| Hydronephrosis |
| Classification and external resources |
Specimen of a kidney that has undergone extensive dilation due to hydronephrosis. Note the extensive atrophy and thinning of the renal cortex. |
| ICD-10 |
N13.0-N13.3 |
| ICD-9 |
591 |
| DiseasesDB |
6145 |
| MedlinePlus |
000506 000474 |
| MeSH |
D006869 |
Hydronephrosis — literally "water inside the kidney" — refers to distension and dilation of the renal pelvis and calyces, usually caused by obstruction of the free flow of urine from the kidney. Untreated, it leads to progressive atrophy of the kidney.[1] In cases of hydroureteronephrosis, there is distention of both the ureter and the renal pelvis and calices.[2]
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Contents
- 1 Signs and symptoms
- 2 Causes
- 3 Pathophysiology
- 4 Diagnosis
- 5 Prognosis
- 6 Treatment
- 7 References
- 8 External links
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Signs and symptoms[edit]
The signs and symptoms of hydronephrosis depend upon whether the obstruction is acute or chronic, partial or complete, unilateral or bilateral. Hydronephrosis that occurs acutely with sudden onset (as caused by a kidney stone) can cause intense pain in the flank area (between the hips and ribs). Historically, this type of pain has been described as "Dietl's crisis."[3][4] Conversely, hydronephrosis that develops gradually will generally cause no pain or attacks of a dull discomfort. Nausea and vomiting may also occur. An obstruction that occurs at the urethra or bladder outlet can cause pain and pressure resulting from distension of the bladder. Blocking the flow of urine will commonly result in urinary tract infections which can lead to the development of additional stones, fever, and blood or pus in the urine. If complete obstruction occurs, kidney failure may follow.[5]
Blood tests may show impaired kidney function (elevated urea or creatinine) or electrolyte imbalances such as hyponatremia or hyperchloremic metabolic acidosis. Urinalysis may indicate an elevated pH due to the secondary destruction of nephrons within the affected kidney. Physical examination may detect a palpable abdominal or flank mass caused by the enlarged kidney.
Causes[edit]
Hydronephrosis is the result of several abnormal pathophysiological occurrences. Structural abnormalities of the junctions between the kidney, ureter, and bladder that lead to hydronephrosis can occur during fetal development. Some of these congenital defects have been identified as inherited conditions, however the benefits of linking genetic testing to early diagnosis have not been determined.[6] Other structural abnormalities could be caused by injury, surgery, or radiation therapy.
Compression of one or both ureters can also be caused by other developmental defects not completely occurring during the fetal stage such as an abnormally placed vein, artery, or tumor. Bilateral compression of the ureters can occur during pregnancy due to enlargement of the uterus. Changes in hormone levels during this time may also affect the muscle contractions of the bladder, further complicating this condition.
Sources of obstruction that can arise from other various causes include kidney stones, blood clots, or retroperitoneal fibrosis.[7]
The obstruction may be either partial or complete and can occur anywhere from the urethral meatus to the calyces of the renal pelvis.
Hydronephrosis can also result from the reverse flow of urine from the bladder back into the kidneys. This reflux can be caused by some of the factors listed above as well as compression of the bladder outlet into the urethra by prostatic enlargement or impaction of feces in the colon, as well as abnormal contractions of bladder muscles resulting from neurological dysfunction or other muscular disorders.[5]
Hydronephrosis Hydroureter
Pathophysiology[edit]
Obstruction that occurs anywhere along the upper urinary tract will lead to increased pressure within the structures of the kidney due to the inability to pass urine from the kidney to the bladder. Common causes of upper tract obstruction include obstructing stones and ureteropelvic junction (UPJ) obstruction caused by intrinsic narrowing of the ureters or an overlying vessel.
Obstruction occurring in the lower urinary tract can also cause this increased pressure through the reflux of urine into the kidney. Common causes include bladder dysfunction (such as neurogenic bladder) and urethral obstruction (such as posterior urethral valves in male infants) or compression (such as from prostatic hypertrophy in older male adults).
Anything that causes obstruction leads to increased pressure being transmitted to the delicate tissues that make up the filtration system within the kidneys, which could eventually result in infection, stone formation, or loss of function. Additional complications arising from obstruction of the lower urinary tract include the stagnation of urine flow which can also lead to infection in the bladder. Obstruction may be a result of a tumour in the pelvis compressing the ureters or urethra, for example in patients with advanced cervical cancer (stage IIIA to IVB).
Diagnosis[edit]
Ultrasound picture of hydronephrosis caused by a left ureteral stone.
Hydronephrosis due to a kidney stone at the ureteral vesicular junction seen on CT
Massive hydronephrosis as marked by the arrow.
Prenatal diagnosis is possible,[8] and in fact, most cases in pediatric patients are incidentally detected by routine screening ultrasounds obtained during pregnancy.[9] However, approximately half of all prenatally identified hydronephrosis is transient, and resolves by the time the infant is born, and in another 15%, the hydronephrosis persists but is not associated with urinary tract obstruction (so-called non-refluxing, non-obstructive hydronephrosis). For these children, regression of the hydronephrosis occurs spontaneously, usually by age 3. However, in the remaining 35% of cases of prenatal hydronephrosis, a pathological condition can be identified postnatally.[10]
Diagnostic workup depends on the age of the patient, as well as whether the hydronephrosis was detected incidentally or prenatally or is associated with other symptoms.
Blood tests (such measurement of creatinine) are typically indicated, though they must be interpreted cautiously. Even in cases of severe unilateral hydronephrosis, the overall kidney function may remain normal since the unaffected kidney will compensate for the obstructed kidney.
Urinalysis is usually performed to determine the presence of blood (which is typical for kidney stones) or signs of infection (such as a positive leukocyte esterase or nitrite). Impaired concentrating ability or elevated urine pH (distal renal tubular acidosis) are also commonly found due to tubular stress and injury.
Imaging studies — such as an intravenous urogram (IVU), ultrasound, CT or MRI — are also important investigations in determining the presence and/ or cause of hydronephrosis. Whilst ultrasound allows for visualisation of the ureters and kidneys (and determine the presence of hydronephrosis and / or hydroureter), an IVU is useful for assessing the anatomical location of the obstruction. Antegrade or retrograde pyelography will show similar findings to an IVU but offer a therapeutic option as well.
The choice of imaging depends on the clinical presentation (history, symptoms and examination findings). In the case of renal colic (one sided loin pain usually accompanied by a trace of blood in the urine) the initial investigation is usually a spiral or helical CT scan. This has the advantage of showing whether there is any obstruction of flow of urine causing hydronephrosis as well as demonstrating the function of the other kidney. Many stones are not visible on plain X-ray or IVU but 99% of stones are visible on CT and therefore CT is becoming a common choice of initial investigation. CT is not used however, when there is a reason to avoid radiation exposure, e.g. in pregnancy.
For incidentally detected prenatal hydronephrosis, the first study to obtain is a postnatal renal ultrasound, since as noted, many cases of prenatal hydronephrosis resolve spontaneously. This is generally done within the first few days after birth, although there is some risk that obtaining an imaging study this early may miss some cases of mild hydronephrosis due to the relative oliguria of a newborn. Thus, some experts recommend obtaining a follow up ultrasound at 4–6 weeks to reduce the false-negative rate of the initial ultrasound.[11] A voiding cystourethrogram (VCUG) is also typically obtained to exclude the possibility of vesicoureteral reflux or anatomical abnormalities such as posterior urethral valves. Finally, if hydronephrosis is significant and obstruction is suspected, such as a ureteropelvic junction (UPJ) or ureterovesical junction (UVJ) obstruction, a nuclear imaging study such as a MAG-3 scan is warranted.
Prognosis[edit]
The prognosis of hydronephrosis is extremely variable, and depends on the condition leading to hydronephrosis, whether one (unilateral) or both (bilateral) kidneys are affected, the pre-existing kidney function, the duration of hydronephrosis (acute or chronic), and whether hydronephrosis occurred in developing or mature kidneys.
For example, unilateral hydronephrosis caused by an obstructing stone will likely resolve when the stone passes, and the likelihood of recovery is excellent. Alternately, severe bilateral prenatal hydronephrosis (such as occurs with posterior urethral valves) will likely carry a poor long-term prognosis, because obstruction while the kidneys are developing causes permanent kidney damage even if the obstruction is relieved postnatally.
Treatment[edit]
Treatment of hydronephrosis focuses upon the removal of the obstruction and drainage of the urine that has accumulated behind the obstruction. Therefore, the specific treatment depends upon where the obstruction lies, and whether it is acute or chronic.
Acute obstruction of the upper urinary tract is usually treated by the insertion of a nephrostomy tube. Chronic upper urinary tract obstruction is treated by the insertion of a ureteric stent or a pyeloplasty.
Lower urinary tract obstruction (such as that caused by bladder outflow obstruction secondary to prostatic hypertrophy) is usually treated by insertion of a urinary catheter or a suprapubic catheter.
Surgery is not required in all cases.[12]
References[edit]
- ^ Kumar, Vinay; Fausto, Nelson; Fausto, Nelso; Robbins, Stanley L.; Abbas, Abul K.; Cotran, Ramzi S. (2005). Robbins and Cotran Pathologic Basis of Disease (7th ed.). Philadelphia PA: Elsevier Saunders. pp. 1012–4. ISBN 0-7216-0187-1.
- ^ NDI Foundation: hydroureteronephrosis Retrieved on Jan 4, 2009
- ^ "Dietl's crisis". medcyclopaedia.com. 2012 [last update]. Retrieved 2012-5-1.
- ^ Mergener, K; et al. (December 1997). "Dietl's crisis: a syndrome of episodic abdominal pain of urologic origin that may present to a gastroenterologist". Am J Gastroenterol 92 (12): 2289–91. PMID 9399772.
- ^ a b [1],"Merck Manuals Home Health Handbook" [Internet]. New Jersey; Merck and Co., Inc.; c2009 updated 2007 Aug; cited 2010 Nov 5. Available from: “Hydronephrosis”.
- ^ Toka HR, Toka O, Hariri A, Nguyen HT (July 2010). "Congenital anomalies of kidney and urinary tract". Semin. Nephrol. 30 (4): 374–86. doi:10.1016/j.semnephrol.2010.06.004. PMID 20807610.
- ^ Koh JS, Wong MY, Li MK, Foo KT (September 1998). "Idiopathic retroperitoneal fibrosis with bilateral lower ureteric obstruction—a case report with literature review". Singapore Med J 39 (9): 416–7. PMID 9885722.
- ^ Estrada CR (July 2008). "Prenatal hydronephrosis: early evaluation". Curr Opin Urol 18 (4): 401–3. doi:10.1097/MOU.0b013e328302edfe. PMID 18520762.
- ^ Woodward, M; Frank, D (January 2002). "Postnatal management of antenatal hydronephrosis". BJU Int 89 (2): 149–156. PMID 11849184.
- ^ Carmody, JB; Carmody, RB (December 2011). "Question from the clinician: management of prenatal hydronephrosis". Pediatr Rev 32 (12): e110–2. PMID 22135428.
- ^ Aksu, N; et al. (September 2005). "Postnatal management of infants with antenatally detected hydronephrosis". Pediatr Nephrol 20 (9): 1253–9. PMID 16025288.
- ^ Onen A (December 2007). "Treatment and outcome of prenatally detected newborn hydronephrosis". J Pediatr Urol 3 (6): 469–76. doi:10.1016/j.jpurol.2007.05.002. PMID 18947797.
External links[edit]
- Hydronephrosis symptoms, diagnosis, treatment and general information
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Urinary system · Pathology · Urologic disease / Uropathy (N00–N39, 580–599)
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| Abdominal |
Nephropathy/
(nephritis+
nephrosis) |
Glomerulopathy/
glomerulitis/
(glomerulonephritis+
glomerulonephrosis) |
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Primarily
nephrotic
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Non-proliferative
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Minimal change · Focal segmental · Membranous
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Proliferative
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Mesangial proliferative · Endocapillary proliferative · Membranoproliferative/mesangiocapillary
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By condition
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Diabetic · Amyloidosis
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Type I RPG/Type II hypersensitivity
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Goodpasture's syndrome
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Type II RPG/Type III hypersensitivity
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Post-streptococcal · Lupus (DPN) · IgA/Berger's
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Type III RPG/Pauci-immune
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Granulomatosis with polyangiitis (Wegener's) · Microscopic polyangiitis · Churg-Strauss Syndrome
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Tubulopathy/
tubulitis
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Proximal
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RTA (RTA 2) · Fanconi syndrome
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Thick ascending
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Bartter syndrome
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Distal convoluted
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Gitelman syndrome
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Collecting duct
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Liddle's syndrome · RTA (RTA 1) · Diabetes insipidus (Nephrogenic)
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Renal papilla
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Renal papillary necrosis
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Major calyx/pelvis
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Hydronephrosis · Pyonephrosis · Reflux nephropathy
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Any/all
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Acute tubular necrosis
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Interstitium
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Interstitial nephritis (Pyelonephritis, Danubian endemic familial nephropathy)
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Any/all
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General syndromes
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Renal failure (Acute renal failure, Chronic renal failure) · Uremic pericarditis · Uremia
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Vascular
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Renal artery stenosis · Renal Ischemia · Hypertensive nephropathy · Renovascular hypertension · Renal Cortical Necrosis
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Other
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Analgesic nephropathy · Renal osteodystrophy · Nephroptosis · Abderhalden-Kaufmann-Lignac syndrome
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Ureter
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Ureteritis · Ureterocele · Megaureter
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| Pelvic |
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Bladder
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Cystitis (Interstitial cystitis, Hunner's ulcer, Trigonitis, Hemorrhagic cystitis) · Neurogenic bladder · Bladder sphincter dyssynergia · Vesicointestinal fistula · Vesicoureteral reflux
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Urethra
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Urethritis (Non-gonococcal urethritis) · Urethral syndrome · Urethral stricture/Meatal stenosis · Urethral caruncle
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| Any/all |
Obstructive uropathy · Urinary tract infection · Retroperitoneal fibrosis · Urolithiasis (Bladder stone, Kidney stone, Renal colic) · Malacoplakia · Urinary incontinence (Stress, Urge, Overflow)
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noco/acba/cong/tumr, sysi/epon, urte
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proc/itvp, drug (G4B), blte, urte
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