従属栄養、従属栄養性

関: heterotrophic、heterotrophic process

WordNet

requiring organic compounds of carbon and nitrogen for nourishment; "most animals are heterotrophic"
an organism that depends on complex organic substances for nutrition

Wikipedia preview

出典(authority):フリー百科事典『ウィキペディア（Wikipedia）』「2016/09/30 21:57:44」(JST)

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Overview of cycle between autotrophs and heterotrophs

A heterotroph (/ˈhɛtərəˌtroʊf, -ˌtrɒf/;^[1]^[2] ἕτερος heteros = "another", "different" and τροφή trophe = "nutrition") is an organism that cannot fix carbon and uses organic carbon for growth.^[3]^[4] Heterotrophs can be further divided based on how they obtain energy; if the heterotroph uses light for energy, then it is considered a photoheterotroph, while if the heterotroph uses chemical energy, it is considered a chemoheterotroph.

Heterotrophs contrast with autotrophs, such as plants and algae, which can use energy from sunlight (photoautotrophs) or inorganic compounds (lithoautotrophs) to produce organic compounds such as carbohydrates, fats, and proteins from inorganic carbon dioxide. These reduced carbon compounds can be used as an energy source by the autotroph and provide the energy in food consumed by heterotrophs. Ninety-five percent or more of all types of living organisms are heterotrophic, including all animals and fungi and most bacteria and protists.^[5]

History

The term was coined by Albert Bernhard Frank in 1892.^[6]

Types

Organotrophs exploit reduced carbon compounds as energy sources, like carbohydrates, fats, and proteins from plants and animals. Photoorganoheterotrophs such as Rhodospirillaceae and purple non-sulfur bacteria synthesize organic compounds by utilization of sunlight coupled with oxidation of inorganic substances, including hydrogen sulfide, elemental sulfur, thiosulfate, and molecular hydrogen. They use organic compounds to build structures. They do not fix carbon dioxide and apparently do not have the Calvin cycle.^[7] Chemolithoheterotrophs can be distinguished from mixotrophs (or facultative chemolithotroph), which can utilize either carbon dioxide or organic carbon as the carbon source.^[8]^[9]

Heterotrophs, by consuming reduced carbon compounds, are able to use all the energy that they obtain from food for growth and reproduction, unlike autotrophs, which must use some of their energy for carbon fixation.^[7] Both heterotrophs and autotrophs alike are usually dependent on the metabolic activities of other organisms for nutrients other than carbon, including nitrogen, phosphorus, and sulfur, and can die from lack of food that supplies these nutrients.^[10] This applies not only to animals and fungi but also to bacteria.^[7]

Flowchart

Flowchart to determine if a species is autotroph, heterotroph, or a subtype

Autotroph
- Chemoautotroph
- Photoautotroph
Heterotroph
- Chemoheterotroph
- Photoheterotroph

Ecology

Most heterotrophs are chemoorganoheterotrophs (or simply organotrophs) who utilize organic compounds both as a carbon source and an energy source. The term "heterotroph" very often refers to chemoorganoheterotrophs. Heterotrophs function as consumers in food chains: they obtain organic carbon by eating autotrophs or other heterotrophs. They break down complex organic compounds (e.g., carbohydrates, fats, and proteins) produced by autotrophs into simpler compounds (e.g., carbohydrates into glucose, fats into fatty acids and glycerol, and proteins into amino acids). They release energy by oxidizing carbon and hydrogen atoms present in carbohydrates, lipids, and proteins to carbon dioxide and water, respectively.

Most opisthokonts and prokaryotes are heterotrophic; in particular, all animals and fungi are heterotrophs.^[5] Some animals, such as corals, form symbiotic relationships with autotrophs and obtain organic carbon in this way. Furthermore, some parasitic plants have also turned fully or partially heterotrophic, while carnivorous plants consume animals to augment their nitrogen supply while remaining autotrophic.

Animals are heterotrophs by ingestion, fungi are heterotrophs by absorption.

References

^ "Heterotroph". Merriam-Webster Dictionary.
^ "Heterotroph". Dictionary.com Unabridged. Random House.
^ "heterotroph".
^ Hogg, Stuart (2013). Essential Microbiology (2nd ed.). Wiley-Blackwell. p. 86. ISBN 978-1-119-97890-9.
^ ^a ^b "How Cells Harvest Energy". McGraw-Hill Higher Education.
^ Frank, A.B. Lehrbuch der Botanik. W. Engelmann, Leipzig 1892-93, [1].
^ ^a ^b ^c Mauseth, James D. (2008). Botany: an introduction to plant biology (4th ed.). Jones & Bartlett Publishers. p. 252. ISBN 978-0-7637-5345-0.
^ Libes, Susan M. (2009). Introduction to marine biogeochemistry (2nd ed.). Academic Press. p. 192. ISBN 978-0-12-088530-5.
^ Dworkin, Martin (2006). The prokaryotes: ecophysiology and biochemistry (3rd ed.). Springer. p. 988. ISBN 978-0-387-25492-0.
^ Campbell and Reece (2002). Biology (7th ed.). Benjamin-Cummings Publishing Co. ISBN 978-0805371710.

^[1]

^ Patel, Sunil (2010). Handbook of Life Sciences. New India Publishing Agency. p. 379. ISBN 978-9380235110.

English Journal

Platforms for energy and nutrient recovery from domestic wastewater: A review.

Batstone DJ1, Hülsen T2, Mehta CM3, Keller J2.
Chemosphere.Chemosphere.2015 Dec;140:2-11. doi: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2014.10.021. Epub 2014 Nov 6.
Alternative domestic wastewater treatment processes that recover energy and nutrients while achieving acceptable nutrient limits (<5mgNL(-1)) are a key challenge. Major drivers are value and availability of phosphorous, nitrogen, and potassium, and increasing energy costs. The two major platforms
PMID 25455679

Regulation of lipid metabolism in the green microalga Chlorella protothecoides by heterotrophy-photoinduction cultivation regime.

Li Y1, Xu H2, Han F2, Mu J2, Chen D2, Feng B2, Zeng H2.
Bioresource technology.Bioresour Technol.2015 Sep;192:781-91. doi: 10.1016/j.biortech.2014.07.028. Epub 2014 Jul 11.
Proteomics in conjunction with biochemical strategy was employed to unravel regulation of lipid metabolism in the green microalga Chlorella protothecoides by heterotrophy-photoinduction cultivation regime (HPC). Interestingly, HPC triggered transiently synthesis of starch followed by substantial lip
PMID 25127016

Fate of antibiotic resistant cultivable heterotrophic bacteria and antibiotic resistance genes in wastewater treatment processes.

Zhang S1, Han B2, Gu J2, Wang C2, Wang P3, Ma Y2, Cao J2, He Z4.
Chemosphere.Chemosphere.2015 Sep;135:138-45. doi: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2015.04.001. Epub 2015 May 15.
Antibiotic resistant bacteria (ARB) and antibiotic resistance genes (ARGs) are emerging contaminants of environmental concern. Heterotrophic bacteria in activated sludge have an important role in wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs). However, the fate of cultivable heterotrophic ARB and ARGs in WWPTs
PMID 25950407

Japanese Journal

Linking summer conditions to CO₂ undersaturation and CO₂ influx in a subtropical coastal lake

Limnology 16(3), 193-201, 2015-08
NAID 40020574969

Are baby sprouts eating the proteins in the mother sweet potato?

Researches in organic geochemistry 30(1), 29-32, 2014-12-30
NAID 110009912920

四国新産のヒトツバイチヤクソウ(ツツジ科イチヤクソウ連)(新産地報告)

分類 : bunrui : 日本植物分類学会誌 14(2), 177-180, 2014-09-05
NAID 110009865276

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英: heterotrophy、heterotrophic process、heterotrophic
関: 従属栄養性

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英: heterotrophy、heterotrophic
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従属栄養

関: heterotrophic、heterotrophy

[1] "Heterotroph". Merriam-Webster Dictionary.

[2] "Heterotroph". Dictionary.com Unabridged. Random House.

[3] "heterotroph".

[essential_microbiology-4] Hogg, Stuart (2013). Essential Microbiology (2nd ed.). Wiley-Blackwell. p. 86. ISBN 978-1-119-97890-9.

[cell-5] "How Cells Harvest Energy". McGraw-Hill Higher Education.

[6] Frank, A.B. Lehrbuch der Botanik. W. Engelmann, Leipzig 1892-93, [1].

[botany-7] Mauseth, James D. (2008). Botany: an introduction to plant biology (4th ed.). Jones & Bartlett Publishers. p. 252. ISBN 978-0-7637-5345-0.

[biogeochemistry-8] Libes, Susan M. (2009). Introduction to marine biogeochemistry (2nd ed.). Academic Press. p. 192. ISBN 978-0-12-088530-5.

[prokaryotes-9] Dworkin, Martin (2006). The prokaryotes: ecophysiology and biochemistry (3rd ed.). Springer. p. 988. ISBN 978-0-387-25492-0.

[10] Campbell and Reece (2002). Biology (7th ed.). Benjamin-Cummings Publishing Co. ISBN 978-0805371710.

[11] Patel, Sunil (2010). Handbook of Life Sciences. New India Publishing Agency. p. 379. ISBN 978-9380235110.

v t e Ecology: Modelling ecosystems: Trophic components

General	Abiotic component Abiotic stress Behaviour Biogeochemical cycle Biomass Biotic component Biotic stress Carrying capacity Competition Ecosystem Ecosystem ecology Ecosystem model Keystone species List of feeding behaviours Metabolic theory of ecology Productivity Resource

Producers	Autotrophs Chemosynthesis Chemotrophs Foundation species Mixotrophs Myco-heterotrophy Mycotroph Organotrophs Photoheterotrophs Photosynthesis Photosynthetic efficiency Phototrophs Primary nutritional groups Primary production

Consumers	Apex predator Bacterivore Carnivores Chemoorganotroph Foraging Generalist and specialist species Intraguild predation Herbivores Heterotroph Heterotrophic nutrition Insectivore Mesopredator release hypothesis Omnivores Optimal foraging theory Predation Prey switching

Decomposers	Chemoorganoheterotrophy Decomposition Detritivores Detritus

Microorganisms	Archaea Bacteriophage Environmental microbiology Lithoautotroph Lithotrophy Microbial cooperation Microbial ecology Microbial food web Microbial intelligence Microbial loop Microbial mat Microbial metabolism Phage ecology

Food webs	Biomagnification Ecological efficiency Ecological pyramid Energy flow Food chain Trophic level

Example webs	Cold seeps Hydrothermal vents Intertidal Kelp forests Lakes North Pacific Subtropical Gyre Rivers San Francisco Estuary Soil Tide pool

Processes	Ascendency Bioaccumulation Cascade effect Climax community Competitive exclusion principle Consumer-resource systems Copiotrophs Dominance Ecological network Ecological succession Energy quality Energy Systems Language f-ratio Feed conversion ratio Feeding frenzy Mesotrophic soil Nutrient cycle Oligotroph Paradox of the plankton Trophic cascade Trophic mutualism Trophic state index

Defense/counter	Animal coloration Antipredator adaptations Camouflage Deimatic behaviour Herbivore adaptations to plant defense Mimicry Plant defense against herbivory Predator avoidance in schooling fish

v t e Ecology: Modelling ecosystems: Other components

Population ecology	Abundance Allee effect Depensation Ecological yield Effective population size Intraspecific competition Logistic function Malthusian growth model Maximum sustainable yield Overpopulation in wild animals Overexploitation Population cycle Population dynamics Population modeling Population size Predator–prey (Lotka–Volterra) equations Recruitment Resilience Small population size Stability

Species	Biodiversity Density-dependent inhibition Ecological effects of biodiversity Ecological extinction Endemic species Flagship species Gradient analysis Indicator species Introduced species Invasive species Latitudinal gradients in species diversity Minimum viable population Neutral theory Occupancy–abundance relationship Population viability analysis Priority effect Rapoport's rule Relative abundance distribution Relative species abundance Species diversity Species homogeneity Species richness Species distribution Species-area curve Umbrella species

Species interaction	Antibiosis Biological interaction Commensalism Community ecology Ecological facilitation Interspecific competition Mutualism Storage effect

Spatial ecology	Biogeography Cross-boundary subsidy Ecocline Ecotone Ecotype Disturbance Edge effects Foster's rule Habitat fragmentation Ideal free distribution Intermediate Disturbance Hypothesis Island biogeography Landscape ecology Landscape epidemiology Landscape limnology Metapopulation Patch dynamics r/K selection theory Source–sink dynamics

Niche	Ecological niche Ecological trap Ecosystem engineer Environmental niche modelling Guild Habitat Marine habitats Limiting similarity Niche apportionment models Niche construction Niche differentiation

Other networks	Assembly rules Bateman's principle Bioluminescence Ecological collapse Ecological debt Ecological deficit Ecological energetics Ecological indicator Ecological threshold Ecosystem diversity Emergence Extinction debt Kleiber's law Liebig's law of the minimum Marginal value theorem Thorson's rule Xerosere

Other	Allometry Alternative stable state Balance of nature Biological data visualization Constructal theory Ecocline Ecological economics Ecological footprint Ecological forecasting Ecological humanities Ecological stoichiometry Ecopath Ecosystem based fisheries Endolith Evolutionary ecology Functional ecology Industrial ecology Macroecology Microecosystem Natural environment Regime shift Systems ecology Urban ecology Theoretical ecology

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