative phosphorylation.
• When the body has excess carbohydrates available, some glucose is fully metabolized, and some of it is stored in the form of glycogen or, upon citrate excess, as fatty acids. (CoA is also recycled here.)
• When the body has no free carbohydrates available, fat must be broken down into acetyl-CoA in order to get energy. Acetyl-CoA is not being recycled through the citric acid cycle because the citric acid cycle intermediates (mainly oxaloacetate) have been depleted to feed the gluconeogenesis pathway, and the resulting accumulation of acetyl-CoA activates ketogenesis.

Pathology

Both acetoacetate and beta-hydroxybutyrate are acidic, and, if levels of these ketone bodies are too high, the pH of the blood drops, resulting in ketoacidosis. Ketoacidosis is known to occur in untreated type I diabetes (see diabetic ketoacidosis) and in alcoholics after prolonged binge-drinking without intake of sufficient carbohydrates (see alcoholic ketoacidosis).

Ketogenesis can be ineffective in people with beta oxidation defects.

See also

• Ketone bodies
• Fatty acid metabolism
• Ketosis
• Ketogenic diet

References

External links

• Fat metabolism at University of South Australia
• James Baggott. (1998) Synthesis and Utilization of Ketone Bodies at University of Utah Retrieved 23 May 2005.
• Musa-Veloso K, Likhodii SS, Cunnane SC (1 July 2002). "Breath acetone is a reliable indicator of ketosis in adults consuming ketogenic meals". Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 76 (1): 65–70. PMID 12081817. 
• Richard A. Paselk. (2001) Fat Metabolism 2: Ketone Bodies at Humboldt State University Retrieved 23 May 2005.

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English Journal

• Seizure control by ketogenic diet-associated medium chain fatty acids.

• Chang P, Terbach N, Plant N, Chen PE, Walker MC, Williams RS.SourceCentre for Biomedical Sciences, School of Biological Sciences, Royal Holloway University of London, Egham, TW20 0EX, UK.
• Neuropharmacology.Neuropharmacology.2013 Jun;69:105-14. doi: 10.1016/j.neuropharm.2012.11.004. Epub 2012 Nov 20.
• The medium chain triglyceride (MCT) ketogenic diet is used extensively for treating refractory childhood epilepsy. This diet increases the plasma levels of medium straight chain fatty acids. A role for these and related fatty acids in seizure control has not been established. We compared the potency
• PMID 23177536

• Energy depletion in seizures: Anaplerosis as a strategy for future therapies.

• Kovac S, Abramov AY, Walker MC.SourceUCL Institute of Neurology, University College London, Queen Square, WC1N 3BG London, UK; Department of Neurology, University of Muenster, Muenster, Germany. Electronic address: s.kovac@ion.ucl.ac.uk.
• Neuropharmacology.Neuropharmacology.2013 Jun;69:96-104. doi: 10.1016/j.neuropharm.2012.05.012. Epub 2012 May 30.
• Seizure activity can lead to energy failure and neuronal injury, resulting in neurological and cognitive sequelae. Moreover, mutations affecting genes encoding for proteins that maintain energy homeostasis within the cell often result in an epileptic phenotype, implying that energy failure can contr
• PMID 22659085

• Good outcome in patients with early dietary treatment of GLUT-1 deficiency syndrome: results from a retrospective Norwegian study.

• Ramm-Pettersen A, Nakken KO, Skogseid IM, Randby H, Skei EB, Bindoff LA, Selmer KK.SourceDepartment of Refractory Epilepsy, SSE (formerly National Centre for Epilepsy, SSE), Oslo, Norway.
• Developmental medicine and child neurology.Dev Med Child Neurol.2013 May;55(5):440-7. doi: 10.1111/dmcn.12096. Epub 2013 Mar 1.
• AIM: The aim of this study was to characterize patients diagnosed with glucose transporter protein-1 deficiency syndrome (GLUT-1 DS) clinically and genetically, and to evaluate the effect of treatment with the classic ketogenic or modified Atkins diet.METHOD: We retrospectively studied medical recor
• PMID 23448551

Japanese Journal

• West症候群に対するケトン食療法の有効性について

• 東京女子医科大学雑誌 85(4), 131-137, 2015-08-25
• NAID 110009931212

• 第80回東京女子医科大学学会総会シンポジウム「東京女子医大 小児医療の最前線!-"なおらない"から"なおる"へ-」Part 1 (7)点頭てんかんをどのように治療して発達退行からこどもを守るか

• 東京女子医科大学雑誌 85(2), 63-69, 2015-04-25
• NAID 110009900094

• ケトン食療法 : 過去から未来へ (特集 機能性油脂の現在と未来)

• Food style 21 19(3), 35-38, 2015-03
• NAID 40020378082

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