jazz

　 　 　 　

WordNet

1. play something in the style of jazz
2. a genre of popular music that originated in New Orleans around 1900 and developed through increasingly complex styles
3. a style of dance music popular in the 1920s; similar to New Orleans jazz but played by large bands
4. resembling jazz (especially in its rhythm)
5. any of various styles of jazz that appeared after 1940 (同)new jazz, neo jazz
6. a musician who plays or composes jazz music (同)jazzman
7. a small band of jazz musicians (同)jazz group, combo

PrepTutorEJDIC

1. 『ジャズ』 / 《俗》大ぼら,大うそ,ナンセンス / 〈曲〉‘を'ジャズふうに演奏(編曲)する / 《俗》〈パーティーなど〉‘を'活気づける,〈曲など〉‘を'陽気にする《+『up』+『名』》
2. ジャズの,ジャズふうの / 《俗》はでな色の,けばけばしい
3. ジャズふうに

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出典(authority):フリー百科事典『ウィキペディア（Wikipedia）』「2017/01/05 14:13:12」(JST)

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ジャズ（英: jazz）は、19世紀末から20世紀初頭にかけてアメリカ南部の都市を中心に派生した音楽形式。西洋楽器を用いた高度な西洋音楽の技術と理論、およびアフリカ系アメリカ人の独特のリズム感覚と音楽形式とが融合して生まれた。演奏の中にブルー・ノート、シンコペーション、スウィング、コール・アンド・レスポンス（掛け合い演奏）、インプロヴィゼーション、ポリリズム（複合リズム）などの要素を組み込んでいることが、大きな特徴とされている。

その表現形式は自由なものであり、初期からポール・ホワイトマンらの白人ミュージシャンが深くかかわり、演奏技法なども急速に発展した。20世紀後半には世界の多くの国々で、ジャズが演奏されるようになった。

歴史

起源 - 1930年代

Duke Ellington, 1943年

Buddy Bolden, 1905年頃

Art Blakey, 1985年

ジャズは西洋音楽とアフリカ音楽の組み合わせにより発展した音楽である。スピリチュアル、ブルース、ラグタイムの要素を含み、根底的には西アフリカ、西サヘル（サハラ砂漠南縁に東西に延びる帯状の地域）、ニューイングランドの宗教的な賛美歌やヨーロッパの軍隊音楽にある。アフリカ音楽を起源とするものについては、アフリカからアメリカ南部に連れてこられたアフリカからの移民（多くは奴隷として扱われた）とその子孫の民族音楽としてもたらされたとされており、都市部に移住した黒人ミュージシャンによってジャズとしての進化を遂げたといわれている。

ニューオーリンズが発祥の地とされており、現在でもその語源ははっきりしない。20世紀に入ると、コルネット奏者のバディ・ボールデンがニューオーリンズで人気を博し、今日では「初代ジャズ王」と呼ばれているが、バディは1907年に活動停止し、本人による録音は残されていない。

1917年、ニューオーリンズ出身の白人バンドであるオリジナル・ディキシーランド・ジャズ・バンドが、ジャズでは初の商業用レコードとなる、“Dixie Jass Band One Step”と“Livery Stable Blues”の2曲入りシングルをビクタートーキングマシンから発表。

初期のジャズは、マーチングバンドと20世紀初頭に流行したダンス音楽に影響を受けており、ブラス（金管楽器）・リード（木管楽器）・ドラムスによる組み合わせの形態はこれらの影響に基づくものといえよう。当初は独学でジャズを創作していった者も少なくなかったが、ジャズと音楽理論が融合するようになっていったのは、ジャズが黒人社会に広く普及し、古典的なヨーロッパの音楽理論を取得したアフリカ系黒人ミュージシャンがジャズに反映させていく時点からである。アメリカの禁酒法時代に地下化した酒場に集うミュージシャンによって、あるいはレコードやラジオの普及によって、ダンスミュージックなどのポピュラー音楽のスタイルがまだまだ渾然一体となっていた1920年代初頭にはアメリカを代表する音楽スタイルの一つとして、アメリカ国内の大都市に急速に広まった。第一次世界大戦から大恐慌までのアメリカの隆盛期が「ジャズ・エイジ」と呼ばれるのはこのためである。1920年代にはイギリスでもジャズが流行り、後のエドワード8世も少年時代にレコードを収集するなど、幅広い層に受け入れられた。

1930年代には、ソロ演奏がそれまで以上に重要視されるようになり、ソロを際だたせる手法の一つとして小編成バンドが規模拡大してビッグ・バンドスタイルによるスウィング・ジャズが確立されるようになり、人気を博す。この背景には、人種的障壁で隔てられていた黒人ミュージシャンと白人ミュージシャンの媒介としての役割を果たしたクレオールの存在があった。スウィング・ジャズはアレンジャーとバンドリーダーの立場がより重要視されるようになり、特に代表的なバンドリーダーの一人であるルイ・アームストロングの存在は、ジャズとヴォーカルとの融合という側面（アームストロングはトランペット奏者でありながら自ら歌も歌った）において重要な役割を果たした。

一方で保守層やファシズム政権等では、「黒人音楽」であり「軽佻浮薄」な「非音楽」であるとしてジャズを排斥する動きも起こった。ナチ党のアルフレート・ローゼンベルクはその急先鋒であり、ナチス・ドイツ時代には反ジャズが政府の公式な見解となり、1935年に黒人が演奏するジャズの放送が禁止されるなど、様々な条例が作られた。しかし当局によるジャズの定義があいまいであったため、ドイツ人演奏家によるジャズ演奏自体は盛んに行われていた。また宣伝相となったヨーゼフ・ゲッベルスは、すでに大衆音楽として普及していたジャズを禁止することは得策ではないとして、娯楽放送や宣伝放送にジャズを紛れ込ませた。

1940年代以降

その一方で、ソロを際だたせる別の手法として、アレンジを追求したスウィング・ジャズとは異なる方向性を求める（あるいはスウィング・ジャズに反発する）ミュージシャンにより、即興演奏を主体としたビバップ等の新たなスタイルが模索されるようになる。1940年代初頭には、ビバップに傾倒するミュージシャンも増えていくが、1942年8月から1943年秋にかけて、アメリカで大規模なレコーディング・ストライキがあったため、初期ビバップの録音はわずかしか残されていない。1940年代後半には、チャーリー・パーカーやディジー・ガレスピー等が多くの録音を残し、1950年代には、クール・ジャズ、ウエストコースト・ジャズ、ハード・バップ等の新たなスタイルが登場し、モダン・ジャズの流れを作り出すことになる。

1957年、フランス映画『大運河』（監督:ロジェ・ヴァディム）でジョン・ルイスが音楽を担当し、サウンドトラックはジョンが在籍するモダン・ジャズ・カルテット名義の『たそがれのヴェニス』として発表。サウンドトラックを丸ごとジャズにゆだねたのは、伝記映画を除けば初のことであった。以後、フランスで「シネ・ジャズ」と呼ばれる動きが起こり、マイルス・デイヴィスが『死刑台のエレベーター』（監督:ルイ・マル）に、セロニアス・モンクが『危険な関係』（監督:ロジェ・ヴァディム）に、アート・ブレイキー&ジャズ・メッセンジャーズが『殺られる』（監督:エドゥアール・モリナロ）に、ケニー・ドーハムが『彼奴を殺せ』（監督:エドゥアール・モリナロ）に参加。1958年には、アメリカ映画『私は死にたくない』（監督:ロバート・ワイズ）にジェリー・マリガンやアート・ファーマー等が参加し、以後アメリカでも、ジャズが本格的に映画音楽として使用されるようになった。

1950年代末期には、マイルス・デイヴィスの『マイルストーンズ』『カインド・オブ・ブルー』といった作品で、モード・ジャズという手法が試みられ、即興演奏の自由度が増す。一方、オーネット・コールマンやセシル・テイラー等は、より前衛的で自由度の高いジャズを演奏し、1960年代になると、オーネットのアルバム名からフリー・ジャズという言葉が広まっていった。

1960年代前半には、ブラジル音楽のボサノヴァに注目するジャズ・ミュージシャンも多くなる。スタン・ゲッツは『ジャズ・サンバ』（1962年）をビルボード誌のポップ・チャート1位に送り込み、翌年にはボサノヴァの重要人物（ジョアン・ジルベルト、アントニオ・カルロス・ジョビン等）との共演盤『ゲッツ/ジルベルト』を制作、グラミー賞のアルバム・オブ・ザ・イヤーを受賞。1965年には、『リカード・ボサノヴァ』が、ジャズの曲として大ヒットし、スタンダード・ナンバーとして認知されるまでになる。

1960年代までのジャズは、一部の楽器（エレクトリックギター、ハモンドオルガン等）を除けば、アコースティック楽器が主体だった。しかし、1960年代末期、マイルス・デイヴィスはより多くのエレクトリック楽器を導入し、『ビッチェズ・ブリュー』を大ヒットさせる。同作に参加した多くのミュージシャンも、独立してエレクトリック楽器を導入したバンドを次々と結成し、クロスオーバージャズ、さらには後にフュージョンと呼ばれるスタイルに発展していく。

1990年代以降

1990年代のジャズは特定のスタイルが主流になるのでは無く多様化が進んでいる。一人の演奏家が様々なスタイルでの演奏を行なうことも多く、時には一回の演奏会で様々なスタイルでの演奏を行なうこともある。ブラッド・メルドーはザ・バッド・プラスと共にロックを伝統的なジャズの文脈で演奏したり、ロックミュージシャンによるジャズバージョンの演奏を行なったりしている。前衛的なジャズも伝統的なジャズも継続されている。

またハリー・コニック・ジュニア等の歌手はポップスにジャズの要素を加えただけで「ジャズ・ミュージシャン」と呼ばれたり、ダイアナ・クラール、ノラ・ジョーンズ、カサンドラ・ウィルソン、カート・エリング、ジェイミー・カラムなど、伝統的なジャズとポップスやロック形式の音楽を組み合わせて人気を博したミュージシャンも近年登場している。

フュージョンは1970年代に人気のピークを迎えたが、電子楽器やロック由来の楽器をジャズに使用する動きは2000年代に入っても続いている。この流れはパット・メセニー、ジョン・アバークロンビー、ジョン・スコフィールド、E.S.T.等に受け継がれている。

各国でのジャズ史

日本における歴史

1923年（大正12年）4月に日本で初めてのプロのジャズバンドが神戸で結成された。宝塚少女歌劇団オーケストラ出身の井田一郎をリーダーとする「ラッフィング・スター・ジャズバンド」（「井田一郎とラッフィング・スターズ」）である。その後1925年（大正14年）に井田は大阪でチェリーランド・ダンス・オーケストラを結成し活動するが、大正天皇崩御を理由に大阪市がダンスホールの営業を1年間停止したため、大阪を拠点としていた井田や南里文雄ら多くのプロのジャズマンは東京に拠点を移していった。戦前に発売された国産ジャズレコードの中には著しくレベルの低いものも多数見受けられるが、それでも着実にファンを増やしていった。歌手としては二村定一、淡谷のり子、バートン・クレーン、ディック・ミネ、川畑文子、中野忠晴、ベティ・稲田らが、ボーカルグループではコロムビア・ナカノ・リズムボーイズやアメリカのボードヴィルの影響を受けたあきれたぼういずがそれぞれ人気を集め、作曲家としては服部良一がジャズの要素を用いた数多くの曲を生んだ。（従って、一部で言われている｀ジャズは明るい戦後文化の象徴｀というのは間違いである）

太平洋戦争中は禁令 や自主規制などでジャズは鳴りを潜めたが、学生や軍人の中でも密かにレコードを聴いて楽しむ者も多かった。特攻隊員の川柳に「アメリカと戦ふ奴がジャズを聞き」「ジャズ恋し早く平和が来ればよい」などと遺されていることからも分かる。戦後多くの元陸海軍軍楽隊員がジャズ畑へ転向した。戦後の日本には米軍基地が置かれ、ジャズを筆頭とするアメリカ音楽は大々的に日本へと入ってきた。（戦後の人々は戦前と文化的に断絶されたためか、ジャズは戦後世代の象徴としているが、戦前にもジャズはあった）

戦後は、服部良一が作曲したブギウギを笠置シヅ子に歌わせたことから始まる。つづいて、江利チエミ、ジョージ川口、ティーブ釜萢（ムッシュかまやつの父）、ナンシー・梅木、世良譲などのすぐれた歌手、演奏家などが出、ジャズが大衆化した。一時期は、外国のポピュラー音楽をすべて「ジャズ」と呼ぶ風潮が広がったほどである。また、神戸や阪神間の学生を中心にデキシーランドジャズ・バンドが数多く生まれている。

1956年に穐吉敏子が、1962年に渡辺貞夫がバークリー音楽院（現バークリー音楽大学）に留学。1963年には松本英彦がモントレー・ジャズ・フェスティバルに出演する等、国際的に活動するミュージシャンも増えていった。

1960年頃、アート・ブレイキーのモーニン（1958年発表）のヒットにより、ファンキー・ブームが起こった。

1961年に発足、翌年改名したミュージシャンたちの勉強会 新世紀音楽研究所（改名前はジャズ・アカデミー）に集った高柳昌行、金井英人、富樫雅彦、日野皓正、菊地雅章、山下洋輔らが、毎週金曜日に銀巴里でジャムセッションを行った。日野皓正は、そこが自身のフリー志向の原点だと述べる。

1970年代初め頃からフリー・ジャズが盛んになってくる。1970年代後半になると、国鉄（現JR）中央線沿線（西荻窪・吉祥寺・八王子など）を拠点とするミュージシャンも多く登場し、1980年代後半、新星堂のプロデューサーが「中央線ジャズ」という言葉を提唱。

1965年からびわ湖バレイ・ジャズ・フェスティバル、1977年からライブ・アンダー・ザ・スカイ、1980年からオーレックス・ジャズ・フェスティバル、1981年から神戸ジャズストリートなど、ジャズ・フェスティバルが催されるようになった。

主なスタイル/ジャンル

過去に演奏されたスタイルと、現在も演奏されているスタイルの双方を掲載している。

• ニューオーリンズ・ジャズ / ディキシーランド・ジャズ

何がニューオーリンズ・ジャズであり、何がディキシーランド・ジャズであるかという明確な合意はないが、初期の様に黒人によって演奏されるのがニューオーリンズ・ジャズ、白人によって演奏されるのをディキシーランド・ジャズと区別するのが一般的である。

• スウィング・ジャズ
• シンフォニック・ジャズ
• モダン・ジャズ
  • ビバップ
  • クール・ジャズ
  • ウエストコースト・ジャズ
  • ハード・バップ
  • ファンキー・ジャズ
  • ソウル・ジャズ
  • モード・ジャズ（含む新主流派）
  • 新伝承派（1980年代台頭）
  • ミレニアム（仮称：主に1990年以降）
• フリー・ジャズ（アヴァンギャルド・ジャズ）
• ラテン・ジャズ
  • アフロ・キューバン・ジャズ
  • ブラジリアン・ジャズ
  • ボサノヴァ・ジャズ（スタン・ゲッツなど）
• ジャズ・ファンク（ファンキー・ジャズとは異なる）
• ジャズ・ロック
• エレクトリック・ジャズ（マイルス・デイビスなど）
• オルガン・ジャズ（ジミー・スミスなど）
• クロスオーヴァー（デオダートなど）
• フュージョン
• ロフト・ジャズ（英語版による）
• エスノ・ジャズ（英語版による）
• パンク・ジャズ
• ジャズ・ラップ
• クラブ・ジャズ
• スムーズジャズ
• アシッド・ジャズ
• ニュージャズ

アーティスト

「ジャズ音楽家の一覧」を参照

著名なジャズ評論家

• 相倉久人
• 岩浪洋三
• 植草甚一
• 大橋巨泉
• 中山康樹
• 寺島靖国
• 油井正一
• リロイ・ジョーンズ（アミリ・バラカ）

著名なジャズクラブ等

• コットン・クラブ（1923年-1940年、ニューヨーク）ハーレム地区にあった名高い高級ナイトクラブ。
• ヴィレッジ・ヴァンガード（1935年-、ニューヨーク）グリニッジ・ヴィレッジ地区にあり、モダンジャズを牽引した名店。
• ミントンズ・プレイハウス（1938年-1974年、ニューヨーク）テナーサックス奏者ヘンリー・ミントンが開店。ビバップの発祥の証しとなる「ミントンハウスのチャーリー・クリスチャン」1941年でのセッションレコードで有名。2006年再開店。
• カーネギー・ホール（1891年-、ニューヨーク）マンハッタン地区にあるコンサートホール。1938年ベニー・グッドマンにより史上初のジャズ・コンサートが開催された。
• バードランド（1949年-1965年、ニューヨーク）マンハッタン地区にあったビバップ・モダンジャズの黄金時代を牽引した名店。1986年再開店。
• プリザベーション・ホール（1960年代-、ニューオーリンズ）ディキシーランド・ニューオーリンズジャズ主体の名店。
• ブルーノート（1981年-、ニューヨーク）グリニッジ・ヴィレッジ地区にあり、世界各国にレストランをチェーン展開。ブルーノート・レコードとは無関係。

ジャズ喫茶

詳細は「ジャズ喫茶」を参照

ジャズを聴きながら楽しむ喫茶店。日本で1950年代後半から流行り、1970年代から下火となる。

著名なジャズ・フェスティバル

三大ジャズ・フェスティバル

• ニューポート・ジャズ・フェスティバル（アメリカ、1954年 - ロードアイランド州・ニューポート）
  1984年に日本ビクターがスポンサーに付いて以降のフェスティバル・プロダクション主催の同フェスティバルは JVC Jazz Festival Newport, R.I. が正式名称。世界の複数の都市で姉妹フェスティバルが催されている）
• モントレー・ジャズフェスティバル（アメリカ・カリフォルニア州・モントレー）
• モントルー・ジャズフェスティバル（スイス・モントルー、毎年7月開催）

北アメリカ

• ニューポート・ジャズフェスティバル
• モントレー・ジャズフェスティバル
• サッチモ・サマーフェスト（アメリカ・ニューオーリンズ）: 毎年、ルイ・アームストロングの誕生日8月4日を含む日程で開催される。French Quarter Festivals, Inc.主催。
• ニューオーリンズ・ジャズ&ヘリテッジ・フェスティバル（アメリカ・ニューオーリンズ）（アメリカ、1970年 - ）
• バンクーバー・ジャズフェスティバル（カナダ・バンクーバー、毎年6月開催）
• モントリオール国際ジャズフェスティバル（カナダ・モントリオール）世界最大規模。
• シカゴ・ジャズ・フェスティバル - アメリカ・シカゴのグラント・パークで毎年9月開催。

ヨーロッパ

• モントルー・ジャズフェスティバル
• ノース・シー・ジャズフェスティバル（オランダ・ハーグ））
• メールス・ニュー・ジャズ・フェスティバル（ドイツ・メールス Moers）
• 四月ジャズ祭（フィンランド）
• ジャズ・ジャンボリー祭（ポーランド）
• アンティーブ・ジャズ祭（フランス）
• レニングラード・ジャズ祭（ロシア）

日本

• MIYA JAZZ INN（1974年 -、栃木県）（無料）
• 神戸ジャズストリート（1981年 -、兵庫県）（有料）
• サッチモ祭（1981年 -、東京都 ）（無料）
• 富士通コンコード・ジャズ・フェスティバル[1]（1986年 -、開催地は変動 ）（有料）
• 徳島ジャズストリート（1988年 -、徳島県）（有料）
• モントレー・ジャズフェスティバル・イン・能登（1989年 - 、石川県）世界で唯一、モントレー以外の地で「MJF」の名称使用許諾を得ている。（有料）
• なかのぶジャズフェスティバル[2]（1989年 - 、東京都）第3回(2009年)より毎年の開催。（有料・無料）
• 旭ジャズまつり（1990年 -、神奈川県 ）毎年7月の最終日曜日に開催。（有料）
• 南郷サマージャズフェスティバル（1990年 - 、青森県）行政主催のジャズフェスティバルとしてスタート（有料）
• 定禅寺ストリートジャズフェスティバル in 仙台（1991年 -、宮城県）2日間合計で70万人以上の観客数となる日本最大の街角音楽祭。（無料）
• ハママツ・ジャズ・ウィーク（1992年 -、静岡県 ）（有料）
  • ヤマハ・ジャズ・フェスティバル・イン・浜松
• 横浜ジャズプロムナード（1993年 -、神奈川県 ）（有料・無料）
• 阿佐ヶ谷ジャズストリート[3]（1995年 -、東京都 ）（有料）
• 高槻ジャズストリート（1999年-、大阪府）（無料）
• 新宿トラッド・ジャズ・フェスティバル（2000年-、東京都）
• JAZZ PROMENADE in SENDAI（2001年 - 、宮城県）（無料）
• 守口・門真ジャズフェスティバル[4]（2001年 - 、大阪府）（有料・無料）
• 東京JAZZ（2002年 -、東京都 ）（有料）
• 新潟ジャズストリート[5]（2003年 -、新潟県 ）（有料）
• 十三ジャズ[6]（2003年 -、大阪府）（無料）
• 岡崎ジャズストリート[7]（2006年 -、愛知県）（有料・無料）
• 法善寺ジャズストリート[8]（大阪府）（無料）
• サッポロシティジャズ[9]（2007年 -、北海道）
• 新宿春の楽しいジャズ祭り[10]（? -、東京都）（有料）
• びわこジャズ東近江 （2009年-、滋賀県東近江市）（無料）毎年4月の土・日曜日に開催。2011年は市内25箇所150組が参加した。2016年度より現在の名称に変更。旧名びわこJAZZフェスティバル。
• 大津ジャズフェスティバル （2009年-、滋賀県大津市）（無料）琵琶湖岸大津港周辺を舞台に世界一美しいジャズフェスティバルとして毎年10月の土・日曜日に行われる。2009年は26箇所234組が参加。
• 中洲ジャズ （2009年-、福岡県） （無料）
• 金沢JAZZ STREET [11]（2009年-、石川県金沢市）（有料・無料）
• すみだストリートジャズフェスティバル （2010年-、東京都） （無料）
• 小金井ジャズフェスティバル [12]（2011年-、東京都） （無料）
• 赤れんがSummerJazz+ [13]（2011年-、京都府舞鶴市） （有料）

開催終了

• びわ湖バレイ・ジャズ・フェスティバル（1965年 - 1993年、滋賀）（有料）
• ライブ・アンダー・ザ・スカイ（1977年 - 1992年、東京都）（有料）
• オーレックス・ジャズ・フェスティバル（1980年 - 1983年）ジョージ・ウェインがプロデュースした。（有料）
• ニューポート・ジャズ・フェスティバル・イン・斑尾（1982年 - 2003年、新潟・長野県）初期～中期は、ジョージ・ウェインがプロデュースした（有料）
• マウント・フジ・ジャズ・フェスティバル（1986年 - 1996年、2002年、山梨県）（有料）
• LIVE 141 定禅寺ストリートジャズフェスティバル（1987年 - 1990年、宮城県）1991年からJSFになる。
• 倶知安ジャズ・フェスティバル（1990年 - 2008年、北海道 ）（有料）
• 赤煉瓦サマー・ジャズin舞鶴（1991年 - 2010年、京都府舞鶴市 ）（有料）
• 室蘭ジャズクルーズ（2001年 - 2010年、北海道）（有料）
• いわみざわキタオンジャズフェスティバル（2003年 - 2010年、北海道）（有料）

著名なジャズ教育機関

• バークリー音楽大学（アメリカ）
• ジェイコブズ音楽院（アメリカ）
• リーズ音楽大学（イギリス）

ジャズに関するその他の作品・関連メディア

TV・ラジオ番組

ジャズ専門衛星放送

• ミュージックバード内THE JAZZ、CS-PCM音声放送。
  ジャズに関する総合チャンネル。レギュラー番組ほか、ライブ、アーチスト特集、新譜・ビンテージ音源の紹介など。

ジャズ専門ネットラジオ局（無償配信）

• 1.FM - アメリカ。多くのチャンネルをもつ。128kbpsのスムースジャズチャンネルがある。
• BlueNoteRadio - アメリカ。ジャズ名門レーベル直営。
• Dr. Horner's Classic Jazz Corner
• SKY.fm - アメリカ。多くのチャンネルを持つ。96kbpsのスムースジャズ、モダンジャズチャンネルがある。
  • チャンネル別ページ : Smooth Jazz, Uptempo Smooth Jazz, Piano Jazz, Bossa Nova Jazz, * * * *Modern Jazz, Bebop Jazz
• SmoothJazz.com -アメリカ。128kbpsのスムースジャズ。
• Mars FM - Jazz Radio

ラジオ放送

• セッションxxxx (NHK-FM)
• ロマンチックコンサート『エンジョイ・ジャズ』（ラジオ深夜便内、NHKラジオ第1・NHK-FM）
• ジャズ・トゥナイト (NHK-FM)
• テイスト・オブ・ジャズ（ラジオNIKKE）
• オトナのJAZZTIME（ラジオ日本）
• Legacy Of Jazz （JFN系各局）- エフエム東京系
• ASAHI BEER OZ MEETS JAZZ（JFL系各局）- 幹事局はJ-WAVE

地方局

• おばん de JAZZ（STVラジオ）
• インビテーション・トゥ・ジャズ （静岡放送ラジオ）
• ジャズ・シティ（富山シティエフエムほか）
• ワンダフル・ジャズ・タウン（FM愛媛）
• 酒とJAZZの日々（FM徳島）
• 黒木研三の“ジャズライブラリー”（ラジオ関西）
• JAZZ STRUTTIN'(エフエム仙台)

ラジオ放送終了番組

• 水曜WANTED!（TOKYO FM） - パーソナリティが菊地成孔・大谷能生の時代にジャズを主体とした放送がされた。
• 渡辺美香のMy Favorite Things （CBCラジオ）
• 朝のなつメロ（東海ラジオ) - 歌謡曲・演歌中心の内容だったがパーソナリティが村上和宏アナウンサー担当時のみ「ドーナツアワー」のサブタイトルが付き洋楽・ジャズ中心に放送されていた。
• ホットジャズライン（ラジオ関西） - 主にディキシーランド・ジャズやスウィングを放送していた。
• ときめきJAZZ喫茶（NHKラジオ第1）
• ジャズトレイン（RKBラジオ）

テレビ放送終了番組

• 純情きらり（NHK・朝の連続テレビ小説） - ヒロインがジャズピアニストを目指すストーリーであり、ジャズのスタンダードナンバーやジャズ風にアレンジされた唱歌などが劇中で頻繁に演じられていた。

映画

アーティスト伝記物、もしくはストーリー・音楽ともにジャズと関わりの深い作品

洋画

伝記物

• グレン・ミラー物語 （1953年） - アンソニー・マン監督 ジェームズ・ステュアート出演
• ベニイ・グッドマン物語 （1955年） - バレンタイン・デイビス監督、テディ・ウィルソン、ライオネル・ハンプトン、ジーン・クルーパ、スタン・ゲッツ、ハリー・ジェイムス、ジギー・エルマン出演
• 五つの銅貨 （1959年） - メルヴィル・シェイヴルソン監督、ダニー・ケイ、ルイ・アームストロング、ボブ・クロスビー出演。レッド・ニコルズ（コルネット奏者）の半生を描く。
• コットン・クラブ （1984年）
• ラウンド・ミッドナイト （1986年） - デクスター・ゴードン出演、ハービー・ハンコック音楽、ベルトラン・ダベルニエ監督。バド・パウエルとレスター・ヤングの挿話に基づいて描いている。
• バード （1988年） - クリント・イーストウッド監督、チャーリー・パーカーの生涯を描いた伝記映画。
• ストレート・ノー・チェイサー （1988年） - セロニアス・モンク出演、クリント・イーストウッド製作総指揮
• レッツ・ゲット・ロスト （1988年） - チェット・ベイカー出演、ブルース・ウェーバー製作・監督

記録映画

• 真夏の夜のジャズ （1960年）

フィクション

• ジャズ・シンガー （1927年） - 世界初のトーキー映画。
• 黄金の雨 （1936年） - ノーマン・Z・マクロード監督、ビング・クロスビー、ルイ・アームストロングら出演。
• 画家とモデル （1937年） - ラオール・ウォルシュ監督、ジャック・ベニー主演、ルイ・アームストロングら出演。
• ニューオーリンズ （1947年） - アーサー・ルービン監督、ルイ・アームストロングやビリー・ホリデイが脇役として出演
• 情熱の狂想曲 （1950年）
• 上流社会 （1956年） - チャールズ・ウォルターズ監督、ビング・クロスビー、フランク・シナトラ、ルイ・アームストロング出演
• 酒とバラの日々 （1962年）
• ニューヨーク・ニューヨーク （1977年）
• ラグタイム （1981年）
• ジャズメン （1984年） - ソ連製作
• ハーレム・ナイト （1989年）
• モ'・ベター・ブルース （1990年） - デンゼル・ワシントン出演、スパイク・リー監督・出演
• ディンゴ （1991年） - 音楽を担当したマイルス・デイヴィス自身も俳優として出演
• スウィング・キッズ （1993年） - ナチス政権下のハンブルクでスウィング・ジャズを愛する青年達の悲劇を描いている。

邦画

伝記物

• エンドレス・ワルツ （1995年） - 若松孝二監督。阿部薫を描く

フィクション

• さらばモスクワ愚連隊 （1968年） - 五木寛之原作、堀川弘通監督
• 上海バンスキング - 1984年版（監督 : 深作欣二）と1988年版（監督 : 串田和美）の二作品がある。いずれも原作は斎藤憐
• ジャズ大名 （1986年） - 筒井康隆原作、岡本喜八監督
• キャバレー （1986年） - 栗本薫原作、角川春樹監督
• この世の外へ クラブ進駐軍 （2004年） - 阪本順治監督・脚本
• スウィングガールズ （2004年） - 矢口史靖監督・脚本
• 大停電の夜に （2005年） - 源孝志監督

ジャズのみを映画音楽にしている作品

• ファンキーハットの快男児 （1961年） - 監督 ： 深作欣二、主演 ： 千葉真一
• ファンキーハットの快男児 二千万円の腕 （1961年） - 監督 ： 深作欣二、主演 ： 千葉真一
• 脱走遊戯 （1976年） - 監督 ： 山下耕作、主演 ： 千葉真一

アニメ

• 坂道のアポロン （2012年）

「音楽漫画」も参照

その他

• ジャズをモチーフとした小説を多く発表している作家
  • 五木寛之 - 「さらばモスクワ愚連隊」「青年は荒野をめざす」等
  • 筒井康隆 - 「ジャズ大名」「男たちのかいた絵」「ジャズ小説」等
  • 村上春樹 - 「国境の南、太陽の西」「アフターダーク」等。ジャズに特化したエッセイ集「ポートレイト・イン・ジャズ」も発表
• 川柳川柳 - ジャズを取り入れた新作落語「ジャズ息子」「ガーコン」を作る

参考文献

• 『ジャズの歴史 その誕生からフリー・ジャズまで』 Frank Tirro、音楽之友社、1993年。ISBN 4276232511。
• 『ジャズ 進化・解体・再生の歴史』悠雅彦、音楽之友社、1998年。ISBN 4276370787。
• 『新版 ジャズを放つ』細川周平、後藤雅洋、村井康司、寺島靖国、小川隆夫、加藤総夫、柳沢てつや、北里義之、大村幸則、瀧口秀之、西島多恵子、山下泰司、黒田京子、桜井圭介、上野俊哉、米田栄、田辺秀樹、高橋順一、川竹英克、田村和紀夫、大宅緒、高見一樹、島原裕司、柴俊一、洋泉社、1997年。ISBN 4896912500。
• 『知ってるようで知らない ジャズおもしろ雑学事典 ～ジャズ100年のこぼれ話～』小川 隆夫、ヤマハミュージックメディア、2001年。ISBN 4636207505。
• 『ニューヨークJazz』小川隆夫、東京キララ社、2002年。ISBN 4380022005。

関連図書

• 『東アジア流行歌アワー―越境する音 交錯する音楽人』（岩波現代全書15）、貴志俊彦、岩波書店、2013年10月。ISBN-10: 4000291157。

脚注

関連項目

• ジャズの日
• ストレイン (音楽)
• マルチストレイン形式

外部リンク

• ListenJapan

wiki en

[Wiki en表示]

For other uses, see Jazz (disambiguation).

Jazz
Louis Armstrong (1901–1971) is considered one of the pivotal musicians in jazz for his contributions as a trumpet player, composer and singer.
Stylistic origins	Blues folk marches ragtime classical music
Cultural origins	Late 19th-century United States
Typical instruments	Double bass drums guitar (typically electric guitar) piano saxophone trumpet clarinet trombone vocals vibraphone Hammond organ harmonica . In jazz fusion of the 1970s, electric bass, electric piano and synthesizer were common.
Derivative forms	Funk hip hop jump blues krautrock Latin soul post-progressive psychedelic rock reggae rhythm and blues ska
Subgenres
Avant-garde jazz Bebop Big band Chamber jazz Cool jazz ECM jazz Free jazz Gypsy jazz Hard bop Latin jazz Mainstream jazz Modal jazz M-Base Neo-bop Post-bop Progressive jazz Soul jazz Swing Third stream Traditional jazz
Fusion genres
Acid jazz Afrobeat Bluegrass Bossa nova Crossover jazz Dansband Folk jazz Free funk Humppa Indo jazz Jam band Jazzcore Jazz funk Jazz fusion Jazz rap Kwela Mambo Manila Sound Nu jazz Nu soul Punk jazz Ska jazz Smooth jazz Swing revival World fusion
Regional scenes
Australia Azerbaijan Brazil Canada Cuba France Germany Haiti India Italy Japan Malawi Netherlands Poland South Africa Spain United Kingdom
Other topics
Jazz clubs Jazz standard Jazz (word)

Jazz is a music genre that originated amongst African Americans in New Orleans, United States, in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Since the 1920s jazz age, jazz has become recognized as a major form of musical expression. It emerged in the form of independent traditional and popular musical styles, all linked by the common bonds of African American and European American musical parentage with a performance orientation. Jazz is characterized by swing and blue notes, call and response vocals, polyrhythms and improvisation. Jazz has roots in West African cultural and musical expression, and in African-American music traditions including blues and ragtime, as well as European military band music. Although the foundation of jazz is deeply rooted within the Black experience of the United States, different cultures have contributed their own experience and styles to the art form as well. Intellectuals around the world have hailed jazz as "one of America's original art forms".

As jazz spread around the world, it drew on different national, regional, and local musical cultures, which gave rise to many distinctive styles. New Orleans jazz began in the early 1910s, combining earlier brass-band marches, French quadrilles, biguine, ragtime and blues with collective polyphonic improvisation. In the 1930s, heavily arranged dance-oriented swing big bands, Kansas City jazz, a hard-swinging, bluesy, improvisational style and Gypsy jazz (a style that emphasized musette waltzes) were the prominent styles. Bebop emerged in the 1940s, shifting jazz from danceable popular music toward a more challenging "musician's music" which was played at faster tempos and used more chord-based improvisation. Cool jazz developed in the end of the 1940s, introducing calmer, smoother sounds and long, linear melodic lines.

The 1950s saw the emergence of free jazz, which explored playing without regular meter, beat and formal structures, and in the mid-1950s, hard bop emerged, which introduced influences from rhythm and blues, gospel, and blues, especially in the saxophone and piano playing. Modal jazz developed in the late 1950s, using the mode, or musical scale, as the basis of musical structure and improvisation. Jazz-rock fusion appeared in the late 1960s and early 1970s, combining jazz improvisation with rock music's rhythms, electric instruments and highly amplified stage sound. In the early 1980s, a commercial form of jazz fusion called smooth jazz became successful, garnering significant radio airplay. Other styles and genres abound in the 2000s, such as Latin and Afro-Cuban jazz.

Etymology and definition

Albert Gleizes, 1915, Composition pour Jazz, from the Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum, New York

The question of the origin of the word jazz has resulted in considerable research, and its history is well documented. It is believed to be related to jasm, a slang term dating back to 1860 meaning "pep, energy." The earliest written record of the word is in a 1912 article in the Los Angeles Times in which a minor league baseball pitcher described a pitch which he called a jazz ball "because it wobbles and you simply can't do anything with it."

The use of the word in a musical context was documented as early as 1915 in the Chicago Daily Tribune. Its first documented use in a musical context in New Orleans was in a November 14, 1916 Times-Picayune article about "jas bands." In an interview with NPR, musician Eubie Blake offered his recollections of the original slang connotations of the term, saying: "When Broadway picked it up, they called it 'J-A-Z-Z.. It wasn't called that. It was spelled 'J-A-S-S.' That was dirty, and if you knew what it was, you wouldn't say it in front of ladies." The American Dialect Society named it the Word of the Twentieth Century.

Jazz has proved to be very difficult to define, since it encompasses such a wide range of music spanning a period of over 100 years, from ragtime to the 2010-era rock-infused fusion. Attempts have been made to define jazz from the perspective of other musical traditions, such as European music history or African music. But critic Joachim-Ernst Berendt argues that its terms of reference and its definition should be broader, defining jazz as a "form of art music which originated in the United States through the confrontation of the Negro with European music" and arguing that it differs from European music in that jazz has a "special relationship to time defined as 'swing'", involves "a spontaneity and vitality of musical production in which improvisation plays a role" and contains a "sonority and manner of phrasing which mirror the individuality of the performing jazz musician". In the opinion of Robert Christgau, "most of us would say that inventing meaning while letting loose is the essence and promise of jazz."

A broader definition that encompasses all of the radically different eras of jazz has been proposed by Travis Jackson: "it is music that includes qualities such as swing, improvising, group interaction, developing an 'individual voice', and being open to different musical possibilities". Krin Gibbard has provided an overview of the discussion on definitions, arguing that "jazz is a construct" that, while artificial, still is useful to designate "a number of musics with enough in common to be understood as part of a coherent tradition". In contrast to the efforts of commentators and enthusiasts of certain types of jazz, who have argued for narrower definitions that exclude other types, the musicians themselves are often reluctant to define the music they play. As Duke Ellington, one of jazz's most famous figures, said: "It's all music".

Elements and issues

Improvisation

Double bassist Reggie Workman, saxophone player Pharoah Sanders, and drummer Idris Muhammad performing in 1978

Main article: Jazz improvisation

Although jazz is considered highly difficult to define, at least in part because it contains so many varied subgenres, improvisation is consistently regarded as being one of its key elements. The centrality of improvisation in jazz is attributed to influential earlier forms of music: the early blues, a form of folk music which arose in part from the work songs and field hollers of the African-American slaves on plantations. These were commonly structured around a repetitive call-and-response pattern, but early blues was also highly improvisational. European classical music performance is evaluated by its fidelity to the musical score, with much less discretion over interpretation, ornamentation and accompaniment: the classical performer's primary goal is to play a composition as it was written. In contrast, jazz is often characterized as the product of group creativity, interaction, and collaboration, which places varying degrees of value on the contributions of the composer (if there is one) and performers. In jazz, the skilled performer will interpret a tune in very individual ways, never playing the same composition the same way twice; depending on the performer's mood and personal experience, interactions with other musicians, or even members of the audience, a jazz musician may alter melodies, harmonies or time signature at will.

The approach to improvisation has developed enormously over the history of the music. In early New Orleans and Dixieland jazz, performers took turns playing the melody, while others improvised countermelodies. By the swing era, big bands were coming to rely more on arranged music: arrangements were either written or learned by ear and memorized, while individual soloists would improvise within these arrangements. Later, in bebop the focus shifted back toward small groups and minimal arrangements; the melody would be stated briefly at the start and end of a piece, but the core of the performance would be the series of improvisations. Later styles such as modal jazz abandoned the strict notion of a chord progression, allowing the individual musicians to improvise even more freely within the context of a given scale or mode. In many forms of jazz, a soloist is often supported by a rhythm section consisting of one or more chordal instruments (piano, guitar, etc.), double bass playing the basslines and drum kit. These performers provide accompaniment by playing chords and rhythms that outline the song structure and complement the soloist. In avant-garde and free jazz idioms, the separation of soloist and band is reduced, and there is license, or even a requirement, for the abandoning of chords, scales and rhythmic meters.

Tradition and race

Since at least the emergence of bebop, forms of jazz that are commercially oriented or influenced by popular music have been criticized by purists. According to Bruce Johnson, there has always been a "tension between jazz as a commercial music and an art form". Traditional jazz enthusiasts have dismissed bebop, free jazz, the 1970s jazz fusion era and much else as periods of debasement of the music and betrayals of the tradition. An alternative viewpoint is that jazz is able to absorb and transform influences from diverse musical styles, and that, by avoiding the creation of 'norms', other newer, avant-garde forms of jazz will be free to emerge.

To some African Americans, jazz has highlighted their contribution to American society and helped bring attention to black history and culture, but for others, the music and term "jazz" are reminders of "an oppressive and racist society and restrictions on their artistic visions". Amiri Baraka argues that there is a distinct "white jazz" music genre expressive of whiteness. White jazz musicians appeared in the early 1920s in the Midwestern United States, as well as other areas. Bix Beiderbecke was one of the most prominent white jazz musicians. An influential style referred to as the Chicago School (or Chicago Style) was developed by white musicians including Bud Freeman, Jimmy McPartland. Frank Teschemacher, Dave Tough, and Eddie Condon. Others from Chicago such as Benny Goodman and Gene Krupa became leading members of big-band swing during the 1930s.

Role of women

Ethel Waters sang Stormy Weather at the Cotton Club

Betty Carter was known for her improvisational style and scatting.

Women jazz performers and composers have contributed throughout jazz history. While women such as Billie Holiday, Ella Fitzgerald, Dinah Washington, Ethel Waters, Betty Carter, Adelaide Hall, Abbey Lincoln, and Anita O'Day are famous for their jazz singing, women have achieved much less recognition for their contributions as composers, bandleaders, and instrumental performers. Other notable jazz women include piano player Lil Hardin Armstrong and jazz songwriters Irene Higginbotham (1918–1988) and Dorothy Fields (1905–1974). Women began playing instruments in jazz in the early 1920s, with the piano being one of the earliest instruments used which allowed female artists a degree of social acceptance. Some well-known artists of the time were Sweet Emma Barrett, Mary Lou Williams, Billie Pierce, Jeanette Kimball and Lovie Austin.

When the men were drafted for WWII, many all-women big band jazz bands took over. The International Sweethearts of Rhythm (founded 1937) was a well-known jazz group of this era, becoming the first all-women integrated band in the U.S., touring Europe in 1945 and becoming the first black women to travel with the USO. The dress codes of the era required women to wear strapless dresses and high heeled shoes, which was somewhat of a hindrance to the integration of women into the big bands of suit-wearing men. Nevertheless, women were hired into many of the big-league big bands such as Woody Herman and Gerald Wilson.

History

Jazz originated in the late 19th to early 20th century as interpretations of American and European classical music entwined with African and slave folk songs and the influences of West African culture. Its composition and style have changed many times throughout the years with each performer's personal interpretation and improvisation, which is also one of the greatest appeals of the genre.

Origins

Blended African and European music sensibilities

By 1866, the Atlantic slave trade had brought nearly 400,000 Africans to North America. The slaves came largely from West Africa and the greater Congo River basin, and brought strong musical traditions with them. The African traditions primarily make use of a single-line melody and call-and-response pattern, and the rhythms have a counter-metric structure and reflect African speech patterns.

Dance in Congo Square in the late 1700s, artist's conception by E. W. Kemble from a century later.

In the late 18th-century painting The Old Plantation, African-Americans dance to banjo and percussion.

Lavish festivals featuring African-based dances to drums were organized on Sundays at Place Congo, or Congo Square, in New Orleans until 1843. There are historical accounts of other music and dance gatherings elsewhere in the southern United States. Robert Palmer said of percussive slave music:

Usually such music was associated with annual festivals, when the year's crop was harvested and several days were set aside for celebration. As late as 1861, a traveler in North Carolina saw dancers dressed in costumes that included horned headdresses and cow tails and heard music provided by a sheepskin-covered "gumbo box", apparently a frame drum; triangles and jawbones furnished the auxiliary percussion. There are quite a few [accounts] from the southeastern states and Louisiana dating from the period 1820–1850. Some of the earliest [Mississippi] Delta settlers came from the vicinity of New Orleans, where drumming was never actively discouraged for very long and homemade drums were used to accompany public dancing until the outbreak of the Civil War.

Another influence came from the harmonic style of hymns of the church, which black slaves had learned and incorporated into their own music as spirituals. The origins of the blues are undocumented, though they can be seen as the secular counterpart of the spirituals. However, as Gerhard Kubik points out, whereas the spirituals are homophonic, rural blues and early jazz "was largely based on concepts of heterophony."

The blackface Virginia Minstrels in 1843, featuring tambourine, fiddle, banjo and bones.

During the early 19th century an increasing number of black musicians learned to play European instruments, particularly the violin, which they used to parody European dance music in their own cakewalk dances. In turn, European-American minstrel show performers in blackface popularized the music internationally, combining syncopation with European harmonic accompaniment. In the mid-1800s the white New Orleans composer Louis Moreau Gottschalk adapted slave rhythms and melodies from Cuba and other Caribbean islands into piano salon music. New Orleans was the main nexus between the Afro-Caribbean and African-American cultures.

African rhythmic retention

The "Black Codes" outlawed drumming by slaves, which meant that African drumming traditions were not preserved in North America, unlike in Cuba, Haiti, and elsewhere in the Caribbean. African-based rhythmic patterns were retained in the United States in large part through "body rhythms" such as stomping, clapping, and patting juba.

In the opinion of jazz historian Ernest Borneman, what preceded New Orleans jazz before 1890 was "Afro-Latin music", similar to what was played in the Caribbean at the time. A three-stroke pattern known in Cuban music as tresillo is a fundamental rhythmic figure heard in many different slave musics of the Caribbean, as well as the Afro-Caribbean folk dances performed in New Orleans Congo Square and Gottschalk's compositions (for example "Souvenirs From Havana" (1859)). Tresillo is the most basic and most prevalent duple-pulse rhythmic cell in sub-Saharan African music traditions and the music of the African Diaspora.

Tresillo.  Play 

Tresillo is heard prominently in New Orleans second line music and in other forms of popular music from that city from the turn of the 20th century to present. "By and large the simpler African rhythmic patterns survived in jazz ... because they could be adapted more readily to European rhythmic conceptions," the Jazz historian Gunther Schuller observed. "Some survived, others were discarded as the Europeanization progressed."

In the post-Civil War period (after 1865), African Americans were able to obtain surplus military bass drums, snare drums and fifes, and an original African-American drum and fife music emerged, featuring tresillo and related syncopated rhythmic figures. This was a drumming tradition that was distinct from its Caribbean counterparts, expressing a uniquely African-American sensibility. "The snare and bass drummers played syncopated cross-rhythms," observed the writer Robert Palmer (writer), speculating that "this tradition must have dated back to the latter half of the nineteenth century, and it could have not have developed in the first place if there hadn't been a reservoir of polyrhythmic sophistication in the culture it nurtured."

"Spanish tinge"—the Afro-Cuban rhythmic influence

African-American music began incorporating Afro-Cuban rhythmic motifs in the 19th century, when the habanera (Cuban contradanza) gained international popularity. Musicians from Havana and New Orleans would take the twice-daily ferry between both cities to perform, and the habanera quickly took root in the musically fertile Crescent City. John Storm Roberts states that the musical genre habanera "reached the U.S. twenty years before the first rag was published." For the more than quarter-century in which the cakewalk, ragtime, and proto-jazz were forming and developing, the habanera was a consistent part of African-American popular music.

Habaneras were widely available as sheet music, and were the first written music which was rhythmically based on an African motif (1803), From the perspective of African-American music, the habanera rhythm (also known as congo, tango-congo, or tango.) can be thought of as a combination of tresillo and the backbeat. The habanera was the first of many Cuban music genres which enjoyed periods of popularity in the United States, and reinforced and inspired the use of tresillo-based rhythms in African-American music.

Habanera rhythm written as a combination of tresillo (bottom notes) with the backbeat (top note).  Play 

New Orleans native Louis Moreau Gottschalk's piano piece "Ojos Criollos (Danse Cubaine)" (1860) was influenced by the composer's studies in Cuba: the habanera rhythm is clearly heard in the left hand. In Gottschalk's symphonic work "A Night in the Tropics" (1859), the tresillo variant cinquillo appears extensively. The figure was later used by Scott Joplin and other ragtime composers.

Cinquillo.  Play 

Comparing the music of New Orleans with the music of Cuba, Wynton Marsalis observes that tresillo is the New Orleans "clave", a Spanish word meaning 'code' or 'key', as in the key to a puzzle, or mystery. Although technically the pattern is only half a clave, Marsalis makes the point that the single-celled figure is the guide-pattern of New Orleans music. Jelly Roll Morton called the rhythmic figure the Spanish tinge, and considered it an essential ingredient of jazz.

1890s–1910s

Ragtime

Main article: Ragtime

Scott Joplin in 1903

The abolition of slavery in 1865 led to new opportunities for the education of freed African Americans. Although strict segregation limited employment opportunities for most blacks, many were able to find work in entertainment. Black musicians were able to provide entertainment in dances, minstrel shows, and in vaudeville, during which time many marching bands were formed. Black pianists played in bars, clubs and brothels, as ragtime developed.

Ragtime appeared as sheet music, popularized by African-American musicians such as the entertainer Ernest Hogan, whose hit songs appeared in 1895. Two years later, Vess Ossman recorded a medley of these songs as a banjo solo known as "Rag Time Medley". Also in 1897, the white composer William H. Krell published his "Mississippi Rag" as the first written piano instrumental ragtime piece, and Tom Turpin published his "Harlem Rag", the first rag published by an African-American.

The classically trained pianist Scott Joplin produced his "Original Rags" in 1898, and in 1899 had an international hit with "Maple Leaf Rag", a multi-strain ragtime march with four parts that feature recurring themes and a bass line with copious seventh chords. Its structure was the basis for many other rags, and the syncopations in the right hand, especially in the transition between the first and second strain, were novel at the time.

Excerpt from "Maple Leaf Rag" by Scott Joplin (1899). Seventh chord resolution.  Play . Note that the seventh resolves down by half step.

African-based rhythmic patterns such as tresillo and its variants, the habanera rhythm and cinquillo, are heard in the ragtime compositions of Joplin, Turpin, and others. Joplin's "Solace" (1909) is generally considered to be within the habanera genre: both of the pianist's hands play in a syncopated fashion, completely abandoning any sense of a march rhythm. Ned Sublette postulates that the tresillo/habanera rhythm "found its way into ragtime and the cakewalk," whilst Roberts suggests that "the habanera influence may have been part of what freed black music from ragtime's European bass."

Blues

Main article: Blues

African genesis

 Play blues scale  or  pentatonic scale 

Blues is the name given to both a musical form and a music genre, which originated in African-American communities of primarily the "Deep South" of the United States at the end of the 19th century from their spirituals, work songs, field hollers, shouts and chants and rhymed simple narrative ballads.

The African use of pentatonic scales contributed to the development of blue notes in blues and jazz. As Kubik explains:

Many of the rural blues of the Deep South are stylistically an extension and merger of basically two broad accompanied song-style traditions in the west central Sudanic belt:

• A strongly Arabic/Islamic song style, as found for example among the Hausa. It is characterized by melisma, wavy intonation, pitch instabilities within a pentatonic framework, and a declamatory voice.
• An ancient west central Sudanic stratum of pentatonic song composition, often associated with simple work rhythms in a regular meter, but with notable off-beat accents (1999: 94).

W. C. Handy: early published blues

WC Handy age 19, 1892

W. C. Handy became intrigued by the folk blues of the Deep South whilst traveling through the Mississippi Delta. In this folk blues form, the singer would improvise freely within a limited melodic range, sounding like a field holler, and the guitar accompaniment was slapped rather than strummed, like a small drum which responded in syncopated accents, functioning as another "voice". Handy and his band members were formally trained African-American musicians who had not grown up with the blues, yet he was able to adapt the blues to a larger band instrument format, and arrange them in a popular music form.

Handy wrote about his adopting of the blues:

The primitive southern Negro, as he sang, was sure to bear down on the third and seventh tone of the scale, slurring between major and minor. Whether in the cotton field of the Delta or on the Levee up St. Louis way, it was always the same. Till then, however, I had never heard this slur used by a more sophisticated Negro, or by any white man. I tried to convey this effect ... by introducing flat thirds and sevenths (now called blue notes) into my song, although its prevailing key was major ..., and I carried this device into my melody as well.

The publication of his "Memphis Blues" sheet music in 1912 introduced the 12-bar blues to the world (although Gunther Schuller argues that it is not really a blues, but "more like a cakewalk"). This composition, as well as his later "St. Louis Blues" and others, included the habanera rhythm, and would become jazz standards. Handy's music career began in the pre-jazz era, and contributed to the codification of jazz through the publication of some of the first jazz sheet music.

Within the context of Western harmony

The blues form which is ubiquitous in jazz is characterized by specific chord progressions, of which the twelve-bar blues progression is the most common. An important part of the sound are the blue notes which, for expressive purposes, are sung or played flattened, or gradually bent (minor 3rd to major 3rd) in relation to the pitch of the major scale. The blues were the key that opened up an entirely new approach to Western harmony, ultimately leading to a high level of harmonic complexity in jazz.

New Orleans

Main article: Dixieland

The Bolden Band around 1905.

The music of New Orleans had a profound effect on the creation of early jazz. Many early jazz performers played in venues throughout the city, such as the brothels and bars of the red-light district around Basin Street, known as "Storyville". In addition to dance bands, there were numerous marching bands who played at lavish funerals (later called jazz funerals), which were arranged by the African-American and European American communities. The instruments used in marching bands and dance bands became the basic instruments of jazz: brass, reeds tuned in the European 12-tone scale, and drums. Small bands which mixed self-taught and well educated African-American musicians, many of whom came from the funeral-procession tradition of New Orleans, played a seminal role in the development and dissemination of early jazz. These bands travelled throughout Black communities in the Deep South and, from around 1914 onwards, Afro-Creole and African-American musicians played in vaudeville shows which took jazz to western and northern US cities.

In New Orleans, a white marching band leader named Papa Jack Laine integrated blacks and whites in his marching band. Laine was known as "the father of white jazz" because of the many top players who passed through his bands (including George Brunies, Sharkey Bonano and the future members of the Original Dixieland Jass Band). Laine was a good talent scout. During the early 1900s jazz was mostly done in the African-American and mulatto communities, due to segregation laws. The red light district of Storyville, New Orleans was crucial in bringing jazz music to a wider audience via tourists who came to the port city. Many jazz musicians from the African-American communities were hired to perform live music in brothels and bars, including many early jazz pioneers such as Buddy Bolden and Jelly Roll Morton, in addition to those from New Orleans other communities such as Lorenzo Tio and Alcide Nunez. Louis Armstrong also got his start in Storyville and would later find success in Chicago (along with others from New Orleans) after the United States government shut down Storyville in 1917.

Syncopation

The cornetist Buddy Bolden led a band who are often mentioned as one of the prime originators of the style later to be called "jazz". He played in New Orleans around 1895–1906, before developing a mental illness; there are no recordings of him playing. Bolden's band is credited with creating the big four, the first syncopated bass drum pattern to deviate from the standard on-the-beat march. As the example below shows, the second half of the big four pattern is the habanera rhythm.

Buddy Bolden's "big four" pattern.  Play 

Morton published "Jelly Roll Blues" in 1915, the first jazz work in print.

Afro-Creole pianist Jelly Roll Morton began his career in Storyville. From 1904, he toured with vaudeville shows around southern cities, also playing in Chicago and New York. In 1905 he composed his "Jelly Roll Blues", which on its publication in 1915 became the first jazz arrangement in print, introducing more musicians to the New Orleans style.

Morton considered the tresillo/habanera (which he called the Spanish tinge) to be an essential ingredient of jazz. In his own words:

Now in one of my earliest tunes, "New Orleans Blues," you can notice the Spanish tinge. In fact, if you can't manage to put tinges of Spanish in your tunes, you will never be able to get the right seasoning, I call it, for jazz.

Excerpt from Jelly Roll Morton's "New Orleans Blues" (c. 1902). The left hand plays the tresillo rhythm. The right hand plays variations on cinquillo.  Play 

Morton was a crucial innovator in the evolution from the early jazz form known as ragtime to jazz piano, and could perform pieces in either style; in 1938, Morton made a series of recordings for the Library of Congress, in which he demonstrated the difference between the two styles. Morton's solos however were still close to ragtime, and were not merely improvisations over chord changes as in later jazz; but his use of the blues was of equal importance.

Swing in the early 20th century

Bottom: even duple subdivisions of the beat. Top: swung correlative—contrasting of duple and triple subdivisions of the beat.  Play straight drum pattern  or  Play swung pattern 

Morton loosened ragtime's rigid rhythmic feeling, decreasing its embellishments and employing a swing feeling. Swing is the most important and enduring African-based rhythmic technique used in jazz. An oft quoted definition of swing by Louis Armstrong is: "if you don't feel it, you'll never know it." The New Harvard Dictionary of Music states that swing is: "An intangible rhythmic momentum in jazz ... Swing defies analysis; claims to its presence may inspire arguments." The dictionary does nonetheless provide the useful description of triple subdivisions of the beat contrasted with duple subdivisions: swing superimposes six subdivisions of the beat over a basic pulse structure or four subdivisions. This aspect of swing is far more prevalent in African-American music than in Afro-Caribbean music. One aspect of swing, which is heard in more rhythmically complex Diaspora musics, places strokes in-between the triple and duple-pulse "grids".

New Orleans brass bands are a lasting influence, contributing horn players to the world of professional jazz with the distinct sound of the city whilst helping black children escape poverty. The leader of New Orleans' Camelia Brass Band, D'Jalma Ganier, taught Louis Armstrong to play trumpet; Armstrong would then popularize the New Orleans style of trumpet playing, and then expand it. Like Jelly Roll Morton, Armstrong is also credited with the abandonment of ragtime's stiffness in favor of swung notes. Armstrong, perhaps more than any other musician, codified the rhythmic technique of swing in jazz, and broadened the jazz solo vocabulary.

Sheet music for "Livery Stable Blues"/"Barnyard Blues" by the Original Dixieland Jazz Band, Leo Feist, Inc., New York, copyright 1917.

The Original Dixieland Jass Band made the music's first recordings early in 1917, and their "Livery Stable Blues" became the earliest released jazz record. That year, numerous other bands made recordings featuring "jazz" in the title or band name, but most were ragtime or novelty records rather than jazz. In February 1918 during World War I, James Reese Europe's "Hellfighters" infantry band took ragtime to Europe, then on their return recorded Dixieland standards including "Darktown Strutters' Ball".

Other regions

In the northeastern United States, a "hot" style of playing ragtime had developed, notably James Reese Europe's symphonic Clef Club orchestra in New York, which played a benefit concert at Carnegie Hall in 1912. The Baltimore rag style of Eubie Blake influenced James P. Johnson's development of stride piano playing, in which the right hand plays the melody, while the left hand provides the rhythm and bassline.

In Ohio and elsewhere in the midwest the major influence was ragtime, until about 1919. Around 1912, when the four-string banjo and saxophone came in, musicians began to improvise the melody line, but the harmony and rhythm remained unchanged. A contemporary account states that blues could only be heard in jazz in the gut-bucket cabarets, which were generally looked down upon by the Black middle-class.

1920s and 1930s

Jazz Age

Main article: Jazz Age

The King & Carter Jazzing Orchestra photographed in Houston, Texas, January 1921.

From 1920 to 1933 Prohibition in the United States banned the sale of alcoholic drinks, resulting in illicit speakeasies which became lively venues of the "Jazz Age", hosting popular music including current dance songs, novelty songs and show tunes. Jazz began to get a reputation as being immoral, and many members of the older generations saw it as threatening the old cultural values and promoting the new decadent values of the Roaring 20s. Professor Henry van Dyke of Princeton University wrote: "... it is not music at all. It's merely an irritation of the nerves of hearing, a sensual teasing of the strings of physical passion." The media too began to denigrate jazz. The New York Times used stories and headlines to pick at jazz: Siberian villagers were said by the paper to have used jazz to scare off bears, when in fact they had used pots and pans; another story claimed that the fatal heart attack of a celebrated conductor was caused by jazz.

In 1919 Kid Ory's Original Creole Jazz Band of musicians from New Orleans began playing in San Francisco and Los Angeles, where in 1922 they became the first black jazz band of New Orleans origin to make recordings. That year also saw the first recording by Bessie Smith, the most famous of the 1920s blues singers. Chicago meanwhile was the main center developing the new "Hot Jazz", where King Oliver joined Bill Johnson. Bix Beiderbecke formed The Wolverines in 1924.

Despite its Southern black origins, there was a larger market for jazzy dance music played by white orchestras. In 1918 Paul Whiteman and his orchestra became a hit in San Francisco, California, signing with Victor Talking Machine Company in 1920 and becoming the top bandleader of the 1920s, giving "hot jazz" a white component, hiring white musicians including Bix Beiderbecke, Jimmy Dorsey, Tommy Dorsey, Frankie Trumbauer, and Joe Venuti. In 1924 Whiteman commissioned Gershwin's Rhapsody in Blue, which was premiered by his orchestra and jazz began to be recognized as a notable musical form. Olin Downes, reviewing the concert in The New York Times: "This composition shows extraordinary talent, as it shows a young composer with aims that go far beyond those of his ilk, struggling with a form of which he is far from being master.... In spite of all this, he has expressed himself in a significant and, on the whole, highly original form.... His first theme ... is no mere dance-tune ... it is an idea, or several ideas, correlated and combined in varying and contrasting rhythms that immediately intrigue the listener."

After Whiteman's band successfully toured Europe, huge hot jazz orchestras in theater pits caught on with other whites, including Fred Waring, Jean Goldkette, and Nathaniel Shilkret. Whiteman's success was based on a "rhetoric of domestication" according to which he had elevated and rendered valuable (read "white") a previously inchoate (read "black") kind of music.

Whiteman's success caused blacks to follow suit, including Earl Hines (who opened in The Grand Terrace Cafe in Chicago in 1928), Duke Ellington (who opened at the Cotton Club in Harlem in 1927), Lionel Hampton, Fletcher Henderson, Claude Hopkins, and Don Redman, with Henderson and Redman developing the "talking to one another" formula for "hot" Swing music.

In 1924 Louis Armstrong joined the Fletcher Henderson dance band for a year, as featured soloist. The original New Orleans style was polyphonic, with theme variation and simultaneous collective improvisation. Armstrong was a master of his hometown style, but by the time he joined Henderson's band, he was already a trailblazer in a new phase of jazz, with its emphasis on arrangements and soloists. Armstrong's solos went well beyond the theme-improvisation concept, and extemporized on chords, rather than melodies. According to Schuller, by comparison, the solos by Armstrong's bandmates (including a young Coleman Hawkins), sounded "stiff, stodgy," with "jerky rhythms and a grey undistinguished tone quality." The following example shows a short excerpt of the straight melody of "Mandy, Make Up Your Mind" by George W. Meyer and Arthur Johnston (top), compared with Armstrong's solo improvisations (below) (recorded 1924). (The example approximates Armstrong's solo, as it doesn't convey his use of swing.)

Also in the 1920s Skiffle, jazz played with homemade instruments such as washboard, jugs, musical saw, kazoos, etc. began to be recorded in Chicago, Ill., later merging with country music.

Top: excerpt from the straight melody of "Mandy, Make Up Your Mind" by George W. Meyer & Arthur Johnston. Bottom: corresponding solo excerpt by Louis Armstrong (1924).

Armstrong's solos were a significant factor in making jazz a true 20th-century language. After leaving Henderson's group, Armstrong formed his virtuosic Hot Five band, where he popularized scat singing.

Jelly Roll Morton recorded with the New Orleans Rhythm Kings in an early mixed-race collaboration, then in 1926 formed his Red Hot Peppers.

By 1930 the New Orleans-style ensemble was a relic, and jazz belonged to the world.

Swing in the 1920s and 1930s

Main articles: Swing music and 1930s in jazz

Benny Goodman (1943)

The 1930s belonged to popular swing big bands, in which some virtuoso soloists became as famous as the band leaders. Key figures in developing the "big" jazz band included bandleaders and arrangers Count Basie, Cab Calloway, Jimmy and Tommy Dorsey, Duke Ellington, Benny Goodman, Fletcher Henderson, Earl Hines, Glenn Miller, Artie Shaw, Harry James, and Jimmie Lunceford. Although it was a collective sound, swing also offered individual musicians a chance to "solo" and improvise melodic, thematic solos which could at times be very complex "important" music.

Swing was also dance music. It was broadcast on the radio "live" nightly across America for many years, especially by Earl Hines and his Grand Terrace Cafe Orchestra broadcasting coast-to-coast from Chicago (well placed for "live" US time-zones).

Over time, social strictures regarding racial segregation began to relax in America: white bandleaders began to recruit black musicians and black bandleaders white ones. In the mid-1930s, Benny Goodman hired pianist Teddy Wilson, vibraphonist Lionel Hampton and guitarist Charlie Christian to join small groups. In the 1930s, Kansas City Jazz as exemplified by tenor saxophonist Lester Young (inventor of much of hipster jargon) marked the transition from big bands to the bebop influence of the 1940s. An early 1940s style known as "jumping the blues" or jump blues used small combos, uptempo music and blues chord progressions, drawing on boogie-woogie from the 1930s.

Beginnings of European jazz

As only a limited number of American jazz records were released in Europe, European jazz traces many of its roots to American artists such as James Reese Europe, Paul Whiteman and Lonnie Johnson, who visited Europe during and after World War I. It was their live performances which inspired European audiences' interest in jazz, as well as the interest in all things American (and therefore exotic) which accompanied the economic and political woes of Europe during this time. The beginnings of a distinct European style of jazz began to emerge in this interwar period.

British jazz began with a tour by the Original Dixieland Jazz Band in 1919. In 1926 Fred Elizalde and His Cambridge Undergraduates began broadcasting on the BBC.

This distinct style entered full swing in France with the Quintette du Hot Club de France, which began in 1934. Much of this French jazz was a combination of African-American jazz and the symphonic styles in which French musicians were well-trained; in this, it is easy to see the inspiration taken from Paul Whiteman, since his style was also a fusion of the two. Belgian guitar virtuoso Django Reinhardt popularized gypsy jazz, a mix of 1930s American swing, French dance hall "musette" and Eastern European folk with a languid, seductive feel; the main instruments are steel stringed guitar, violin, and double bass, and solos pass from one player to another as the guitar and bass play the role of the rhythm section. Some music researchers hold that it was Philadelphia's Eddie Lang and Joe Venuti who pioneered the guitar-violin partnership typical of the genre, which was brought to France after they had been heard live or on Okeh Records in the late 1920s.

1940s and 1950s

"American music"—the influence of Ellington

Duke Ellington at the Hurricane Club (1943)

By the 1940s, Duke Ellington's music had transcended the bounds of swing, bridging jazz and art music in a natural synthesis. Ellington called his music "American Music" rather than jazz, and liked to describe those who impressed him as "beyond category." These included many of the musicians who were members of his orchestra, some of whom are considered among the best in jazz in their own right, but it was Ellington who melded them into one of the most well-known jazz orchestral units in the history of jazz. He often composed specifically for the style and skills of these individuals, such as "Jeep's Blues" for Johnny Hodges, "Concerto for Cootie" for Cootie Williams (which later became "Do Nothing Till You Hear from Me" with Bob Russell's lyrics), and "The Mooche" for Tricky Sam Nanton and Bubber Miley. He also recorded songs written by his bandsmen, such as Juan Tizol's "Caravan" and "Perdido", which brought the "Spanish Tinge" to big-band jazz. Several members of the orchestra remained with him for several decades. The band reached a creative peak in the early 1940s, when Ellington and a small hand-picked group of his composers and arrangers wrote for an orchestra of distinctive voices who displayed tremendous creativity.

Bebop

Main article: Bebop

See also: List of bebop musicians

Thelonious Monk at Minton's Playhouse, 1947, New York City.

Earl Hines 1947

In the early 1940s, bebop-style performers began to shift jazz from danceable popular music toward a more challenging "musician's music." The most influential bebop musicians included saxophonist Charlie Parker, pianists Bud Powell and Thelonious Monk, trumpeters Dizzy Gillespie and Clifford Brown, and drummer Max Roach. Divorcing itself from dance music, bebop established itself more as an art form, thus lessening its potential popular and commercial appeal.

Composer Gunther Schuller wrote:

... In 1943 I heard the great Earl Hines band which had Bird in it and all those other great musicians. They were playing all the flatted fifth chords and all the modern harmonies and substitutions and Dizzy Gillespie runs in the trumpet section work. Two years later I read that that was 'bop' and the beginning of modern jazz ... but the band never made recordings.

Dizzy Gillespie wrote:

... People talk about the Hines band being 'the incubator of bop' and the leading exponents of that music ended up in the Hines band. But people also have the erroneous impression that the music was new. It was not. The music evolved from what went before. It was the same basic music. The difference was in how you got from here to here to here ... naturally each age has got its own shit.

Rhythm

Since bebop was meant to be listened to, not danced to, it could use faster tempos. Drumming shifted to a more elusive and explosive style, in which the ride cymbal was used to keep time while the snare and bass drum were used for accents. This led to a highly syncopated linear rhythmic complexity.

Harmony

Charlie Parker, Tommy Potter, Miles Davis, Max Roach (Gottlieb 06941)

Bebop musicians employed several harmonic devices which were not previously typical in jazz, engaging in a more abstracted form of chord-based improvisation. Bebop scales are traditional scales with an added chromatic passing note; bebop also uses "passing" chords, substitute chords, and altered chords. New forms of chromaticism and dissonance were introduced into jazz, and the dissonant tritone (or "flatted fifth") interval became the "most important interval of bebop" Chord progressions for bebop tunes were often taken directly from popular swing-era songs and reused with a new and more complex melody to form new compositions, a practice which was already well-established in earlier jazz, but came to be central to the bebop style. Bebop made use of several relatively common chord progressions, such as blues (at base, I-IV-V, but infused with II-V motion) and 'rhythm changes' (I-VI-II-V) - the chords to the 1930s pop standard "I Got Rhythm." Late bop also moved towards extended forms that represented a departure from pop and show tunes.

The harmonic development in bebop is often traced back to a transcendent moment experienced by Charlie Parker while performing "Cherokee" at Clark Monroe's Uptown House, New York, in early 1942:

I'd been getting bored with the stereotyped changes that were being used, ... and I kept thinking there's bound to be something else. I could hear it sometimes. I couldn't play it.... I was working over 'Cherokee,' and, as I did, I found that by using the higher intervals of a chord as a melody line and backing them with appropriately related changes, I could play the thing I'd been hearing. It came alive—Parker.

Gerhard Kubik postulates that the harmonic development in bebop sprang from the blues and other African-related tonal sensibilities, rather than 20th-century Western art music as some have suggested:

Auditory inclinations were the African legacy in [Parker's] life, reconfirmed by the experience of the blues tonal system, a sound world at odds with the Western diatonic chord categories. Bebop musicians eliminated Western-style functional harmony in their music while retaining the strong central tonality of the blues as a basis for drawing upon various African matrices.

Samuel Floyd states that blues were both the bedrock and propelling force of bebop, bringing about three main developments:

• A new harmonic conception, using extended chord structures that led to unprecedented harmonic and melodic variety.
• A developed and even more highly syncopated, linear rhythmic complexity and a melodic angularity in which the blue note of the fifth degree was established as an important melodic-harmonic device.
• The reestablishment of the blues as the music's primary organizing and functional principle.

As Kubik explained:

While for an outside observer, the harmonic innovations in bebop would appear to be inspired by experiences in Western "serious" music, from Claude Debussy to Arnold Schoenberg, such a scheme cannot be sustained by the evidence from a cognitive approach. Claude Debussy did have some influence on jazz, for example, on Bix Beiderbecke's piano playing. And it is also true that Duke Ellington adopted and reinterpreted some harmonic devices in European contemporary music. West Coast jazz would run into such debts as would several forms of cool jazz, but bebop has hardly any such debts in the sense of direct borrowings. On the contrary, ideologically, bebop was a strong statement of rejection of any kind of eclecticism, propelled by a desire to activate something deeply buried in self. Bebop then revived tonal-harmonic ideas transmitted through the blues and reconstructed and expanded others in a basically non-Western harmonic approach. The ultimate significance of all this is that the experiments in jazz during the 1940s brought back to African-American music several structural principles and techniques rooted in African traditions

These divergences from the jazz mainstream of the time initially met with a divided, sometimes hostile, response among fans and fellow musicians, especially established swing players, who bristled at the new harmonic sounds. To hostile critics, bebop seemed to be filled with "racing, nervous phrases". But despite the initial friction, by the 1950s bebop had become an accepted part of the jazz vocabulary.

Afro-Cuban jazz (cu-bop)

Main article: Afro-Cuban jazz

Machito (maracas) and his sister Graciella Grillo (claves)

Machito and Mario Bauza

The general consensus among musicians and musicologists is that the first original jazz piece to be overtly based in clave was "Tanga" (1943), composed by Cuban-born Mario Bauza and recorded by Machito and his Afro-Cubans in New York City. "Tanga" began as a spontaneous descarga (Cuban jam session), with jazz solos superimposed on top.

This was the birth of Afro-Cuban jazz. The use of clave brought the African timeline, or key pattern, into jazz. Music organized around key patterns convey a two-celled (binary) structure, which is a complex level of African cross-rhythm. Within the context of jazz however, harmony is the primary referent, not rhythm. The harmonic progression can begin on either side of clave, and the harmonic "one" is always understood to be "one". If the progression begins on the "three-side" of clave, it is said to be in 3-2 clave. If the progression begins on the "two-side", its in 2-3 clave.

Clave: Spanish for 'code,' or key,' as in the key to a puzzle. The antecedent half (three-side) consists of tresillo. The consequent half consists of two strokes (the two-side).  Play 

Bobby Sanabria mentions several innovations of Machito's Afro-Cubans, citing them as the first band: to wed big band jazz arranging techniques within an original composition, with jazz oriented soloists utilizing an authentic Afro-Cuban based rhythm section in a successful manner; to explore modal harmony (a concept explored much later by Miles Davis and Gil Evans) from a jazz arranging perspective; and to overtly explore the concept of clave counterpoint from an arranging standpoint (the ability to weave seamlessly from one side of the clave to the other without breaking its rhythmic integrity within the structure of a musical arrangement). They were also the first band in the United States to publicly utilize the term Afro-Cuban as the band's moniker, thus identifying itself and acknowledging the West African roots of the musical form they were playing. It forced New York City's Latino and African-American communities to deal with their common West African musical roots in a direct way, whether they wanted to acknowledge it publicly or not.

Dizzy Gillespie and Chano Pozo

Dizzy Gillespie, 1955

It was Mario Bauzá who introduced bebop innovator Dizzy Gillespie to the Cuban conga drummer and composer Chano Pozo. Gillespie and Pozo's brief collaboration produced some of the most enduring Afro-Cuban jazz standards. "Manteca" (1947) is the first jazz standard to be rhythmically based on clave. According to Gillespie, Pozo composed the layered, contrapuntal guajeos (Afro-Cuban ostinatos) of the A section and the introduction, while Gillespie wrote the bridge. Gillespie recounted: "If I'd let it go like [Chano] wanted it, it would have been strictly Afro-Cuban all the way. There wouldn't have been a bridge. I thought I was writing an eight-bar bridge, but ... I had to keep going and ended up writing a sixteen-bar bridge." The bridge gave "Manteca" a typical jazz harmonic structure, setting the piece apart from Bauza's modal "Tanga" of a few years earlier.

Gillespie's collaboration with Pozo brought specific African-based rhythms into bebop. While pushing the boundaries of harmonic improvisation, cu-bop, as it was called, also drew more directly from African rhythmic structures. Jazz arrangements with a "Latin" A section and a swung B section, with all choruses swung during solos, became common practice with many "Latin tunes" of the jazz standard repertoire. This approach can be heard on pre-1980 recordings of "Manteca", "A Night in Tunisia", "Tin Tin Deo", and "On Green Dolphin Street".

African cross-rhythm

Mongo Santamaria (1969)

Cuban percussionist Mongo Santamaria first recorded his composition "Afro Blue" in 1959. "Afro Blue" was the first jazz standard built upon a typical African three-against-two (3:2) cross-rhythm, or hemiola. The song begins with the bass repeatedly playing 6 cross-beats per each measure of 12/8, or 6 cross-beats per 4 main beats—6:4 (two cells of 3:2). The following example shows the original ostinato "Afro Blue" bass line; the slashed noteheads indicate the main beats (not bass notes), where you would normally tap your foot to "keep time."

"Afro Blue" bass line, with main beats indicated by slashed noteheads.

When John Coltrane covered "Afro Blue" in 1963, he inverted the metric hierarchy, interpreting the tune as a 3/4 jazz waltz with duple cross-beats superimposed (2:3). Originally a B♭ pentatonic blues, Coltrane expanded the harmonic structure of "Afro Blue."

Perhaps the most respected Afro-cuban jazz combo of the late 1950s was vibraphonist Cal Tjader's band. Tjader had Mongo Santamaria, Armando Peraza, and Willie Bobo on his early recording dates.

Dixieland revival

Main articles: 1940s in jazz and 1950s in jazz

In the late 1940s there was a revival of "Dixieland" music, harking back to the original contrapuntal New Orleans style. This was driven in large part by record company reissues of early jazz classics by the Oliver, Morton, and Armstrong bands of the 1930s. There were two types of musicians involved in the revival: the first group was made up of those who had begun their careers playing in the traditional style and were returning to it (or continuing what they had been playing all along), such as Bob Crosby's Bobcats, Max Kaminsky, Eddie Condon, and Wild Bill Davison. Most of these players were originally Midwesterners, although there were a small number of New Orleans musicians involved. The second group of revivalists consisted of younger musicians, such as those in the Lu Watters band, Conrad Janis, and Ward Kimball and his Firehouse Five Plus Two Jazz Band. By the late 1940s, Louis Armstrong's Allstars band became a leading ensemble. Through the 1950s and 1960s, Dixieland was one of the most commercially popular jazz styles in the US, Europe, and Japan, although critics paid little attention to it.

Cool jazz and West Coast jazz

Main article: Cool jazz

Jazz at the Philharmonic announcement, 1956

In 1944 jazz impresario Norman Granz organized the first Jazz at the Philharmonic concert in Los Angeles, which helped make a star of Nat "King" Cole and Les Paul. In 1946 he founded Clef Records, discovering Canadian jazz pianist Oscar Peterson in 1949, and merging Clef Records with his new label Verve Records in 1956, which advanced the career of Ella Fitzgerald et al.

By the end of the 1940s, the nervous energy and tension of bebop was replaced with a tendency toward calm and smoothness with the sounds of cool jazz, which favored long, linear melodic lines. It emerged in New York City, and dominated jazz in the first half of the 1950s. The starting point was a collection of 1949 and 1950 singles by a nonet led by Miles Davis, released as the Birth of the Cool (1957). Later cool jazz recordings by musicians such as Chet Baker, Dave Brubeck, Bill Evans, Gil Evans, Stan Getz, the Modern Jazz Quartet, and Gerry Mulligan usually had a "lighter" sound that avoided the aggressive tempos and harmonic abstraction of bebop.

Cool jazz later became strongly identified with the West Coast jazz scene, as typified by singers Chet Baker, Mel Tormé, and Anita O'Day, but it also had a particular resonance in Europe, especially Scandinavia, where figures such as baritone saxophonist Lars Gullin and pianist Bengt Hallberg emerged. The theoretical underpinnings of cool jazz were laid out by the Chicago pianist Lennie Tristano, and its influence stretches into such later developments as bossa nova, modal jazz, and even free jazz.

Hard bop

Main article: Hard bop

Hard bop is an extension of bebop (or "bop") music which incorporates influences from rhythm and blues, gospel music and blues, especially in the saxophone and piano playing. Hard bop was developed in the mid-1950s, coalescing in 1953 and 1954; it developed partly in response to the vogue for cool jazz in the early 1950s, and paralleled the rise of rhythm and blues. Miles Davis' 1954 performance of "Walkin'" at the first Newport Jazz Festival announced the style to the jazz world. The quintet Art Blakey and the Jazz Messengers, fronted by Blakey and featuring pianist Horace Silver and trumpeter Clifford Brown, were leaders in the hard bop movement along with Davis.

Modal jazz

Main article: Modal jazz

Modal jazz is a development which began in the later 1950s which takes the mode, or musical scale, as the basis of musical structure and improvisation. Previously, a solo was meant to fit into a given chord progression, but with modal jazz the soloist creates a melody using one (or a small number of) modes. The emphasis is thus shifted from harmony to melody: "Historically, this caused a seismic shift among jazz musicians, away from thinking vertically (the chord), and towards a more horizontal approach (the scale)," explained pianist Mark Levine.

The modal theory stems from a work by George Russell. Miles Davis introduced the concept to the greater jazz world with Kind of Blue (1959), an exploration of the possibilities of modal jazz which would become the best selling jazz album of all time. In contrast to Davis' earlier work with hard bop and its complex chord progression and improvisation, the entire Kind of Blue album was composed as a series of "modal sketches", in which each performer was given a set of scales that defined the parameters of their improvisation and style. "I didn't write out the music for Kind of Blue, but brought in sketches for what everybody was supposed to play because I wanted a lot of spontaneity," recalled Davis. The track "So What" has only two chords: D-7 and E♭-7.

Other innovators in this style include Jackie McLean, and two of the musicians who had also played on Kind of Blue: John Coltrane and Bill Evans.

By the 1950s, Afro-Cuban jazz had been using modes for at least a decade, as much of it borrowed from Cuban popular dance forms which are structured around multiple ostinatos with only a few chords. A case in point is Mario Bauza's "Tanga" (1943), the first Afro-Cuban jazz piece. Machito's Afro-Cubans recorded modal tunes in the 1940s, featuring jazz soloists such as Howard McGhee, Brew Moore, Charlie Parker and Flip Phillips. However, there is no evidence that Davis or other mainstream jazz musicians were influenced by the use of modes in Afro-Cuban jazz, or other branches of Latin jazz.

Free jazz

Main article: Free jazz

Free jazz, and the related form of avant-garde jazz broke through into an open space of "free tonality" in which meter, beat, and formal symmetry all disappeared, and a range of World music from India, Africa and Arabia were melded into an intense, even religiously ecstatic or orgiastic style of playing. While loosely inspired by bebop, free jazz tunes gave players much more latitude; the loose harmony and tempo was deemed controversial when this approach was first developed. The bassist Charles Mingus is also frequently associated with the avant-garde in jazz, although his compositions draw from myriad styles and genres.

The first major stirrings came in the 1950s with the early work of Ornette Coleman (whose 1960 album Free Jazz: A Collective Improvisation coined the term) and Cecil Taylor. In the 1960s exponents included Albert Ayler, Gato Barbieri, Carla Bley, Don Cherry, Larry Coryell, John Coltrane, Bill Dixon, Jimmy Giuffre, Steve Lacy, Michael Mantler, Sun Ra, Roswell Rudd, Pharoah Sanders, and John Tchicai. In developing his late style, Coltrane was especially influenced by the dissonance of Ayler's trio with bassist Gary Peacock and drummer Sunny Murray, a rhythm section honed with Cecil Taylor as leader. In November 1961 Coltrane played a gig at the Village Vanguard, which resulted in the classic Chasin' the 'Trane, which Down Beat magazine panned as "Anti-Jazz". On his 1961 tour of France he was booed, but persevered, signing with the new Impulse! Records in 1960 and turning it into "the house that Trane built", while championing many younger free jazz musicians, notably Archie Shepp, who often played with trumpeter Bill Dixon, who organized the 4-day "October Revolution in Jazz" in Manhattan in 1964, the first free jazz festival.

A series of recordings with the Classic Quartet in the first half of 1965 show Coltrane's playing becoming increasingly abstract, with greater incorporation of devices like multiphonics, utilization of overtones, and playing in the altissimo register, as well as a mutated return to Coltrane's sheets of sound. In the studio, he all but abandoned his soprano to concentrate on the tenor saxophone. In addition, the quartet responded to the leader by playing with increasing freedom. The group's evolution can be traced through the recordings The John Coltrane Quartet Plays, Living Space and Transition (both June 1965), New Thing at Newport (July 1965), Sun Ship (August 1965) and First Meditations (September 1965).

In June 1965 Coltrane and 10 other musicians recorded Ascension, a 40-minute-long piece without breaks that included adventurous solos by young avante-garde musicians as well as Coltrane, and was controversial primarily for the collective improvisation sections that separated the solos. Dave Liebman later called it "the torch that lit the free jazz thing.". After recording with the quartet over the next few months, Coltrane invited Pharoah Sanders to join the band in September 1965. While Coltrane used over-blowing frequently as an emotional exclamation-point, Sanders would opt to overblow his entire solo, resulting in a constant screaming and screeching in the altissimo range of the instrument.

Free jazz in Europe

A shot from a 2006 performance by Peter Brötzmann, a key figure in European free jazz

Free jazz quickly found a foothold in Europe, in part because musicians such as Ayler, Taylor, Steve Lacy and Eric Dolphy spent extended periods there, and European musicians Michael Mantler, John Tchicai et al. traveled to the U.S. to learn it firsthand. A distinctive European contemporary jazz (often incorporating elements of free jazz but not limited to it) also flourished because of the emergence of European musicians such as Peter Brötzmann, John Surman, Zbigniew Namysłowski, Albert Mangelsdorff, Kenny Wheeler, and Mike Westbrook, who were anxious to develop new approaches reflecting their national and regional musical cultures and contexts. Since the 1960s various creative centers of jazz have developed in Europe, such as the creative jazz scene in Amsterdam. Following the work of veteran drummer Han Bennink and pianist Misha Mengelberg, musicians started to explore free music by collectively improvising until a certain form (melody, rhythm, or even famous song) is found by the band. Jazz critic Kevin Whitehead documented the free jazz scene in Amsterdam and some of its main exponents such as the ICP (Instant Composers Pool) orchestra in his book New Dutch Swing. Since the 1990s Keith Jarrett has been prominent in defending free jazz from criticism by traditionalists.

1960s and 1970s

Main articles: 1960s in jazz and 1970s in jazz

Latin jazz

Main article: Latin jazz

Latin jazz is the term used to describe jazz which employs Latin American rhythms, and is generally understood to have a more specific meaning than simply jazz from Latin America. A more precise term might be Afro-Latin jazz, as the jazz subgenre typically employs rhythms that either have a direct analog in Africa, or exhibit an African rhythmic influence beyond what is ordinarily heard in other jazz. The two main categories of Latin jazz are Afro-Cuban jazz and Brazilian jazz.

In the 1960s and 1970s many jazz musicians had only a basic understanding of Cuban and Brazilian music, and jazz compositions which used Cuban or Brazilian elements were often referred to as "Latin tunes", with no distinction between a Cuban son montuno and a Brazilian bossa nova. Even as late as 2000, in Mark Gridley's Jazz Styles: History and Analysis, a bossa nova bass line is referred to as a "Latin bass figure." It was not uncommon during the 1960s and 1970s to hear a conga playing a Cuban tumbao while the drumset and bass played a Brazilian bossa nova pattern. Many jazz standards such as "Manteca", "On Green Dolphin Street" and "Song for My Father" have a "Latin" A section and a swung B section. Typically, the band would only play an even-eighth "Latin" feel in the A section of the head, and swing throughout all of the solos. Latin jazz specialists like Cal Tjader tended to be the exception. For example, on a 1959 live Tjader recording of "A Night in Tunisia", pianist Vince Guaraldi soloed through the entire form over an authentic mambo.

Afro-Cuban jazz

Main article: Afro-Cuban jazz

Afro-Cuban jazz often uses Afro-Cuban instruments such as congas, timbales, güiro and claves, combined with piano, double bass, etc. Afro-Cuban jazz began with Machito's Afro-Cubans in the early 1940s, but took off and entered the mainstream in the late 1940s when bebop musicians such as Dizzy Gillespie and Billy Taylor began experimenting with Cuban rhythms. Mongo Santamaria and Cal Tjader further refined the genre in the late 1950s.

Although a great deal of Cuban-based Latin jazz is modal, Latin jazz is not always modal: it can be as harmonically expansive as post-bop jazz. For example, Tito Puente recorded an arrangement of "Giant Steps" done to an Afro-Cuban guaguancó. A Latin jazz piece may momentarily contract harmonically, as in the case of a percussion solo over a one or two-chord piano guajeo.

Guajeos

Guajeo is the name for the typical Afro-Cuban ostinato melodies which are commonly used motifs in Latin jazz compositions. They originated in the genre known as son. Guajeos provide a rhythmic and melodic framework that may be varied within certain parameters, whilst still maintaining a repetitive - and thus "danceable" - structure. Most guajeos are rhythmically based on clave (rhythm).

Guajeos are one of the most important elements of the vocabulary of Afro-Cuban descarga (jazz-inspired instrumental jams), providing a means of tension and resolution and a sense of forward momentum, within a relatively simple harmonic structure. The use of multiple, contrapuntal guajeos in Latin jazz facilitates simultaneous collective improvisation based on theme variation. In a way, this polyphonic texture is reminiscent of the original New Orleans style of jazz.

Afro-Cuban jazz renaissance

For most of its history, Afro-Cuban jazz had been a matter of superimposing jazz phrasing over Cuban rhythms. But by the end of the 1970s a new generation of New York City musicians had emerged who were fluent in both salsa dance music and jazz, leading to a new level of integration of jazz and Cuban rhythms. This era of creativity and vitality is best represented by the Gonzalez brothers Jerry (congas and trumpet) and Andy (bass). During 1974–1976 they were members of one of Eddie Palmieri's most experimental salsa groups: salsa was the medium, but Palmieri was stretching the form in new ways. He incorporated parallel fourths, with McCoy Tyner-type vamps. The innovations of Palmieri, the Gonzalez brothers and others led to an Afro-Cuban jazz renaissance in New York City.

This occurred in parallel with developments in Cuba The first Cuban band of this new wave was Irakere. Their "Chékere-son" (1976) introduced a style of "Cubanized" bebop-flavored horn lines that departed from the more angular guajeo-based lines which were typical of Cuban popular music and Latin jazz up until that time. It was based on Charlie Parker's composition "Billie's Bounce", jumbled together in a way that fused clave and bebop horn lines. In spite of the ambivalence of some band members towards Irakere's Afro-Cuban folkloric / jazz fusion, their experiments forever changed Cuban jazz: their innovations are still heard in the high level of harmonic and rhythmic complexity in Cuban jazz, and in the jazzy and complex contemporary form of popular dance music known as timba.

Afro-Brazilian jazz

Naná Vasconcelos playing the Afro-Brazilian Berimbau

Brazilian jazz such as bossa nova is derived from samba, with influences from jazz and other 20th-century classical and popular music styles. Bossa is generally moderately paced, with melodies sung in Portuguese or English, whilst he related term jazz-samba describes an adaptation of street samba into jazz.

The bossa nova style was pioneered by Brazilians João Gilberto and Antônio Carlos Jobim, and was made popular by Elizete Cardoso's recording of "Chega de Saudade" on the Canção do Amor Demais LP. Gilberto's initial releases, and the 1959 film Black Orpheus, achieved significant popularity in Latin America; this spread to North America via visiting American jazz musicians. The resulting recordings by Charlie Byrd and Stan Getz cemented bossa nova's popularity and led to a worldwide boom, with 1963's Getz/Gilberto, numerous recordings by famous jazz performers such as Ella Fitzgerald and Frank Sinatra, and the eventual entrenchment of the bossa nova style as a lasting influence in world music.

Brazilian percussionists such as Airto Moreira and Naná Vasconcelos also influenced jazz internationally by introducing Afro-Brazilian folkloric instruments and rhythms into a wide variety of jazz styles, thus attracting a greater audience to them.

Post-bop

Main article: Post-bop

Bill Evans at the Montreux Jazz Festival with his trio consisting of Marc Johnson, bass, and Philly Joe Jones, drums, July 13, 1978.

Post-bop jazz is a form of small-combo jazz derived from earlier bop styles. The genre's origins lie in seminal work by John Coltrane, Miles Davis, Bill Evans, Charles Mingus, Wayne Shorter and Herbie Hancock. Generally, the term post-bop is taken to mean jazz from the mid-sixties onwards that assimilates influences from hard bop, modal jazz, the avant-garde and free jazz, without necessarily being immediately identifiable as any of the above.

Much post-bop was recorded for Blue Note Records. Key albums include Speak No Evil by Shorter; The Real McCoy by McCoy Tyner; Maiden Voyage by Hancock; Miles Smiles by Davis; and Search for the New Land by Lee Morgan (an artist who is not typically associated with the post-bop genre). Most post-bop artists worked in other genres as well, with a particularly strong overlap with the later hard bop.

Soul jazz

Main article: Soul jazz

Soul jazz was a development of hard bop which incorporated strong influences from blues, gospel and rhythm and blues to create music for small groups, often the organ trio of Hammond organ, drummer and tenor saxophonist. Unlike hard bop, soul jazz generally emphasized repetitive grooves and melodic hooks, and improvisations were often less complex than in other jazz styles. It often had a steadier "funk" style groove, which was different from the swing rhythms typical of much hard bop.

Horace Silver had a large influence on the soul jazz style, with songs that used funky and often gospel-based piano vamps. Important soul jazz organists included Jimmy McGriff, Jimmy Smith and Johnny Hammond Smith, and influential tenor saxophone players included Eddie "Lockjaw" Davis and Stanley Turrentine.

African-inspired

Randy Weston

Themes

There was a resurgence of interest in jazz and other forms of African-American cultural expression during the Black Arts Movement and Black nationalist period of the 1960s and 1970s. African themes became popular, and many new jazz compositions were given African-related titles: "Black Nile" (Wayne Shorter), "Blue Nile" (Alice Coltrane), "Obirin African" (Art Blakey), "Zambia" (Lee Morgan), "Appointment in Ghana" (Jackie McLean), "Marabi" (Cannonball Adderley), "Yoruba" (Hubert Laws), and many more. Pianist Randy Weston's music incorporated African elements, such as in the large-scale suite "Uhuru Africa" (with the participation of poet Langston Hughes) and "Highlife: Music From the New African Nations." Both Weston and saxophonist Stanley Turrentine covered the Nigerian Bobby Benson's piece "Niger Mambo", which features Afro-Caribbean and jazz elements within a West African Highlife style. Some musicians, including Pharoah Sanders, Hubert Laws and Wayne Shorter, began using African instruments such as kalimbas, bells, beaded gourds and other instruments which were not traditional to jazz.

Rhythm

During this period there was an increased use of the typical African 12/8 cross-rhythmic structure in jazz. Herbie Hancock's "Succotash" on Inventions and Dimensions (1963) is an open-ended modal 12/8 improvised jam, in which Hancock's pattern of attack-points, rather than the pattern of pitches, is the primary focus of his improvisations, accompanied by Paul Chambers on bass, percussionist Osvaldo Martinez playing a traditional Afro-Cuban chekeré part and Willie Bobo playing an Abakuá bell pattern on a snare drum with brushes.

The first jazz standard composed by a non-Latino to use an overt African 12/8 cross-rhythm was Wayne Shorter's "Footprints" (1967). On the version recorded on Miles Smiles by Miles Davis, the bass switches to a 4/4 tresillo figure at 2:20. "Footprints" is not, however, a Latin jazz tune: African rhythmic structures are accessed directly by Ron Carter (bass) and Tony Williams (drums) via the rhythmic sensibilities of swing. Throughout the piece, the four beats, whether sounded or not, are maintained as the temporal referent. In the example below, the main beats are indicated by slashed noteheads, which do not indicate bass notes.

Ron Carter's two main bass lines for "Footprints" by Wayner Shorter (1967). The main beats are indicated by slashed noteheads.

Pentatonic scales

The use of pentatonic scales was another trend associated with Africa. The use of pentatonic scales in Africa probably goes back thousands of years.

McCoy Tyner perfected the use of the pentatonic scale in his solos, and also used parallel fifths and fourths, which are common harmonies in West Africa.

The minor pentatonic scale is often used in blues improvisation, and like a blues scale, a minor pentatonic scale can be played over all of the chords in a blues. The following pentatonic lick was played over blues changes by Joe Henderson on Horace Silver's "African Queen" (1965).

Jazz pianist, theorist, and educator Mark Levine refers to the scale generated by beginning on the fifth step of a pentatonic scale as the V pentatonic scale.

C pentatonic scale beginning on the I (C pentatonic), IV (F pentatonic), and V (G pentatonic) steps of the scale.

Levine points out that the V pentatonic scale works for all three chords of the standard II-V-I jazz progression. This is a very common progression, used in pieces such as Miles Davis' "Tune Up." The following example shows the V pentatonic scale over a II-V-I progression.

V pentatonic scale over II-V-I chord progression.

Accordingly, John Coltrane's "Giant Steps" (1960), with its 26 chords per 16 bars, can be played using only three pentatonic scales. Coltrane studied Nicolas Slonimsky's Thesaurus of Scales and Melodic Patterns, which contains material that is virtually identical to portions of "Giant Steps". The harmonic complexity of "Giant Steps" is on the level of the most advanced 20th-century art music. Superimposing the pentatonic scale over "Giant Steps" is not merely a matter of harmonic simplification, but also a sort of "Africanizing" of the piece, which provides an alternate approach for soloing. Mark Levine observes that when mixed in with more conventional "playing the changes", pentatonic scales provide "structure and a feeling of increased space."

Jazz fusion

Main article: Jazz fusion

Fusion trumpeter Miles Davis in 1989

In the late 1960s and early 1970s, the hybrid form of jazz-rock fusion was developed by combining jazz improvisation with rock rhythms, electric instruments and the highly amplified stage sound of rock musicians such as Jimi Hendrix and Frank Zappa. Jazz fusion often uses mixed meters, odd time signatures, syncopation, complex chords and harmonies.

According to AllMusic:

...until around 1967, the worlds of jazz and rock were nearly completely separate. [However, ...] as rock became more creative and its musicianship improved, and as some in the jazz world became bored with hard bop and did not want to play strictly avant-garde music, the two different idioms began to trade ideas and occasionally combine forces."

Miles Davis' new directions

In 1969 Davis fully embraced the electric instrument approach to jazz with In a Silent Way, which can be considered his first fusion album. Composed of two side-long suites edited heavily by producer Teo Macero, this quiet, static album would be equally influential to the development of ambient music.

As Davis recalls:

The music I was really listening to in 1968 was James Brown, the great guitar player Jimi Hendrix, and a new group who had just come out with a hit record, "Dance to the Music", Sly and the Family Stone... I wanted to make it more like rock. When we recorded In a Silent Way I just threw out all the chord sheets and told everyone to play off of that."

Two contributors to In a Silent Way also joined organist Larry Young to create one of the early acclaimed fusion albums: Emergency! by The Tony Williams Lifetime.

Psychedelic-jazz

Bitches Brew

Davis' Bitches Brew (1970) album was his most successful of this era. Although inspired by rock and funk, Davis' fusion creations were original, and brought about a new type of avant-garde, electronic, psychedelic-jazz, as far from pop music as any other Davis work.

Herbie Hancock

Pianist Herbie Hancock (a Davis alumnus) released four albums in the short-lived (1970–1973) psychedelic-jazz subgenre: Mwandishi (1972), Crossings (1973) and Sextant (1973). The rhythmic background was a mix of rock, funk, and African-type textures.

Musicians who had previously worked with Davis formed the four most influential fusion groups: Weather Report and Mahavishnu Orchestra emerged in 1971, and were soon followed by Return to Forever and The Headhunters.

Weather Report

Weather Report's self-titled electronic and psychedelic Weather Report debut album caused a sensation in the jazz world on its arrival in 1971, thanks to the pedigree of the group's members (including percussionist Airto Moreira), and their unorthodox approach to music. The album featured a softer sound than would be the case in later years (predominantly using acoustic bass with Shorter exclusively playing soprano saxophone, and with no synthesizers involved), but is still considered a classic of early fusion. It built on the avant-garde experiments which Joe Zawinul and Shorter had pioneered with Miles Davis on Bitches Brew, including an avoidance of head-and-chorus composition in favour of continuous rhythm and movement – but took the music further. To emphasise the group's rejection of standard methodology, the album opened with the inscrutable avant-garde atmospheric piece "Milky Way", which featured by Shorter's extremely muted saxophone inducing vibrations in Zawinul's piano strings while the latter pedalled the instrument. Down Beat described the album as "music beyond category", and awarded it Album of the Year in the magazine's polls that year.

Weather Report's subsequent releases were creative funk-jazz works.

Jazz-rock

Although some jazz purists protested against the blend of jazz and rock, many jazz innovators crossed over from the contemporary hard bop scene into fusion. As well as the electric instruments of rock (such as electric guitar, electric bass, electric piano and synthesizer keyboards), fusion also used the powerful amplification, "fuzz" pedals, wah-wah pedals and other effects that were used by 1970s-era rock bands. Notable performers of jazz fusion included Miles Davis, Eddie Harris, keyboardists Joe Zawinul, Chick Corea and Herbie Hancock, vibraphonist Gary Burton, drummer Tony Williams (drummer), violinist Jean-Luc Ponty, guitarists Larry Coryell, Al Di Meola, John McLaughlin and Frank Zappa, saxophonist Wayne Shorter and bassists Jaco Pastorius and Stanley Clarke. Jazz fusion was also popular in Japan, where the band Casiopea released over thirty fusion albums.

According to jazz writer Stuart Nicholson, "just as free jazz appeared on the verge of creating a whole new musical language in the 1960s ... jazz-rock briefly suggested the promise of doing the same" with albums such as Williams' Emergency! (1970) and Davis' Agharta (1975), which Nicholson said "suggested the potential of evolving into something that might eventually define itself as a wholly independent genre quite apart from the sound and conventions of anything that had gone before." This development was stifled by commercialism, Nicholson said, as the genre "mutated into a peculiar species of jazz-inflected pop music that eventually took up residence on FM radio" at the end of the 1970s.

Jazz-funk

Main article: Jazz-funk

By the mid-1970s the sound known as jazz-funk had developed, characterized by a strong back beat (groove), electrified sounds and, often, the presence of electronic analog synthesizers. Jazz-funk also draws influences from traditional African music, Afro-Cuban rhythms and Jamaican reggae, notably Kingston bandleader Sonny Bradshaw. Another feature is the shift of emphasis from improvisation to composition: arrangements, melody and overall writing became important. The integration of funk, soul and R&B music into jazz resulted in the creation of a genre whose spectrum is wide and ranges from strong jazz improvisation to soul, funk or disco with jazz arrangements, jazz riffs and jazz solos, and sometimes soul vocals.

Early examples are Herbie Hancock's Headhunters band and Miles Davis' On the Corner album, which in 1972 began Davis' foray into jazz-funk and was, he claimed, an attempt at reconnecting with the young black audience which had largely forsaken jazz for rock and funk. While there is a discernible rock and funk influence in the timbres of the instruments employed, other tonal and rhythmic textures, such as the Indian tambora and tablas and Cuban congas and bongos, create a multi-layered soundscape. The album was a culmination of sorts of the musique concrète approach that Davis and producer Teo Macero had begun to explore in the late 1960s.

Other trends

Jazz continued to expand and change, influenced by other types of music such as world music, avant garde classical music and rock and pop. Jazz musicians began to improvise on unusual instruments, such as the jazz harp (Alice Coltrane), the electrically amplified and wah-wah pedaled jazz violin (Jean-Luc Ponty) and the bagpipes (Rufus Harley). In 1966 jazz trumpeter Don Ellis and Indian sitar player Harihar Rao founded the Hindustani Jazz Sextet. In 1971 guitarist John McLaughlin's Mahavishnu Orchestra began playing a mix of rock and jazz infused with East Indian influences. In the 1970s the ECM record label began in Germany with artists including Keith Jarrett, Paul Bley, the Pat Metheny Group, Jan Garbarek, Ralph Towner, Kenny Wheeler, John Taylor, John Surman, and Eberhard Weber, establishing a new chamber music aesthetic which featured mainly acoustic instruments, occasionally incorporating elements of world music and folk.

1980s

Main article: 1980s in jazz

In 1987, the United States House of Representatives and Senate passed a bill proposed by Democratic Representative John Conyers, Jr. to define jazz as a unique form of American music, stating:

... that jazz is hereby designated as a rare and valuable national American treasure to which we should devote our attention, support and resources to make certain it is preserved, understood and promulgated.

It passed in the House of Representatives on September 23, 1987 and in the Senate on November 4, 1987.

Resurgence of traditionalism

Wynton Marsalis

The 1980s saw something of a reaction against the Fusion and Free Jazz that had dominated the 1970s. Trumpeter Wynton Marsalis emerged early in the decade, and strove to create music within what he believed was the tradition, rejecting both fusion and free jazz and creating extensions of the small and large forms initially pioneered by artists such as Louis Armstrong and Duke Ellington, as well as the hard bop of the 1950s. It's debatable whether Marsalis' critical and commercial success was a cause or a symptom of the reaction against Fusion and Free Jazz and the resurgence of interest in the kind of jazz pioneered in the 1960s (particularly Modal Jazz and Post-Bop); nonetheless there were many other manifestations of a resurgence of traditionalism, even if Fusion and Free Jazz were by no means abandoned and continued to develop and evolve.

For example, several musicians who had been prominent in the fusion genre during the 1970s began to record acoustic jazz once more, including Chick Corea and Herbie Hancock. Other musicians who had experimented with electronic instruments in the previous decade had abandoned them by the 1980s, for example Bill Evans, Joe Henderson and Stan Getz. Even the 1980s music of Miles Davis, although certainly still fusion, adopted a far more accessible and recognisably jazz-oriented approach than his abstract work of the mid-1970s, such as a return to a theme-and-solos approach.

The emergence of young jazz talent beginning to perform in older, established musicians' groups further impacted the resurgence of traditionalism in the jazz community. In the 1970s, the groups of Betty Carter and Art Blakey and the Jazz Messengers retained their conservative jazz approaches in the midst of fusion and jazz- rock, and in addition to difficulty booking their acts, struggled to find younger generations of personnel to authentically play traditional styles such as hard bop and bebop. In the late 1970s, however, a resurgence of younger jazz players in Blakey's band began to occur. This movement included musicians such as Valery Ponomarev and Bobby Watson, Dennis Irwin and James Williams. In the 1980s, in addition to Wynton and Branford Marsalis, the emergence of pianists in the Jazz Messengers such as Donald Brown, Mulgrew Miller, and later, Benny Green, bassists such as Charles Fambrough, Lonnie Plaxico (and later, Peter Washington and Essiet Essiet) horn players such as Bill Pierce, Donald Harrison and later Javon Jackson and Terence Blanchard emerged as talented jazz musicians, all of whom made significant contributions in later 1990s and 2000s jazz music.

The young Jazz Messengers' contemporaries, including Roy Hargrove, Marcus Roberts, Wallace Roney and Mark Whitfield were also influenced by Wynton Marsalis's emphasis toward jazz tradition. These younger rising stars rejected avant-garde approaches and instead championed the acoustic jazz sound of Charlie Parker, Thelonious Monk and early recordings of the first Miles Davis quintet. This group of "Young Lions" sought to reaffirm jazz as a high art tradition comparable to the discipline of European classical music.

In addition, Betty Carter's rotation of young musicians in her group foreshadowed many of New York's preeminent traditional jazz players later in their careers. Among these musicians were Jazz Messenger alumni Benny Green, Branford Marsalis and Ralph Peterson, Jr., as well as Kenny Washington, Lewis Nash, Curtis Lundy, Cyrus Chestnut, Mark Shim, Craig Handy, Greg Hutchinson and Marc Cary, Taurus Mateen and Geri Allen.

Blue Note Records's O.T.B. ensemble featured a rotation of young jazz musicians such as Kenny Garrett, Steve Wilson, Kenny Davis, Renee Rosnes, Ralph Peterson, Jr., Billy Drummond and Robert Hurst.

A similar reaction took place against free jazz. According to Ted Gioia:

the very leaders of the avant garde started to signal a retreat from the core principles of Free Jazz. Anthony Braxton began recording standards over familiar chord changes. Cecil Taylor played duets in concert with Mary Lou Williams, and let her set out structured harmonies and familiar jazz vocabulary under his blistering keyboard attack. And the next generation of progressive players would be even more accommodating, moving inside and outside the changes without thinking twice. Musicians such as David Murray or Don Pullen may have felt the call of free-form jazz, but they never forgot all the other ways one could play African-American music for fun and profit.

Pianist Keith Jarrett—whose bands of the 1970s had played only original compositions with prominent free jazz elements—established his so-called 'Standards Trio' in 1983, which, although also occasionally exploring collective improvisation, has primarily performed and recorded jazz standards. Chick Corea similarly began exploring jazz standards in the 1980s, having neglected them for the 1970s.

Smooth jazz

Main article: smooth jazz

David Sanborn, 2008

In the early 1980s a commercial form of jazz fusion called "pop fusion" or "smooth jazz" became successful, garnering significant radio airplay in "quiet storm" time slots at radio stations in urban markets across the U.S. This helped to establish or bolster the careers of vocalists including Al Jarreau, Anita Baker, Chaka Khan and Sade, as well as saxophonists including Grover Washington, Jr., Kenny G, Kirk Whalum, Boney James and David Sanborn. In general, smooth jazz is downtempo (the most widely played tracks are of 90–105 beats per minute), and has a lead melody-playing instrument (saxophone, especially soprano and tenor, and legato electric guitar are popular).

In his Newsweek article "The Problem With Jazz Criticism", Stanley Crouch considers Miles Davis' playing of fusion to be a turning point that led to smooth jazz. Critic Aaron J. West has countered the often negative perceptions of smooth jazz, stating:

I challenge the prevalent marginalization and malignment of smooth jazz in the standard jazz narrative. Furthermore, I question the assumption that smooth jazz is an unfortunate and unwelcomed evolutionary outcome of the jazz-fusion era. Instead, I argue that smooth jazz is a long-lived musical style that merits multi-disciplinary analyses of its origins, critical dialogues, performance practice, and reception.

Acid jazz, nu jazz and jazz rap

Acid jazz developed in the UK in the 1980s and 1990s, influenced by jazz-funk and electronic dance music. Acid jazz often contains various types of electronic composition (sometimes including Sampling (music) or a live DJ cutting and scratching), but it is just as likely to be played live by musicians, who often showcase jazz interpretation as part of their performance. Jazz-funk musicians such as Roy Ayers and Donald Byrd are often credited as the forerunners of acid jazz.

Nu jazz is influenced by jazz harmony and melodies, and there are usually no improvisational aspects. It can be very experimental in nature and can vary widely in sound and concept. It ranges from the combination of live instrumentation with the beats of jazz house (as exemplified by St Germain, Jazzanova and Fila Brazillia) to more band-based improvised jazz with electronic elements (for example The Cinematic Orchestra, Kobol and the Norwegian "future jazz" style pioneered by Bugge Wesseltoft, Jaga Jazzist and Nils Petter Molvær).

Jazz rap developed in the late 1980s and early 1990s, and incorporates jazz influences into hip hop. In 1988, Gang Starr released the debut single "Words I Manifest", which sampled Dizzy Gillespie's 1962 "Night in Tunisia", and Stetsasonic released "Talkin' All That Jazz", which sampled Lonnie Liston Smith. Gang Starr's debut LP No More Mr. Nice Guy (1989) and their 1990 track "Jazz Thing" sampled Charlie Parker and Ramsey Lewis. The groups which made up the Native Tongues Posse tended toward jazzy releases: these include the Jungle Brothers' debut Straight Out the Jungle (1988), and A Tribe Called Quest's People's Instinctive Travels and the Paths of Rhythm (1990) and The Low End Theory (1991). Rap duo Pete Rock & CL Smooth incorporated jazz influences on their 1992 debut Mecca and the Soul Brother. Rapper Guru's Jazzmatazz series began in 1993, using jazz musicians during the studio recordings.

Though jazz rap had achieved little mainstream success, Miles Davis' final album Doo-Bop (released posthumously in 1992) was based around hip hop beats and collaborations with producer Easy Mo Bee. Davis' ex-bandmate Herbie Hancock also absorbed hip-hop influences in the mid-1990s, releasing the album Dis Is Da Drum in 1994.

Punk jazz and jazzcore

John Zorn performing in 2006

The relaxation of orthodoxy which was concurrent with post-punk in London and New York City led to a new appreciation of jazz. In London, the Pop Group began to mix free jazz and dub reggae into their brand of punk rock. In New York, No Wave took direct inspiration from both free jazz and punk. Examples of this style include Lydia Lunch's Queen of Siam, Gray, the work of James Chance and the Contortions (who mixed Soul with free jazz and punk) and the Lounge Lizards (the first group to call themselves "punk jazz").

John Zorn took note of the emphasis on speed and dissonance that was becoming prevalent in punk rock, and incorporated this into free jazz with the release of the Spy vs. Spy album in 1986, a collection of Ornette Coleman tunes done in the contemporary thrashcore style. In the same year, Sonny Sharrock, Peter Brötzmann, Bill Laswell and Ronald Shannon Jackson recorded the first album under the name Last Exit (free jazz band), a similarly aggressive blend of thrash and free jazz. These developments are the origins of jazzcore, the fusion of free jazz with hardcore punk.

M-Base

Main article: M-Base

Steve Coleman in Paris, July 2004

The M-Base movement started in the 1980s, when a loose collective of young African-American musicians in New York which included Steve Coleman, Greg Osby and Gary Thomas developed a complex but grooving sound.

In the 1990s most M-Base participants turned to more conventional music, but Coleman, the most active participant, continued developing his music in accordance with the M-Base concept. Coleman's audience decreased, but his music and concepts influenced many musicians, both in terms of music technique and of the music's meaning. Hence, M-Base changed from a movement of a loose collective of young musicians to a kind of informal Coleman "school", with a much advanced but already originally implied concept. Steve Coleman's music and M-Base concept gained recognition as "next logical step" after Charlie Parker, John Coltrane and Ornette Coleman.

1990s–2010s

Since the 1990s jazz has been characterized by a pluralism in which no one style dominates, but rather a wide range of active styles and genres are popular. Individual performers often play in a variety of styles, sometimes in the same performance. Pianist Brad Mehldau and power trio The Bad Plus have explored contemporary rock music within the context of the traditional jazz acoustic piano trio, recording instrumental jazz versions of songs by rock musicians. The Bad Plus have also incorporated elements of free jazz into their music. A firm avant-garde or free jazz stance has been maintained by some players, such as saxophonists Greg Osby and Charles Gayle, while others, such as James Carter, have incorporated free jazz elements into a more traditional framework.

On the other side, even a singer like Harry Connick, Jr. (who has ten number-1 US jazz albums) is sometimes called a jazz musician, although there are only a few elements from jazz history in his mainly pop oriented music. Other recent vocalists have achieved popularity with a mix of traditional jazz and pop/rock forms, such as Diana Krall, Norah Jones, Cassandra Wilson, Kurt Elling and Jamie Cullum.

A number of players who usually perform in largely straight-ahead settings have emerged since the 1990s, including pianists Jason Moran and Vijay Iyer, guitarist Kurt Rosenwinkel, vibraphonist Stefon Harris, trumpeters Roy Hargrove and Terence Blanchard, saxophonists Chris Potter and Joshua Redman, clarinetist Ken Peplowski and bassist Christian McBride.

Although jazz-rock fusion reached the height of its popularity in the 1970s, the use of electronic instruments and rock-derived musical elements in jazz continued in the 1990s and 2000s. Musicians using this approach include Pat Metheny, John Abercrombie, John Scofield and the Swedish group e.s.t.

In 2001 Ken Burns's documentary Jazz was premiered on PBS, featuring Wynton Marsalis and other experts reviewing the entire history of jazz to that time.

See also

• List of jazz genres
• Jazz royalty
• List of jazz musicians
• List of jazz standards
• List of jazz venues in the United States
• List of jazz venues
• List of jazz festivals
• Bibliography of jazz
• Timeline of jazz education
• Victorian Jazz Archive

Notes

References

• Litweiler, John (1984). The Freedom Principle: Jazz After 1958. Da Capo. ISBN 0-306-80377-1. 
• Joachim Ernst Berendt, Günther Huesmann (Bearb.): Das Jazzbuch. 7. Auflage. S. Fischer Verlag, Frankfurt am Main, 2005, ISBN 3-10-003802-9
• Burns, Ken, and Geoffrey C. Ward. 2000. Jazz—A History of America's Music. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. Also: The Jazz Film Project, Inc.
• Levine, Mark (1995). The Jazz theory book. Petaluma, Calif.: Sher Music. ISBN 1-883217-04-0. 
• Cooke, Mervyn (1999). Jazz. London: Thames and Hudson. ISBN 0-500-20318-0. .
• Carr, Ian. Music Outside: Contemporary Jazz in Britain. 2nd edition. London: Northway. ISBN 978-0-9550908-6-8
• Collier, James Lincoln. The Making of Jazz: A Comprehensive History (Dell Publishing Co., 1978)
• Dance, Stanley (1983). The World of Earl Hines. Da Capo Press. ISBN 0-306-80182-5. Includes a 120-page interview with Hines plus many photos.
• Davis, Miles. Miles Davis (2005). Boplicity. Delta Music plc. UPC 4-006408-264637. 
• Downbeat (2009). The Great Jazz Interviews: Frank Alkyer & Ed Enright (eds). Hal Leonard Books. ISBN 978-1-4234-6384-9
• Elsdon, Peter. 2003. "The Cambridge Companion to Jazz, Edited by Mervyn Cooke and David Horn, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002. Review." Frankfürter Zeitschrift für Musikwissenschaft 6:159–75.
• Giddins, Gary. 1998. Visions of Jazz: The First Century. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-507675-3
• Gridley, Mark C. 2004. Concise Guide to Jazz, fourth edition. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson/Prentice Hall. ISBN 0-13-182657-3
• Nairn, Charlie. 1975. Earl 'Fatha' HInes: 1 hour 'solo' documentary made in "Blues Alley" Jazz Club, Washington DC, for ATV, England, 1975: produced/directed by Charlie Nairn: original 16mm film plus out-takes of additional tunes from that film archived in British Film Institute Library at bfi.org.uk and http://www.itvstudios.com: DVD copies with Jean Gray Hargrove Music Library [who hold The Earl Hines Collection/Archive], University of California, Berkeley: also University of Chicago, Hogan Jazz Archive Tulane University New Orleans and Louis Armstrong House Museum Libraries.
• Peñalosa, David (2010). The Clave Matrix; Afro-Cuban Rhythm: Its Principles and African Origins. Redway, CA: Bembe Inc. ISBN 1-886502-80-3. 
• Schuller, Gunther (1968). Early Jazz: Its Roots and Musical Development. New York: Oxford University Press.  New printing 1986.
• Schuller, Gunther. 1991. The Swing Era: The Development of Jazz, 1930–1945. Oxford University Press.

External links

Library resources about Jazz

Resources in your library Resources in other libraries

• Jazz Foundation of America
• Jazz at the Smithsonian Museum
• Alabama Jazz Hall of Fame website
• Jazz Screen - Videos and live music Resource
• RedHotJazz.com
• Jazz at Lincoln Center
• American Jazz Museum website
• The International Archives for the Jazz Organ
• Classic and Contemporary Jazz Music
• The Jazz Archive at Duke University
• Jazz Festivals in Europe
• Free 1920s Jazz Collection available for downloading at Archive.org
• Jazz History Database
• Acid Jazz Database
• DownBeat's Jazz 101 A Guide to the Music This section of the Downbeat magazine website has several short pages to allow the beginning student of jazz to acquire an education.
• The Historyscoper
• Philosophy of Jazz wiki

UpToDate Contents

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