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- (墓の頭部に立てた)墓石 / (建物の)かなめ石,礎石
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出典(authority):フリー百科事典『ウィキペディア（Wikipedia）』「2013/07/07 15:29:14」(JST)
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For other uses, see Headstone (disambiguation).
"Tombstone" redirects here. For other uses, see Tombstone (disambiguation).
"Gravestones" redirects here. For the song by Hawthorne Heights, see Gravestones (song).
Captain Andrew Drake (1684–1743) sandstone tombstone from the Stelton Baptist Church Edison, New Jersey
A headstone, tombstone, or gravestone is a marker, usually stone, that is placed over a grave. They are traditional for burials in the Christian, Jewish and Muslim religions, among others. In most cases they have the deceased's name, date of birth, and date of death inscribed on them, along with a personal message, or prayer, but they may contain pieces of funerary art, especially details in stone relief. In many parts of Europe insetting a photograph of the deceased in a frame is very common.
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Use[edit]
Marble headstone of a couple buried together in Singapore, showing an arched emblem, signifying the reunification with one's partner in heaven. Within the arch is a statue of Jesus Christ
The stele (plural stelae), as it is called in an archaeological context, is one of the oldest forms of funerary art. Originally, a tombstone was the stone lid of a stone coffin, or the coffin itself, and a gravestone was the stone slab that was laid over a grave. Now all three terms are also used for markers placed at the head of the grave. Some graves in the 18th century also contained footstones to demarcate the foot end of the grave. This sometimes developed into full kerb sets that marked the whole perimeter of the grave. Footstones were rarely annotated with more than the deceased's initials and year of death, and sometimes a memorial mason and plot reference number. Many cemeteries and churchyards have removed those extra stones to ease grass cutting by machine mower. Note that in some UK cemeteries the principal, and indeed only, marker is placed at the foot of the grave.
Graves, and any related memorials are a focus for mourning and remembrance. The names of relatives are often added to a gravestone over the years, so that one marker may chronicle the passing of an entire family spread over decades. Since gravestones and a plot in a cemetery or churchyard cost money, they are also a symbol of wealth or prominence in a community. Some gravestones were even commissioned and erected to their own memory by people who were still living, as a testament to their wealth and status. In a Christian context, the very wealthy often erected elaborate memorials within churches rather than having simply external gravestones. Crematoria frequently offer similar alternatives to families who do not have a grave to mark, but who want a focus for their mourning and for remembrance. Carved or cast commemorative plaques inside the crematorium for example may serve this purpose.
Materials[edit]
Granite tombstone of Josiah Leavitt (1679–1717), Hingham Center Cemetery, Hingham, Plymouth County, Massachusetts
Sandstone vestige of a Jewish gravestone depicting a Tzedakah box. Jewish cemetery in Otwock (Karczew-Anielin), Poland.
Swithland Slate gravestone, Little Dalby churchyard, Leicestershire
Gravestone showing death date of 1639, Wormshill.
HIS LAST MESSAGE: NO MORE WARS FOR ME - A headstone in the Jerusalem British World War I Cemetery on Mount Scopus
Elaborately carved grave slab at Shebbear (Devon, England) showing a skull sprouting flowering shoots, as a symbol of resurrection
Islamic cemetery in Sarajevo, with columnar headstones
A cemetery may follow national codes of practice or independently prescribe the size and use of certain materials, especially in a conservation area. Some may limit the placing of a wooden memorial to six months after burial, after which a more permanent memorial must be placed. Others may require stones of a certain shape or position to facilitate grass-cutting by m, or hand-held cutters. Headstones of granite, marble and other kinds of stone are usually created, installed, and repaired by monumental masons. Cemeteries require regular inspection and maintenance, as stones may settle, topple and, on rare occasions, fall and injure people;[1] or graves may simply become overgrown and their markers lost or vandalised.
Restoration is a specialized job for a monumental mason. Even overgrowth removal requires care to avoid damaging the carving. For example, ivy should only be cut at the base roots and left to naturally die off, never pulled off forcefully. Many materials have been used as markers.
Stone[edit]
- Fieldstones. The earliest markers for graves were natural fieldstone,[citation needed] some unmarked and others decorated or incised using a metal awl. Typical motifs for the carving included a symbol and the deceased's name and age.
- Granite. Granite is a hard stone and requires skill to carve by hand. Modern methods of carving include using computer-controlled rotary bits and sandblasting over a rubber stencil. Leaving the letters, numbers and emblems exposed on the stone, the blaster can create virtually any kind of artwork or epitaph.
- Marble and limestone. Both limestone and marble take carving well. Marble is a recrystallised form of limestone. The mild acid in rainwater can slowly dissolve marble and limestone over time, which can make inscriptions unreadable. Portland stone was a type of limestone commonly used in England—after weathering, fossiliferous deposits tend to appear on the surface. Marble became popular from the early 19th century, though its extra cost limited its appeal.
- Sandstone. Sandstone is durable, yet soft enough to carve easily. Some sandstone markers are so well preserved that individual chisel marks are discernible, while others have delaminated and crumbled to dust. Delamination occurs when moisture gets between the layers of the sandstone. As it freezes and expands the layers flake off. In the 17th century, sandstone replaced field stones in Colonial America. Yorkstone was a common sandstone material used in England.
- Slate. Slate can have a pleasing texture but is slightly porous and prone to delamination. It takes lettering well, often highlighted with white paint or gilding. Swithland slate from Charnwood Forest, Leicestershire, England, was used for a large number of very fine gravestones from the later 17th century into the 19th century. The gravestones are found throughout Leicestershire and in neighbouring counties.[2]
Metal, wood and plants[edit]
Wooden grave markers stored at Heidal Church, Norway
- Iron. Iron grave markers and decorations were popular during the Victorian era in the United Kingdom and elsewhere, often being produced by specialist foundries or the local blacksmith. Cast iron headstones have lasted for generations while wrought ironwork often only survives in a rusted or eroded state.
- White bronze. Actually sand cast zinc, but called white bronze for marketing purposes. Almost all, if not all, zinc grave markers were made by the Monumental Bronze Company of Bridgeport, CT, between 1874 and 1914. They are in cemeteries of the period all across the U.S. and Canada. They were sold as more durable than marble, about 1/3 less expensive and progressive.
- Wood. This was a popular material during the Georgian and Victorian era, and almost certainly before, in Great Britain and elsewhere. Some could be very ornate, although few survive beyond 50–100 years due to natural decomposition.
- Planting. Trees or shrubs, particularly roses, may be planted, especially to mark the location of ashes. This may be accompanied by a small inscribed metal or wooden marker.
Inscriptions[edit]
Markers usually bear inscriptions: epitaphs in praise of the deceased or quotations from religious texts, such as "requiescat in pace". In a few instances the inscription is in the form of a plea, admonishment, testament of faith, claim to fame or even a curse — William Shakespeare's inscription famously declares;
- Good friend, for Jesus' sake forbear,
- To dig the dust enclosèd here.
- Blest be the man that spares these stones,
- And cursed be he that moves my bones.
Or a warning about Mortality, such as this Persian poetry carved on an ancient tombstone in the Tajiki capital of Dushanbe.[3][4]
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- I heard that mighty Jamshed the King
- Carved on a stone near a spring of water these words:
- "Many – like us – sat here by this spring
- And left this life in the blink of an eye.
- We captured the whole world through our courage and strength,
- Yet could take nothing with us to our grave."
Or a simpler warning of inevitability of death:
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- Remember me as you pass by,
- As you are now, so once was I,
- As I am now, so you will be,
- Prepare for death and follow me.
Hebrew inscriptions on gravestones in Sobědruhy.
The information on the headstone generally includes the name of the deceased and their date of birth and death. Such information can be useful to genealogists and local historians. Larger cemeteries may require a discreet reference code as well to help accurately fix the location for maintenance. The cemetery owner, church, or, as in the UK, national guidelines might encourage the use of 'tasteful' and accurate wording in inscriptions.
Headstone engravers faced their own "Year 2000 problem" when still-living people, as many as 500,000 in the United States alone, pre-purchased headstones with pre-carved death dates beginning 19–.[5]
Bas-relief carvings of a religious nature or of a profile of the deceased can be seen on some headstones, especially up to the 19th century. Since the invention of photography, a gravestone might include a framed photograph or cameo of the deceased; photographic images or artwork (showing the loved one, or some other image relevant to their life, interests or achievements) are sometimes now engraved onto smooth stone surfaces.
Some headstones use lettering made of white metal fixed into the stone, which is easy to read but can be damaged by ivy or frost. Deep carvings on a hard-wearing stone may weather many centuries exposed in graveyards and still remain legible. Those fixed on the inside of churches, on the walls, or on the floor (often as near the altar as possible) may last much longer: such memorials were often embellished with a monumental brass.
Marker inscriptions have also been used for political purposes, such as the grave marker installed in January 2008 at Cave Hill Cemetery in Louisville, Kentucky by Mathew Prescott, an employee of PETA. The grave marker is located near the grave of KFC founder Harland Sanders and bears the acrostic message “KFC tortures birds.”[6] The group placed its grave marker to promote its contention that KFC is cruel to chickens.
Form and decoration[edit]
| This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (August 2011) |
Gravestones may be simple upright slabs with semi-circular, rounded, gabled, pointed-arched, pedimental, square or other shaped tops. During the 18th century, they were often decorated with memento mori (symbolic reminders of death) such as skulls or winged skulls, winged cherub heads, heavenly crowns, urns or the picks and shovels of the grave digger. Somewhat unusual were more elaborate allegorical figures, such as Old Father Time, or emblems of trade or status, or even some event from the life of the deceased (particularly how they died). Large tomb chests, false sarcophagi as the actual remains were in the earth below, or smaller coped chests were commonly used by the gentry as a means of commemorating a number of members of the same family. In the 19th century, headstone styles became very diverse, ranging from plain to highly decorated, and often using crosses on a base or other shapes differing from the traditional slab. They might be replaced by more elaborately carved markers, such as crosses or angels. Simple curb surrounds, sometimes filled with glass chippings, were popular during the mid-20th century.
Islamic headstones are traditionally more a rectangular upright shaft, often topped with a carved topknot symbolic of a turban; but in Western countries more local styles are often used.
Some form of simple decoration is once more popular. Special emblems on tombstones indicate several familiar themes in many faiths. Some examples are:
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Greek letters might also be used:
- (alpha and omega) - The beginning and the end
- (chi rho) - The first letters spelling the name of Christ
Safety[edit]
Over time a headstone may settle or its fixings weaken. After several instances where unstable stones have fallen in dangerous circumstances, some burial authorities "topple test" headstones by firm pressure to check for stability. They may then tape them off or flatten them.
This procedure has proved controversial in the UK, where an authority's duty of care to protect visitors is complicated because it often does not have any ownership rights over the dangerous marker. Authorities that have knocked over stones during testing or have unilaterally lifted and laid flat any potentially hazardous stones have been criticised, after grieving relatives have discovered that their relative's marker has been moved.[7] Since 2007 Consistory Court and local authority guidance now restricts the force used in a topple test and requires an authority to consult relatives before moving a stone. In addition, before laying a stone flat, it must be recorded for posterity.[8][9]
Gallery[edit]
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An example of how old broken gravestones are reused, in this case as paving
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Typical late 20th century headstone, Dubuque, Iowa
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19th century marble headstone, Saints Peter and Paul Catholic Church (Sherrill, Iowa)
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Grave marker for Horatio Nelson Ball and father, Joseph Ball, Jr., Grandville Cemetery, MI, USA.
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Headstone for a dog, Tatton Park, Cheshire, England.
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Winged skull & winged soul effigies, Morristown, NJ
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Unconventional tombstone in the Cemetery Park of the "Freireligiöse Gemeinde" in Berlin, Prenzlauer Berg. Tree stump headstones in U.S. cemeteries are often associated with fraternal organization Woodmen of the World.
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Der Schlaf, (The Sleep), 1907, sculpture at by Hermann Hosaeus (de) at the I. Städtischer Friedhof Eisackstraße (de)
See also[edit]
- Epitaph
- Gravestone rubbing
- Khachkar
- Mausoleum
- Megalith
- Sarcophagus
- Scottish gravestones
- Stećak
- Stele
- The Devil's Chair (urban legend)
- Tombstone tourist
- Viewlogy
References[edit]
- ^ Memorial safety[dead link]
- ^ Burgess, Frederick (1963). English Churchyard Memorials. Cambridge: The Lutterworth Press.
- ^ "Information Clearinghouse". Informationclearinghouse.info. Retrieved 2012-04-19.
- ^ Robert Fisk: "An urge to smash history into tiny pieces" Information Clearing House The Independent, 8 September 2007
- ^ Michael W. Lynch from the July 1999 issue. "Grave Problem". Reason.com. Retrieved 2012-04-19.
- ^ Bedard, Paul (2008-01-10). "PETA Takes Fight to Col. Sanders's Grave". Usnews.com. Retrieved 2012-04-19.
- ^ National Federation of Cemetery Friends Safety in cemeteries guidance
- ^ Ecclesiastical Case Reports Re Keynsham Cemetery Gravestones
- ^ Advice and guidance from The Local Government Ombudsmen[dead link]
External links[edit]
| This section's use of external links may not follow Wikipedia's policies or guidelines. Please improve this article by removing excessive or inappropriate external links, and converting useful links where appropriate into footnote references. (January 2013) |
| Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Headstone |
| Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Tzedakah boxes on Jewish gravestones |
- In Search Of Gravestones Old And Curious by W.T. (William Thomas) Vincent, 1896, from Project Gutenberg
- Azeri.org, Sofi Hamid Cemetery (Azerbaijani)
- World Burial Index Photographs of memorial inscriptions plus free surname search
- A Very Grave Matter Old New England gravestones
- Historic Headstones Online Project to transcribe content from historic headstones
- Pennsylvania German tombstones
- Gravestone symbols from Spirited ghost hunting
- The Richard Stockton College of New Jersey includes gravestone imagery in New Jersey, USA
- Headstones In The 21st Century by: Green Earth Good Earth
- How to clean a Grave marker by [Ralf Heckenbach
- 1889 Vermont Marble Company Price List: Rutland, Sutherland Falls, & Dark Marble, Proctor, Vermont, 415 pp. (cemetery stones and accessories)
- Marble Color Plates: Imported and Domestic Catalog with samples, by the Vermont Marble Company, Proctor, Vermont, no date of pub., on Stone Quarries and Beyond PDF 55pp
- The Monumental News Magazine, Chicago, Illinois (issues from the 1890s)
- Epitaphs, by the Vermont Marble Company, Proctor, Vermont, early 20th century, on Stone Quarries and Beyond PDF 25pp
- Book of Epitaphs (ca. 1890s) - Provided by the Office of S. B. Sargent, Manufacturer of & Dealer in All Kinds of Marble & Granite Work, Tilton, New Hampshire (Title and date of publication unknown, although the S.B. Sargent company is listed in an 1893 publication. Half of the booklet is in German.)
- Sources of Memorial Ornamentation, by Henry Powell Hopkins, Vermont Marble Company, 1924, on Stone Quarries and Beyond PDF 45pp
- Charles F. Earl & Co., American & Foreign Granites & Italian Statuary Monument Catalog, Utica, New York (no date of publication)
- Eaton Studio – the F. C. Eaton, Barre, Vermont, Monumental Catalog (early 1900s)
- F. Barnicoat Sculptor, Modeler and Designer of High Grade Granite Statuary and Monuments Catalog, Granite Statuary & Designs, Office & Studio in Quincy, Massachusetts (early 1900s).
- Flint Granite Company Monument Catalog, Builders of artistic memorials in granite, marble, and bronze, Offices and factory in New York (early 1900s).
- Georgia Beauties: Catalog Number Twenty-Two, the Georgia Marble Finishing Works, Canton, Georgia (early 1900s).
- Harrison Granite Company Clientele Catalog, (Monuments), established 1845, Office: New York City, Quarries & Works: Barre, Vermont, 1918.
- Marble Statuary, Vermont Marble Co., Proctor, Vermont, no date of publication (monumental statuary).
- Medium Quincy Granite Monuments Catalog, Gray Rock Granite Company, successors to Elkhill & Bishop, Quincy, Massachusetts, no date of publication available - probably early 1900s
- "Memorializing the Civil War Dead: Modernity and Corruption under the Grant Administration", by Bruce S. Elliott, in Markers XXVI, Association for Gravestone Studies, 2011, pp. 15–55. (Reprinted with permission of the "Association for Gravestone Studies". (Details the beginning of the mass production of cemetery stones and the increased use of the sand blast process.)
- Modern Memorial Art Monumental Catalog, Some Examples Cut in Stony Creek, Milford Pink and Victoria White Granites, Dodds Granite Co., Offices in Mass. & N.Y.; Quarries & Plants in Mass., Conn., & New Hampshire (early 1900s).
- Monuments .. For The Ages, Miller Monuments, Inc., Plymouth & Elkhart, Indiana (no date of publication)
- Monuments, Tombstones and Markers, by the Montgomery Ward & Co., 1920s.
- Monuments of Georgia – Marble & Granite, Roberts Marble Co., Ball Ground, Georgia (since 1898) (early 1900s).
- The New England Granite Works Monumental Catalog, Office in Westerly, Rhode Island; Quarries & Works in Westerly, Rhode Island & Concord, New Hampshire (early 1900s).
- Oglesby Blue Granite Mausoleum Catalog, Elberton, Georgia (early 1900s).
- Personality In Memorials, Marker Catalog No. 106, Comolli Granite Co., Elberton, Georgia (no date of publication)
- Producers' Marble Co., Vermont - Eighty-four Choice Designs Selected from the Late Producers’ Marble Company’s Illustrated Catalogs of 1886, ’87 and ’89, Chicago, Illinois, June, 1889.
- Sears Roebuck & Co. Tombstones & Monuments Catalogs, Chicago, Illinois (early 1900s).
- Southeast Granite Company - Stone Mountain Granite Memorial/Monumental Stones Catalog (1920s)
- Special Granite Designs in the Famous Pride of Elberton Blue Granite, Design Book No. 16 & Price List for Special Granite Designs, No. 16-H, 1920’s (Georgia)
- Symbols of Service Monumental Catalog & Price List, Vermont Marble Co., Proctor, Vermont, 1919
- Universal Monument Company, Atlanta, Georgia: Monumental catalogs, price list, stone samples, et al. (1920s - very large file)
- Vermont Marble Company Dealer’s Sales Portfolio: Information on Designs and Other Illustrations, Proctor, Vermont, October 1940 (This is a binder of unlabeled photographs - not a published book.)
- W. A. Hambleton Granite Monuments & Statuary Catalog – At Wholesale Catalog, Book No. 10, American & Foreign, Mansfield, Ohio (early 1900s).
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English Journal
- 'Sans teeth, sans eyes, sans taste, sans everything:' resourcing mental health services for older people.
- Hilton C.SourceConsultant Old Age Psychiatrist, Older People and Healthy Ageing Directorate, CNWL NHS Foundation Trust, Bentley House, 15-21 Headstone Drive, Harrow HA3 5QX, UK.
- Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine.J R Soc Med.2012 Apr;105(4):146-50.
- PMID 22532654
- [Demographic view on primary health care physicians in the Czech Republic--present state as headstone for the future development].
- Sídlo L.SourcePrírodovedecká fakulta, Katedra demografie a geodemografie, Univerzita Karlova v Praze. ludek.sidlo@gmail.com
- Casopís lékar̆ů c̆eských.Cas Lek Cesk.2010;149(12):563-71.
- The number of primary health care physicians in the Czech Republic in recent years has been relatively stable. Nothing indicates that already in a few years there could be considerable problems in terms of quality and accessibility of primary health care. The reason for this assertion is the irregul
- PMID 21387581
Japanese Journal
- メルヴィルの『ピエール』(4) : メムノンの石
- 五十嵐 博イガラシ ヒロシIgarashi Hiroshi
- 東海大学紀要. 海洋学部 10(3), 30, 2013-03-10
- … The first and natural implication of the stone is a headstone of innocence symbolizing the dead, innocent soul of Pierre. …
- NAID 120005495317
Related Links
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