ゴースト、形骸

WordNet

move like a ghost; "The masked men ghosted across the moonlit yard"
a mental representation of some haunting experience; "he looked like he had seen a ghost"; "it aroused specters from his past" (同)shade, spook, wraith, specter, spectre
the visible disembodied soul of a dead person
write for someone else; "How many books have you ghostwritten so far?" (同)ghostwrite

PrepTutorEJDIC

『幽霊』,亡霊,死者の霊 / (…の)ほんのわずか《+『of』+『名』》 / (…の)幻,面影《+『of』+『名』》 / =ghost writer / (テレビの画面の)ゴースト / =ghostwrite
〈著作・演説原稿など〉‘を'代作する / 代作する

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出典(authority):フリー百科事典『ウィキペディア（Wikipedia）』「2016/04/11 23:45:15」(JST)

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ゴースト（英: ghost）

幽霊
ゴースト障害 - アナログテレビの画像が信号の遅延により多重に映る現象。
ゴースト(コンピューターウイルス) - 感染すると突如ディスプレイに不気味な女性の顔が表示され、ユーザーに恐怖感を与えるもの。別名、貞子ウイルス。
ゴーストカー - レースゲームなどで表示される、他の車両などと衝突しない車両。
ゴーストライター - 他人の名で著作をするライター。
ゴースト (バンド) - 日本のサイケデリックロックバンド。
ゴースト (スウェーデンのバンド) - スウェーデンのヘヴィメタルバンド。
ノートン・ゴースト - シマンテック社のソフトウェア。
デ・ハビランドゴースト - デ・ハビランド・エアクラフト社のジェットエンジン。

作品タイトル

出版
- 幽霊たち（原題: Ghosts）- ポール・オースターの小説 (1986年)。
映像
- ゴースト/血のシャワー - カナダ・イギリス合作のホラー映画 (1980年)。
- ゴースト/ニューヨークの幻 - デミ・ムーアとパトリック・スウェイジ主演のアメリカ映画 (1990年)。
- ゴースト〜天国からのささやき - 米CBS系のテレビドラマ (2005年 - 2012年)。
- ゴーストもういちど抱きしめたい - 松嶋菜々子とソン・スンホン主演の日本映画 (2010年)。
- 仮面ライダーゴースト - テレビ朝日系の特撮テレビドラマ作品（2015年 - ）。
音楽
- ゴースト（原題: Ghosts）- マイケル・ジャクソンの曲 (1997年)。
- Ghost (Plastic Treeの曲) - Plastic Treeの曲 (2005年)。
- GHOST - BEAT CRUSADERSの曲 (2007年)。
- GHOST (GACKTの曲) - GACKTの曲 (2009年)。
- Ghost (andropの曲) - Andropの曲（2015年）。

架空

ゴースト (マクロスシリーズ) - アニメ『マクロスシリーズ』（1982）に登場する無人戦闘機。
ゴースト (攻殻機動隊) - 漫画・アニメ『攻殻機動隊』（1989）で扱われる魂・心・自我にあたる概念。
ゴースト (ポケモン) - ゲーム・アニメ『ポケットモンスター』（1996）に登場するポケットモンスターの1種。

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In folklore, mythology, and modern media such as literary fiction, a ghost (sometimes known as a spectre [British English] or specter [American English], phantom, apparition, spirit, spook, or haunt) is the soul or spirit of a dead person or animal that can appear, in visible form or other manifestation, to the living. Descriptions of the apparition of ghosts vary widely from an beingless presence to translucent or barely visible wispy shapes, to realistic, lifelike visions. The deliberate attempt to contact the spirit of a deceased person is known as necromancy, or in spiritism as a séance.

The belief in manifestations of the spirits of the dead is widespread, dating back to animism or ancestor worship in pre-literate cultures. Certain religious practices—funeral rites, exorcisms, and some practices of spiritualism and ritual magic—are specifically designed to rest the spirits of the dead. Ghosts are generally described as solitary essences that haunt particular locations, objects, or people they were associated with in life, though stories of phantom armies, ghost trains, ghost ships, and even ghost animals have also been recounted.^[2]^[3]

1 Terminology
2 Typology
- 2.1 Anthropological context
- 2.2 Ghosts and the afterlife
- 2.3 Fear of ghosts
- 2.4 Common attributes
- 2.5 Locale
3 History
- 3.1 Ancient Near East and Egypt
- 3.2 Classical Antiquity
  - 3.2.1 Archaic and Classical Greece
  - 3.2.2 Roman Empire and Late Antiquity
- 3.3 Middle Ages
- 3.4 European Renaissance to Romanticism
- 3.5 Modern period of western culture
  - 3.5.1 Spiritualist movement
  - 3.5.2 Spiritism
- 3.6 Scientific view
4 By religion
- 4.1 Judæo-Christianity
- 4.2 Islam
- 4.3 Buddhism
5 By culture
- 5.1 African folklore
- 5.2 European folklore
- 5.3 South and Southeast Asia
  - 5.3.1 North India
  - 5.3.2 Austronesia
- 5.4 East and Central Asia
  - 5.4.1 China
  - 5.4.2 Japan
  - 5.4.3 Thailand
  - 5.4.4 Tibet
- 5.5 Americas
  - 5.5.1 Mexico
  - 5.5.2 United States
6 Depiction in the arts
- 6.1 Renaissance to Romanticism (1500 to 1840)
- 6.2 Victorian/Edwardian (1840 to 1920)
- 6.3 Modern Era (1920 to 1970)
- 6.4 Post-modern (1970–present)
7 Metaphorical usages
8 See also
9 References
10 Bibliography
11 Further reading
12 External links

Terminology

The English word ghost continues Old English gást, from a hypothetical Common Germanic *gaistaz. It is common to West Germanic, but lacking in North Germanic and East Germanic (the equivalent word in Gothic is ahma, Old Norse has andi m., önd f.). The pre-Germanic form was *ghoisdo-s, apparently from a root denoting "fury, anger" reflected in Old Norse geisa "to rage". The Germanic word is recorded as masculine only, but likely continues a neuter s-stem. The original meaning of the Germanic word would thus have been an animating principle of the mind, in particular capable of excitation and fury (compare óðr). In Germanic paganism, "Germanic Mercury", and the later Odin, was at the same time the conductor of the dead and the "lord of fury" leading the Wild Hunt.

Besides denoting the human spirit or soul, both of the living and the deceased, the Old English word is used as a synonym of Latin spiritus also in the meaning of "breath" or "blast" from the earliest attestations (9th century). It could also denote any good or evil spirit, i.e. angels and demons; the Anglo-Saxon gospel refers to the demonic possession of Matthew 12:43 as se unclæna gast. Also from the Old English period, the word could denote the spirit of God, viz. the "Holy Ghost".

The now-prevailing sense of "the soul of a deceased person, spoken of as appearing in a visible form" only emerges in Middle English (14th century). The modern noun does, however, retain a wider field of application, extending on one hand to "soul", "spirit", "vital principle", "mind", or "psyche", the seat of feeling, thought, and moral judgement; on the other hand used figuratively of any shadowy outline, or fuzzy or unsubstantial image; in optics, photography, and cinematography especially, a flare, secondary image, or spurious signal.^[4]

The synonym spook is a Dutch loanword, akin to Low German spôk (of uncertain etymology); it entered the English language via the United States in the 19th century.^[5]^[6]^[7]^[8] Alternative words in modern usage include spectre (from Latin spectrum), the Scottish wraith (of obscure origin), phantom (via French ultimately from Greek phantasma, compare fantasy) and apparition. The term shade in classical mythology translates Greek σκιά,^[9] or Latin umbra,^[10] in reference to the notion of spirits in the Greek underworld. "Haint" is a synonym for ghost used in regional English of the southern United States,^[11] and the "haint tale" is a common feature of southern oral and literary tradition.^[12] The term poltergeist is a German word, literally a "noisy ghost", for a spirit said to manifest itself by invisibly moving and influencing objects.^[13]

Wraith is a Scots word for "ghost", "spectre" or "apparition". It came to be used in Scottish Romanticist literature, and acquired the more general or figurative sense of "portent" or "omen". In 18th- to 19th-century Scottish literature, it was also applied to aquatic spirits. The word has no commonly accepted etymology; the OED notes "of obscure origin" only.^[14] An association with the verb writhe was the etymology favored by J. R. R. Tolkien.^[15] Tolkien's use of the word in the naming of the creatures known as the Ringwraiths has influenced later usage in fantasy literature. Bogey^[16] or bogy/bogie is a term for a ghost, and appears in Scottish poet John Mayne's Hallowe'en in 1780.^[17]^[18]

A revenant is a deceased person returning from the dead to haunt the living, either as a disembodied ghost or alternatively as an animated ("undead") corpse. Also related is the concept of a fetch, the visible ghost or spirit of a person yet alive.

Typology

Anthropological context

A notion of the transcendent, supernatural, or numinous, usually involving entities like ghosts, demons, or deities, is a cultural universal.^[19] In pre-literate folk religions, these beliefs are often summarized under animism and ancestor worship. Some people believe the ghost or spirit never leaves Earth until there is no-one left to remember the one who died.^[20]

In many cultures malignant, restless ghosts are distinguished from the more benign spirits involved in ancestor worship.^[21]

Ancestor worship typically involves rites intended to prevent revenants, vengeful spirits of the dead, imagined as starving and envious of the living. Strategies for preventing revenants may either include sacrifice, i.e., giving the dead food and drink to pacify them, or magical banishment of the deceased to force them not to return. Ritual feeding of the dead is performed in traditions like the Chinese Ghost Festival or the Western All Souls' Day. Magical banishment of the dead is present in many of the world's burial customs. The bodies found in many tumuli (kurgan) had been ritually bound before burial,^[22] and the custom of binding the dead persists, for example, in rural Anatolia.^[23]

Nineteenth-century anthropologist James Frazer stated in his classic work, The Golden Bough, that souls were seen as the creature within that animated the body.^[24]

Ghosts and the afterlife

Although the human soul was sometimes symbolically or literally depicted in ancient cultures as a bird or other animal, it appears to have been widely held that the soul was an exact reproduction of the body in every feature, even down to clothing the person wore. This is depicted in artwork from various ancient cultures, including such works as the Egyptian Book of the Dead, which shows deceased people in the afterlife appearing much as they did before death, including the style of dress.

Fear of ghosts

Yūrei (Japanese ghost) from the Hyakkai Zukan, ca. 1737

While deceased ancestors are universally regarded as venerable, and often imagined as having a continued presence in some sort of afterlife, the spirit of a deceased person which remains present in the material world (viz. a ghost) is regarded as an unnatural or undesirable state of affairs and the idea of ghosts or revenants is associated with a reaction of fear. This is universally the case in pre-modern folk cultures, but fear of ghosts also remains an integral aspect of the modern ghost story, Gothic horror, and other horror fiction dealing with the supernatural.

Common attributes

Another widespread belief concerning ghosts is that they are composed of a misty, airy, or subtle material. Anthropologists link this idea to early beliefs that ghosts were the person within the person (the person's spirit), most noticeable in ancient cultures as a person's breath, which upon exhaling in colder climates appears visibly as a white mist.^[20] This belief may have also fostered the metaphorical meaning of "breath" in certain languages, such as the Latin spiritus and the Greek pneuma, which by analogy became extended to mean the soul. In the Bible, God is depicted as synthesising Adam, as a living soul, from the dust of the Earth and the breath of God.

In many traditional accounts, ghosts were often thought to be deceased people looking for vengeance (vengeful ghosts), or imprisoned on earth for bad things they did during life. The appearance of a ghost has often been regarded as an omen or portent of death. Seeing one's own ghostly double or "fetch" is a related omen of death.^[25]

White ladies were reported to appear in many rural areas, and supposed to have died tragically or suffered trauma in life. White Lady legends are found around the world. Common to many of them is the theme of losing or being betrayed by a husband or fiancé. They are often associated with an individual family line or regarded as a harbinger of death similar to a banshee.

Legends of ghost ships have existed since the 18th century; most notable of these is the Flying Dutchman. This theme has been used in literature in The Rime of the Ancient Mariner by Coleridge.

Locale

A place where ghosts are reported is described as haunted, and often seen as being inhabited by spirits of deceased who may have been former residents or were familiar with the property. Supernatural activity inside homes is said to be mainly associated with violent or tragic events in the building's past such as murder, accidental death, or suicide — sometimes in the recent or ancient past. But not all hauntings are at a place of a violent death, or even on violent grounds. Many cultures and religions believe the essence of a being, such as the 'soul', continues to exist. Some religious views argue that the 'spirits' of those who have died have not 'passed over' and are trapped inside the property where their memories and energy are strong.

History

Ancient Near East and Egypt

There are many references to ghosts in Mesopotamian religions – the religions of Sumer, Babylon, Assyria, and other early states in Mesopotamia. Traces of these beliefs survive in the later Abrahamic religions that came to dominate the region.^[26] Ghosts were thought to be created at time of death, taking on the memory and personality of the dead person. They traveled to the netherworld, where they were assigned a position, and led an existence similar in some ways to that of the living. Relatives of the dead were expected to make offerings of food and drink to the dead to ease their conditions. If they did not, the ghosts could inflict misfortune and illness on the living. Traditional healing practices ascribed a variety of illnesses to the action of ghosts, while others were caused by gods or demons.^[27]

The Hebrew Bible contains few references to ghosts, associating spiritism with forbidden occult activities cf. Deuteronomy 18:11. The most notable reference is in the First Book of Samuel (I Samuel 28:3–19 KJV), in which a disguised King Saul has the Witch of Endor summon the spirit or ghost of Samuel.

Egyptian Akh glyph – The soul and spirit re-united after death

There was widespread belief in ghosts in ancient Egyptian culture in the sense of the continued existence of the soul and spirit after death, with the ability to assist or harm the living, and the possibility of a second death. Over a period of more than 2,500 years, Egyptian beliefs about the nature of the afterlife evolved constantly. Many of these beliefs were recorded in inscriptions, papyrus scrolls and tomb paintings. The Egyptian Book of the Dead compiles some of the beliefs from different periods of ancient Egyptian history.^[28] In modern times, the fanciful concept of a mummy coming back to life and wreaking vengeance when disturbed has spawned a whole genre of horror stories and films.^[29]

Classical Antiquity

Archaic and Classical Greece

Ghosts appeared in Homer's Odyssey and Iliad, in which they were described as vanishing "as a vapor, gibbering and whining into the earth". Homer's ghosts had little interaction with the world of the living. Periodically they were called upon to provide advice or prophecy, but they do not appear to be particularly feared. Ghosts in the classical world often appeared in the form of vapor or smoke, but at other times they were described as being substantial, appearing as they had been at the time of death, complete with the wounds that killed them.^[30]

By the 5th century BC, classical Greek ghosts had become haunting, frightening creatures who could work to either good or evil purposes. The spirit of the dead was believed to hover near the resting place of the corpse, and cemeteries were places the living avoided. The dead were to be ritually mourned through public ceremony, sacrifice, and libations, or else they might return to haunt their families. The ancient Greeks held annual feasts to honor and placate the spirits of the dead, to which the family ghosts were invited, and after which they were "firmly invited to leave until the same time next year".^[31]

The 5th-century BC play Oresteia contains one of the first ghosts to appear in a work of fiction.

Roman Empire and Late Antiquity

The ancient Romans believed a ghost could be used to exact revenge on an enemy by scratching a curse on a piece of lead or pottery and placing it into a grave.^[32]

Plutarch, in the 1st century AD, described the haunting of the baths at Chaeronea by the ghost of a murdered man. The ghost's loud and frightful groans caused the people of the town to seal up the doors of the building.^[33] Another celebrated account of a haunted house from the ancient classical world is given by Pliny the Younger (c. 50 AD).^[34] Pliny describes the haunting of a house in Athens of the Stoic philosopher Athenodorus, who lived about 100 years before Pliny. Athenodorus was working late at night when he was disturbed by a ghost bound in chains. He followed the ghost outside where it indicated a spot on the ground. When Athenodorus later excavated the area, a shackled skeleton was unearthed. The haunting ceased when this was given a proper reburial.^[35] The writers Plautus and Lucian also wrote stories about haunted houses.

In the New Testament, Jesus has to persuade the Disciples that He is not a ghost following the resurrection, Luke 24:37–39 (some versions of the Bible, such as the KJV and NKJV, use the term "spirit"). Similarly, Jesus' followers at first believe Him to be a ghost (spirit) when they see Him walking on water.

One of the first persons to express disbelief in ghosts was Lucian of Samosata in the 2nd century AD. In his tale "The Doubter" (circa 150 AD), he relates how Democritus "the learned man from Abdera in Thrace" lived in a tomb outside the city gates to prove that cemeteries were not haunted by the spirits of the departed. Lucian relates how he persisted in his disbelief despite practical jokes perpetrated by "some young men of Abdera" who dressed up in black robes with skull masks to frighten him.^[36] This account by Lucian notes something about the popular classical expectation of how a ghost should look.

In the 5th century AD, the Christian priest Constantius of Lyon recorded an instance of the recurring theme of the improperly buried dead who come back to haunt the living, and who can only cease their haunting when their bones have been discovered and properly reburied.^[37]

Middle Ages

Ghosts reported in medieval Europe tended to fall into two categories: the souls of the dead, or demons. The souls of the dead returned for a specific purpose. Demonic ghosts were those which existed only to torment or tempt the living. The living could tell them apart by demanding their purpose in the name of Jesus Christ. The soul of a dead person would divulge their mission, while a demonic ghost would be banished at the sound of the Holy Name.^[38]

Most ghosts were souls assigned to Purgatory, condemned for a specific period to atone for their transgressions in life. Their penance was generally related to their sin. For example, the ghost of a man who had been abusive to his servants was condemned to tear off and swallow bits of his own tongue; the ghost of another man, who had neglected to leave his cloak to the poor, was condemned to wear the cloak, now "heavy as a church tower". These ghosts appeared to the living to ask for prayers to end their suffering. Other dead souls returned to urge the living to confess their sins before their own deaths.^[39]

Medieval European ghosts were more substantial than ghosts described in the Victorian age, and there are accounts of ghosts being wrestled with and physically restrained until a priest could arrive to hear its confession. Some were less solid, and could move through walls. Often they were described as paler and sadder versions of the person they had been while alive, and dressed in tattered gray rags. The vast majority of reported sightings were male.^[40]

There were some reported cases of ghostly armies, fighting battles at night in the forest, or in the remains of an Iron Age hillfort, as at Wandlebury, near Cambridge, England. Living knights were sometimes challenged to single combat by phantom knights, which vanished when defeated.^[41]

From the medieval period an apparition of a ghost is recorded from 1211, at the time of the Albigensian Crusade.^[42] Gervase of Tilbury, Marshal of Arles, wrote that the image of Guilhem, a boy recently murdered in the forest, appeared in his cousin's home in Beaucaire, near Avignon. This series of "visits" lasted all of the summer. Through his cousin, who spoke for him, the boy allegedly held conversations with anyone who wished, until the local priest requested to speak to the boy directly, leading to an extended disquisition on theology. The boy narrated the trauma of death and the unhappiness of his fellow souls in Purgatory, and reported that God was most pleased with the ongoing Crusade against the Cathar heretics, launched three years earlier. The time of the Albigensian Crusade in southern France was marked by intense and prolonged warfare, this constant bloodshed and dislocation of populations being the context for these reported visits by the murdered boy.

Haunted houses are featured in the 9th-century Arabian Nights (such as the tale of Ali the Cairene and the Haunted House in Baghdad).^[43]

European Renaissance to Romanticism

"Hamlet and his father's ghost" by Henry Fuseli (1780s drawing). The ghost is wearing stylized plate armor in 17th-century style, including a morion type helmet and tassets. Depicting ghosts as wearing armor, to suggest a sense of antiquity, was common in Elizabethan theater.

Renaissance magic took a revived interest in the occult, including necromancy. In the era of the Reformation and Counter Reformation, there was frequently a backlash against unwholesome interest in the dark arts, typified by writers such as Thomas Erastus.^[44] The Swiss Reformed pastor Ludwig Lavater supplied one of the most frequently reprinted books of the period with his Of Ghosts and Spirits Walking By Night.^[45]

The Child Ballad "Sweet William's Ghost" (1868) recounts the story of a ghost returning to his fiancée begging her to free him from his promise to marry her. He cannot marry her because he is dead but her refusal would mean his damnation. This reflects a popular British belief that the dead haunted their lovers if they took up with a new love without some formal release.^[46] "The Unquiet Grave" expresses a belief even more widespread, found in various locations over Europe: ghosts can stem from the excessive grief of the living, whose mourning interferes with the dead's peaceful rest.^[47] In many folktales from around the world, the hero arranges for the burial of a dead man. Soon after, he gains a companion who aids him and, in the end, the hero's companion reveals that he is in fact the dead man.^[48] Instances of this include the Italian fairy tale "Fair Brow" and the Swedish "The Bird 'Grip'".

Modern period of western culture

Union Cemetery in Easton, CT is home to the legend of the White Lady.

Spiritualist movement

By 1853, when the popular song Spirit Rappings was published, Spiritualism was an object of intense curiosity.

Spiritualism is a monotheistic belief system or religion, postulating a belief in God, but with a distinguishing feature of belief that spirits of the dead residing in the spirit world can be contacted by "mediums", who can then provide information about the afterlife.^[49]

Spiritualism developed in the United States and reached its peak growth in membership from the 1840s to the 1920s, especially in English-language countries.^[50]^[51] By 1897, it was said to have more than eight million followers in the United States and Europe,^[52] mostly drawn from the middle and upper classes, while the corresponding movement in continental Europe and Latin America is known as Spiritism.

The religion flourished for a half century without canonical texts or formal organization, attaining cohesion by periodicals, tours by trance lecturers, camp meetings, and the missionary activities of accomplished mediums.^[53] Many prominent Spiritualists were women. Most followers supported causes such as the abolition of slavery and women's suffrage.^[50] By the late 1880s, credibility of the informal movement weakened, due to accusations of fraud among mediums, and formal Spiritualist organizations began to appear.^[50] Spiritualism is currently practiced primarily through various denominational Spiritualist Churches in the United States and United Kingdom.

Spiritism

Spiritism, or French spiritualism, is based on the five books of the Spiritist Codification written by French educator Hypolite Léon Denizard Rivail under the pseudonym Allan Kardec reporting séances in which he observed a series of phenomena that he attributed to incorporeal intelligence (spirits). His assumption of spirit communication was validated by many contemporaries, among them many scientists and philosophers who attended séances and studied the phenomena. His work was later extended by writers like Leon Denis, Arthur Conan Doyle, Camille Flammarion, Ernesto Bozzano, Chico Xavier, Divaldo Pereira Franco, Waldo Vieira, Johannes Greber,^[54] and others.

Spiritism has adherents in many countries throughout the world, including Spain, United States, Canada,^[55] Japan, Germany, France, England, Argentina, Portugal, and especially Brazil, which has the largest proportion and greatest number of followers.^[56]

Scientific view

The physician John Ferriar wrote An essay towards a theory of apparitions in 1813 in which he argued that sightings of ghosts were the result of optical illusions. Later the French physician Alexandre Jacques François Brière de Boismont published On Hallucinations: Or, the Rational History of Apparitions, Dreams, Ecstasy, Magnetism, and Somnambulism in 1845 in which he claimed sightings of ghosts were the result of hallucinations.^[57]^[58]

David Turner, a retired physical chemist, suggested that ball lightning could cause inanimate objects to move erratically.^[59]

Joe Nickell of the Committee for Skeptical Inquiry wrote that there was no credible scientific evidence that any location was inhabited by spirits of the dead.^[60] Limitations of human perception and ordinary physical explanations can account for ghost sightings; for example, air pressure changes in a home causing doors to slam, or lights from a passing car reflected through a window at night. Pareidolia, an innate tendency to recognize patterns in random perceptions, is what some skeptics believe causes people to believe that they have 'seen ghosts'.^[61] Reports of ghosts "seen out of the corner of the eye" may be accounted for by the sensitivity of human peripheral vision. According to Nickell, peripheral vision can easily mislead, especially late at night when the brain is tired and more likely to misinterpret sights and sounds.^[62]

According to research in anomalistic psychology visions of ghosts may arise from hypnagogic hallucinations ("waking dreams" which are experienced in the transitional states to and from sleep).^[63] In a study of two experiments into alleged hauntings (Wiseman et al. 2003) came to the conclusion "that people consistently report unusual experiences in ‘haunted' areas because of environmental factors, which may differ across locations." Some of these factors included "the variance of local magnetic fields, size of location and lighting level stimuli of which witnesses may not be consciously aware".^[64]

Some researchers, such as Michael Persinger of Laurentian University, Canada, have speculated that changes in geomagnetic fields (created, e.g., by tectonic stresses in the Earth's crust or solar activity) could stimulate the brain's temporal lobes and produce many of the experiences associated with hauntings.^[65] Sound is thought to be another cause of supposed sightings. Richard Lord and Richard Wiseman have concluded that infrasound can cause humans to experience bizarre feelings in a room, such as anxiety, extreme sorrow, a feeling of being watched, or even the chills.^[66] Carbon monoxide poisoning, which can cause changes in perception of the visual and auditory systems,^[67] was speculated upon as a possible explanation for haunted houses as early as 1921.

By religion

Judæo-Christianity

The Hebrew Torah and the Bible contain a few references to ghosts, associating spiritism with forbidden occult activities.^[68] The most notable reference is in the First Book of Samuel,^[69] in which a disguised King Saul has the Witch of Endor summon the spirit or ghost of Samuel. In the New Testament, Jesus has to persuade the Disciples that He is not a ghost following the resurrection, Luke 24:37–39 (some versions of the Bible, such as the KJV and NKJV, use the term "spirit"). Similarly, Jesus' followers at first believe Him to be a ghost (spirit) when they see Him walking on water.^[70]

Most of the Christian Church^{[citation needed]} considers ghosts as beings who while tied to earth, no longer live on the material plane.^[71] Some Christian denominations teach that ghosts are beings who linger in an interim state before continuing their journey to heaven.^[71]^[72]^[73]^[74] On occasion, God would allow the souls in this state to return to earth to warn the living of the need for repentance.^[75] Jews and Christians are taught that it is sinful to attempt to conjure or control spirits in accordance with Deuteronomy XVIII: 9–12.^[76]^[77]

Some ghosts are actually said to be demons in disguise, who the Church teaches, in accordance with I Timothy 4:1, that they "come to deceive people and draw them away from God and into bondage."^[78] As a result, attempts to contact the dead may lead to unwanted contact with a demon or an unclean spirit, as was said to occur in the case of Robbie Mannheim, a fourteen-year-old Maryland youth.^[79] The Seventh-Day Adventist view is that a "soul" is not equivalent to "spirit" or "ghost" (depending on the Bible version), and that save for the Holy Spirit, all spirits or ghosts are demons in disguise. Furthermore, they teach that in accordance with (Genesis 2:7, Ecclesiastes 12:7), there are only two components to a "soul", neither of which survives death - with each returning to its respective source.

Christadelphians reject the view of a living, conscious soul after death.^[80]

The Talmud^[81] tells of a being called a shade שד that is similar to other creatures in that it lives and dies but consists only of a form but lacks matter that forms mass, thus rendering it invisible. Since it has no physical mass it is capable of transporting itself from one end of the world to the other.

Islam

According to Islamic teachings, there are no such thing as ghosts.^[82] Muslims believe that 'Ghosts' are in fact jinn. The Koran discusses spirits known as jinn.^[83]

Buddhism

In Buddhism, there are a number of planes of existence into which a person can be reborn, one of which is the realm of hungry ghosts.^{[citation needed]}

By culture

African folklore

The Humr people of Sudan consume the drink Umm Nyolokh, which is created from the liver and marrow of giraffes. Umm Nyolokh often contains DMT and other psychoactive substances from plants the giraffes eat such as Acacia, and is known to cause hallucinations of giraffes, believed to be the giraffes ghosts by the Humr.^[84]^[85]

European folklore

Belief in ghosts in European folklore is characterized by the recurring fear of "returning" or revenant deceased who may harm the living. This includes the Scandinavian gjenganger, the Romanian strigoi, the Serbian vampir, the Greek vrykolakas, etc. In Scandinavian and Finnish tradition, ghosts appear in corporeal form, and their supernatural nature is given away by behavior rather than appearance. In fact, in many stories they are first mistaken for the living. They may be mute, appear and disappear suddenly, or leave no footprints or other traces.

English folklore is particularly notable for its numerous haunted locations.

Belief in the soul and an afterlife remained near universal until the emergence of atheism in the 18th century.^{[citation needed]} In the 19th century, spiritism resurrected "belief in ghosts" as the object of systematic inquiry, and popular opinion in Western culture remains divided.^[86]

South and Southeast Asia

North India

A bhoot or bhut (भूत, ભૂત, or بهوت) is a supernatural creature, usually the ghost of a deceased person, in the popular culture, literature and some ancient texts of the Indian subcontinent. Interpretations of how bhoots come into existence vary by region and community, but they are usually considered to be perturbed and restless due to some factor that prevents them from moving on (to transmigration, non-being, nirvana, or heaven or hell, depending on tradition). This could be a violent death, unsettled matters in their lives, or simply the failure of their survivors to perform proper funerals.^[87]

In Central and Northern India, Aojha spirit guides play a central role.^{[citation needed]} It duly happens when in the night someone sleeps and decorates something on the wall, and they say that if one sees the spirit the next thing in the morning he will become a spirit too, and that to a skondho kata which means a spirit without a head and the soul of the body will remain the dark with the dark lord from the spirits who reside in the body of every human in Central and Northern India. It is also believed that if someone calls one from behind, never turn back and see because the spirit may catch the human to make it a spirit. Other types of spirits in Hindu Mythology include Baital, an evil spirit who haunts cemeteries and takes demonic possession of corpses, and Pishacha, a type of flesh-eating demon.

Austronesia

Spirit of the Dead Watching by Paul Gauguin

There are many Malay ghost myths, remnants of old animist beliefs that have been shaped by later Hindu, Buddhist, and Muslim influences in the modern states of Indonesia, Malaysia, and Brunei. Some ghost concepts such as the female vampires Pontianak and Penanggalan are shared throughout the region. Ghosts are a popular theme in modern Malaysian and Indonesian films. There are also many references to ghosts in Filipino culture, ranging from ancient legendary creatures such as the Manananggal and Tiyanak to more modern urban legends and horror films. The beliefs, legends and stories are as diverse as the people of the Philippines.

There was widespread belief in ghosts in Polynesian culture, some of which persists today. After death, a person's ghost normally traveled to the sky world or the underworld, but some could stay on earth. In many Polynesian legends, ghosts were often actively involved in the affairs of the living. Ghosts might also cause sickness or even invade the body of ordinary people, to be driven out through strong medicines.^[88]

East and Central Asia

China

An image of Zhong Kui, the vanquisher of ghosts and evil beings, painted sometime before 1304 A.D. by Gong Kai

There are many references to ghosts in Chinese culture. Even Confucius said, "Respect ghosts and gods, but keep away from them."^[89]

The ghosts take many forms, depending on how the person died, and are often harmful. Many Chinese ghost beliefs have been accepted by neighboring cultures, notably Japan and southeast Asia. Ghost beliefs are closely associated with traditional Chinese religion based on ancestor worship, many of which were incorporated in Taoism. Later beliefs were influenced by Buddhism, and in turn influenced and created uniquely Chinese Buddhist beliefs.

Many Chinese today believe it possible to contact the spirits of their ancestors through a medium, and that ancestors can help descendants if properly respected and rewarded. The annual ghost festival is celebrated by Chinese around the world. On this day, ghosts and spirits, including those of the deceased ancestors, come out from the lower realm. Ghosts are described in classical Chinese texts as well as modern literature and films.

A recent article in the China Post stated that nearly eighty-seven percent of Chinese office workers believe in ghosts, and some fifty-two percent of workers will wear hand art, necklaces, crosses, or even place a crystal ball on their desks to keep ghosts at bay, according to the poll.

Japan

Utagawa Kuniyoshi, The Ghosts, c. 1850

Yūrei (幽霊^?) are figures in Japanese folklore, analogous to Western legends of ghosts. The name consists of two kanji, 幽 (yū), meaning "faint" or "dim", and 霊 (rei), meaning "soul" or "spirit". Alternative names include 亡霊 (Bōrei) meaning ruined or departed spirit, 死霊 (Shiryō) meaning dead spirit, or the more encompassing 妖怪 (Yōkai) or お化け (Obake).

Like their Chinese and Western counterparts, they are thought to be spirits kept from a peaceful afterlife.

Thailand

Krasue, a Thai female ghost known as Ap in Khmer

Ghosts in Thailand are part of local folklore and have now become part of the popular culture of the country. Phraya Anuman Rajadhon was the first Thai scholar who seriously studied Thai folk beliefs and took notes on the nocturnal village spirits of Thailand. He established that, since such spirits were not represented in paintings or drawings, they were purely based on descriptions of popular traditional stories which were transmitted orally. Therefore, most of the contemporary iconography of ghosts such as Nang Tani, Nang Takian,^[90] Krasue, Krahang,^[91] Phi Hua Kat, Phi Pop, Phi Phong, Phi Phraya, and Mae Nak has its origins in Thai films that have now become classics.^[92]^[93] The most feared spirit in Thailand is Phi Tai Hong, the ghost of a person who has died suddenly of a violent death.^[94] The folklore of Thailand also includes the belief that sleep paralysis is caused by a ghost, Phi Am.

Tibet

There is widespread belief in ghosts in Tibetan culture. Ghosts are explicitly recognized in the Tibetan Buddhist religion as they were in Indian Buddhism,^[95] occupying a distinct but overlapping world to the human one, and feature in many traditional legends. When a human dies, after a period of uncertainty they may enter the ghost world. A hungry ghost (Tibetan: yidag, yi-dvags; Sanskrit: preta, प्रेत) has a tiny throat and huge stomach, and so can never be satisfied. Ghosts may be killed with a ritual dagger or caught in a spirit trap and burnt, thus releasing them to be reborn. Ghosts may also be exorcised, and an annual festival is held throughout Tibet for this purpose. Some say that Dorje Shugden, the ghost of a powerful 17th-century monk, is a deity, but the Dalai Lama asserts that he is an evil spirit, which has caused a split in the Tibetan exile community.

Americas

Mexico

Catrinas, one of the most popular figures of the Day of the Dead celebrations in Mexico

There is extensive and varied belief in ghosts in Mexican culture. The modern state of Mexico before the Spanish conquest was inhabited by diverse peoples such as the Maya and Aztec, and their beliefs have survived and evolved, combined with the beliefs of the Spanish colonists. The Day of the Dead incorporates pre-Columbian beliefs with Christian elements. Mexican literature and films include many stories of ghosts interacting with the living.

United States

According to the Gallup Poll News Service, belief in haunted houses, ghosts, communication with the dead, and witches had an especially steep increase over the 1990s.^[96] A 2005 Gallup poll found that about 32 percent of Americans believe in ghosts.^[97]

Depiction in the arts

Ghosts are prominent in the popular cultures of various nations. The ghost story is ubiquitous across all cultures from oral folktales to works of literature. While ghost stories are often explicitly meant to be scary, they have been written to serve all sorts of purposes, from comedy to morality tales. Ghosts often appear in the narrative as sentinels or prophets of things to come. Belief in ghosts is found in all cultures around the world, and thus ghost stories may be passed down orally or in written form.^[98]

Spirits of the dead appear in literature as early as Homer's Odyssey, which features a journey to the underworld and the hero encountering the ghosts of the dead,^[98] and the Old Testament, in which the Witch of Endor summons the spirit of the prophet Samuel.^[98]

Renaissance to Romanticism (1500 to 1840)

Eugène Delacroix. The Phantom on the Terrace, Hamlet, 1843.

19th-century etching by John Leech of the Ghost of Christmas Present as depicted in Charles Dickens' A Christmas Carol

One of the more recognizable ghosts in English literature is the shade of Hamlet's murdered father in Shakespeare's The Tragical History of Hamlet, Prince of Denmark. In Hamlet, it is the ghost who demands that Prince Hamlet investigate his "murder most foul" and seek revenge upon his usurping uncle, King Claudius.

John Dee and Edward Kelley invoking the spirit of a deceased person (engraving from the Astrology by Ebenezer Sibly, 1806)

In English Renaissance theater, ghosts were often depicted in the garb of the living and even in armor, as with the ghost of Hamlet's father. Armor, being out-of-date by the time of the Renaissance, gave the stage ghost a sense of antiquity.^[99] But the sheeted ghost began to gain ground on stage in the 19th century because an armored ghost could not satisfactorily convey the requisite spookiness: it clanked and creaked, and had to be moved about by complicated pulley systems or elevators. These clanking ghosts being hoisted about the stage became objects of ridicule as they became clichéd stage elements. Ann Jones and Peter Stallybrass, in Renaissance Clothing and the Materials of Memory, point out, "In fact, it is as laughter increasingly threatens the Ghost that he starts to be staged not in armor but in some form of 'spirit drapery'."^{[citation needed]}

Victorian/Edwardian (1840 to 1920)

The ghost of a pirate, from Howard Pyle's Book of Pirates (1903)

The "classic" ghost story arose during the Victorian period, and included authors such as M. R. James, Sheridan Le Fanu, Violet Hunt, and Henry James. Classic ghost stories were influenced by the gothic fiction tradition, and contain elements of folklore and psychology. M. R. James summed up the essential elements of a ghost story as, "Malevolence and terror, the glare of evil faces, ‘the stony grin of unearthly malice', pursuing forms in darkness, and 'long-drawn, distant screams', are all in place, and so is a modicum of blood, shed with deliberation and carefully husbanded...".^[100] One of the key early appearances by ghosts was The Castle of Otranto by Horace Walpole in 1764, considered to be the first gothic novel.^[101]^[98]

Famous literary apparitions from this period are the ghosts of A Christmas Carol, in which Ebenezer Scrooge is helped to see the error of his ways by the ghost of his former colleague Jacob Marley, and the ghosts of Christmas Past, Christmas Present, and Christmas Yet to Come.

Modern Era (1920 to 1970)

Brown Lady of Raynham Hall, a claimed ghost photograph by Captain Hubert C. Provand. First published in Country Life magazine, 1936

Professional parapsychologists and "ghosts hunters", such as Harry Price, active in the 1920s and 1930s, and Peter Underwood, active in the 1940s and 1950s, published accounts of their experiences with ostensibly true ghost stories such as Price's The Most Haunted House in England, and Underwood's Ghosts of Borley (both recounting experiences at Borley Rectory). The writer Frank Edwards delved into ghost stories in his books of his, like "Stranger than Science."

Children's benevolent ghost stories became popular, such as Casper the Friendly Ghost, created in the 1930s and appearing in comics, animated cartoons, and eventually a 1995 feature film.

With the advent of motion pictures and television, screen depictions of ghosts became common, and spanned a variety of genres; the works of Shakespeare, Dickens and Wilde have all been made into cinematic versions. Novel-length tales have been difficult to adapt to cinema, although that of The Haunting of Hill House to The Haunting in 1963 is an exception.^[101]

Sentimental depictions during this period were more popular in cinema than horror, and include the 1947 film The Ghost and Mrs. Muir, which was later adapted to television with a successful 1968–70 TV series.^[101] Genuine psychological horror films from this period include 1944's The Uninvited, and 1945's Dead of Night.

Post-modern (1970–present)

The 1970s saw screen depictions of ghosts diverge into distinct genres of the romantic and horror. A common theme in the romantic genre from this period is the ghost as a benign guide or messenger, often with unfinished business, such as 1989's Field of Dreams, the 1990 film Ghost, and the 1993 comedy Heart and Souls.^[102] In the horror genre, 1980's The Fog, and the A Nightmare on Elm Street series of films from the 1980s and 1990s are notable examples of the trend for the merging of ghost stories with scenes of physical violence.^[101]

Popularised in such films as the 1984 comedy Ghostbusters, ghost hunting became a hobby for many who formed ghost hunting societies to explore reportedly haunted places. The ghost hunting theme has been featured in reality television series, such as Ghost Adventures, Ghost Hunters, Ghost Hunters International, Ghost Lab, Most Haunted, and A Haunting. It is also represented in children's television by such programs as The Ghost Hunter and Ghost Trackers. Ghost hunting also gave rise to multiple guidebooks to haunted locations, and ghost hunting "how-to" manuals.

The 1990s saw a return to classic "gothic" ghosts, whose dangers were more psychological than physical. Examples of films from this period include 1999's The Sixth Sense and The Others.

Asian cinema has also produced horror films about ghosts, such as the 1998 Japanese film Ringu (remade in the US as The Ring in 2002), and the Pang brothers' 2002 film The Eye.^[103] Indian ghost movies are popular not just in India, but in the Middle East, Africa, South East Asia, and other parts of the world. Some Indian ghost movies such as the comedy / horror film Chandramukhi have been commercial successes, dubbed into several languages.^[104]

In fictional television programming, ghosts have been explored in series such as Supernatural, Ghost Whisperer, and Medium.

In animated fictional television programming, ghosts have served as the central element in series such as Casper the Friendly Ghost, Danny Phantom, and Scooby-Doo. Various other television shows have depicted ghosts as well. (See also List of ghosts#Popular culture and Category:Fictional ghosts.

Metaphorical usages

Nietzsche argued that people generally wear prudent masks in company; but that an alternative strategy for social interaction is to present oneself as an absence, as a social ghost – "One reaches out for us but gets no hold of us"^[105] – something later echoed (if with a less positive spin) by Carl Jung.^[106]

Nick Harkaway considered that we all carry a host of ghosts in our heads, in the form of impressions of past acquaintances – ghosts that represent our maps of other people in the world: our reference points.^[107]

Object relations theory sees our personalities as formed by splitting off aspects of ourselves we find incompatible; whereupon we may be haunted in later life by such ghosts of our alternate selves.^[108]

A ghost is a term used to describe the artificial intelligence of a machine in the anime title Ghost in the Shell and likewise in the episode Ghost in the Machine (The X-Files).

References

^ Kirby, R.S. (1804). "The Hammersmith Ghosts". Kirby's Wonderful and Scientific Museum. pp. 65–79.
^ Hole, pp. 150–163
^ Cohen, Daniel (1984). The encyclopedia of ghosts. Dodd, Mead. p. 8. ISBN 978-0-396-08308-5.
^ "ghost". Oxford English Dictionary. Retrieved 27 August 2013.
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^ Mencken, H. L. (1936, repr. 1980). The American Language: An Inquiry into the Development of English in the United States (4th edition). New York: Knopf, p. 108.
^ Webster's Third New International Dictionary, Merriam-Webster, spook.
^ Webster's New World College Dictionary (4th edition), Wiley, spook.
^ οὗτος. Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, A Greek-English Lexicon.
^ umbra. Charlton T. Lewis, Charles Short, A Latin Dictionary
^ Dictionary of American Regional English, Belknap Press, 1985
^ Flora, Joseph M.; MacKethan, Lucinda Hardwick and Taylor, Todd W. (2001) The Companion to Southern Literature, Louisiana State University Press, p. 304.
^ Cohen, Daniel (1984). The encyclopedia of ghosts. Dodd, Mead. pp. 137–156. ISBN 978-0-396-08308-5.
^ "wraith". Oxford English Dictionary. Retrieved 27 August 2013.
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^ ^a ^b Encyclopedia of Occultism and Parapsychology edited by J. Gordon Melton, Gale Group, ISBN 0-8103-5487-X
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^ "If a man lives and moves, it can only be because he has a little man or animal inside, who moves him. The animal inside the animal, the man inside the man, is the soul. And as the activity of an animal or man is explained by the presence of the soul, so the repose of sleep or death is explained by its absence; sleep or trance being the temporary, death being the permanent absence of the soul... " The Golden Bough, Project Gutenberg. Retrieved January 16, 2007.
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^ Finucane, pp. 83–84.
^ Finucane, pg. 79.
^ Mark Gregory Pegg (2008) A Most Holy War. Oxford University Press, New York: 3–5, 116–117. ISBN 978-0-19-517131-0
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^ Walker, D.P. (1958) Spiritual and Demonic Magic from Ficino to Campanella. London: Warburg Institute, passim.
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^ Child, Francis James, The English and Scottish Popular Ballads, v. 2, p. 227, Dover Publications, New York 1965
^ Child, Francis James, The English and Scottish Popular Ballads, v 2, p 234, Dover Publications, New York 1965
^ "Grateful dead". Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 2007. Retrieved 2007-12-14.
^ Carroll, Bret E. (1997). Spiritualism in Antebellum America. (Religion in North America.). Bloomington: Indiana University Press. p. 248. ISBN 0-253-33315-6.
^ ^a ^b ^c Braude, Ann Braude (2001). Radical Spirits: Spiritualism and Women's Rights in Nineteenth-Century America, Second Edition. Indiana University Press. p. 296. ISBN 0-253-21502-1.
^ Britten, Emma Hardinge (1884). Nineteenth Century Miracles: Spirits and their Work in Every Country of the Earth. New York: William Britten. ISBN 0-7661-6290-7.
^ "Three Forms of Thought; M. M. Mangassarian Addresses the Society for Ethical Culture at Carnegie Music Hall". New York Times. November 29, 1897. p. 200. Missing or empty |url= (help)
^ Natale, Simone (2016). Supernatural Entertainments: Victorian Spiritualism and the Rise of Modern Media Culture. University Park, PA: Pennsylvania State University Press. ISBN 978-0-271-07104-6.
^ Johannes Greber Seanet.com Retrieved on 2013-03-21
^ In Canada, Spiritism is an officially recognized religious denomination (unique in the world) as The National Spiritist Church of Alberta (Church #A145 registered by Department of Vital Statistics, Government of Alberta – under The Marriage Act of Alberta) with government-licensed clergy and legal authority to perform marriages.
^ Hess, David (1991). Spirits and Scientists: Ideology, Spiritism, and Brazilian Culture. Pennsylvania State University Press. ISBN 0-271-00724-9.
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^ Carroll, Robert Todd (June 2001). "pareidolia". skepdic.com. Retrieved 2007-09-19.
^ Weinstein, Larry (June 2001). "The Paranormal Visit". Committee for Skeptical Inquiry. Retrieved 2010-02-12.

"Once the idea of a ghost appears in a household ... no longer is an object merely mislaid .... There gets to be a dynamic in a place where the idea that it's haunted takes on a life of its own. One-of-a-kind quirks that could never be repeated all become further evidence of the haunting."
^ Klemperer, Frances (1992). "Ghosts, Visions, and Voices: Sometimes Simply Perceptual Mistakes". British Medical Journal 305 (6868): 1518–1519. doi:10.1136/bmj.305.6868.1518. JSTOR 29717993. PMC 1884722. PMID 1286367.
^ Wiseman, R., Watt, C.; Stevens, P.; et al. (2003). "An investigation into alleged "hauntings"" (PDF). The British Journal of Psychology 94 (2): 195–211. doi:10.1348/000712603321661886.
^ Richard Wiseman. Retrieved September 25, 2007.
^ "Sounds like terror in the air". Reuters. Sydney Morning Herald. 2003-09-09. Retrieved 2007-09-19.
^ Choi IS (2001). "Carbon monoxide poisoning: systemic manifestations and complications". J. Korean Med. Sci. 16 (3): 253–61. doi:10.3346/jkms.2001.16.3.253. PMC 3054741. PMID 11410684.
^ Deuteronomy 18:11
^ I Samuel 28:3–19 KJV
^ Ehrman, Bart D. (2006). Peter, Paul, and Mary Magdalene: the followers of Jesus in history and legend. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-530013-0. Retrieved 14 November 2015. Jesus then walks out to them, on the water. When they see him, in the middle of the lake, the disciples are terrified, thinking it is a ghost. Jesus assures them it is he, and then Peter, in a characteristically unreserved moment, calls out, "Lord if it is you, command me to come to you on the water" (Matt. 14–28).
^ ^a ^b Emissary (2007-09-30). A Faraway Ancient Country. ISBN 978-0-615-15801-3. Retrieved 2010-03-27. if we have ghosts, then where do we put them in the Christian universe? While they are tied to the earth, they are no longer living on the material plain. Heaven and hell are exclusive places, so it's extremely unlikely that people come and go from these destinations as they please. There must be a third state in the afterlife where souls linger before continuing their journey.
^ "Heavenly minded: It's time to get our eschatology right, say scholars, authors". The United Methodist Church. John Wesley believed in the intermediate state between death and the final judgment "where believers would share in the ‘bosom of Abraham' or ‘paradise,' even continuing to grow in holiness there," writes Ted Campbell, a professor at Perkins School of Theology, in his 1999 book Methodist Doctrine: The Essentials (Abingdon). |access-date= requires |url= (help)
^ Prosser, Eleanor (1967). Hamlet and revenge. Stanford University Press. ISBN 978-0-8047-0316-1. Retrieved 2010-03-27. Primarily the Purgatory ghost appeared only to ask for masses, alms, fasts, pilgrimages, and, above all, prayers.
^ Fathers, Paulist (1945). Catholic world, Volume 162. Paulist Fathers. Retrieved 2010-03-27. That the Ghost comes from Purgatory is evident from his description of his abode in the other world as primarily a state of purification, consisting of...
^ "Ghosts, Fairies and Omens". University of Wisconsin–Madison. Retrieved 2010-03-27. The Roman Catholic Church taught that at death the souls of those too good for hell and too bad for heaven were sent to Purgatory. Here they were purged of their sins by punishment, but might on occasion be allowed to return to earth to warn the living of the need for repentance.
^ "Do You Believe in Ghosts?". Catholic Exchange. Retrieved 2010-03-27. Ghosts can come to us for good, but we must not attempt to conjure or control spirits.
^ Klein, Michele (2003-06-30). Not to worry: Jewish wisdom and folklore. Jewish Publication Society. ISBN 978-0-8276-0753-8. Retrieved 2010-03-27. Jews have sometimes engaged in conjuring spirits when worried, even though the Bible prohibits this behavior.
^ "A Christian Perspective on Ghosts and Hauntings". Spotlight Ministries. Retrieved 2010-03-27. The Bible warns of the very real danger of seductive spirits that will come to deceive people and draw them away from God and into bondage: "But the Spirit [the Holy Spirit] explicitly says that in later times some will fall away from the faith, paying attention to deceitful spirits and doctrines of demons..." (1 Tim. 4:1).
^ Lim, Sue (2002-06-18). Good Spirits, Bad Spirits: How to Distinguish Between Them. Writers Club Press. ISBN 978-0-595-22771-6. Retrieved 2010-04-02. Robbie's playing of the Ouija board gave occult spirits the jurisdiction or right to control him, which they did until they were commanded to leave (cast out).
^ http://www.christadelphia.org/reject.htm
^ Chagigah 16a
^ Please tell me about ghosts.... Islamhelpline. Retrieved on 2013-03-21.
^ U. A. B. Razia Akter Banu (1992). Islam in Bangladesh, Volume 58. Brill Publishers. ISBN 978-90-04-09497-0. Retrieved 12 December 2011. The scholars emphasising the syncretistic nature of Bengal Islam usually refer to some Bengali Muslims' proclivity to believe in spirits like ghosts, female ghosts, and demons. The Koran, however, mentions one kind of spirits called jinn.
^ Ian Cunnison (1958). "Giraffe hunting among the Humr tribe". Sudan Notes and Records 39.
^ http://www.cracked.com/article/81_6-animals-that-can-get-you-high/
^ Paul Chambers (2006) The Cock Lane Ghost. London, Sutton: 61-2
^ Ramchandani, Indu (2000). Hoiberg, Dale, ed. Students' Britannica India, Volumes 1–5. Popular Prakashan, 2000. ISBN 978-0-85229-760-5. ... Bhut also spelt bhoot, in Hindu mythology, a restless ghost. Bhuts are believed to be malignant if they have died a violent of premature death or have been denied funerary rites ...
^ Westervelt, William Drake (1985). Hawaiian Legends of Ghosts and Ghost-Gods. Forgotten Books. ISBN 1-60506-964-7.
^ "Chinese Ghost Culture". Ministry of Culture, P.R.China. Retrieved 2010-07-07.
^ Ghosts of Thai folklore. Board.postjung.com. Retrieved on 2013-03-21.
^ Phi Krahang. Thaighosts.net. Retrieved on 2013-03-21.
^ Movie poster showing Thai ghosts Krahang and Krasue with Count Dracula. photobucket.com
^ 'Ghosts and Spirits of Lan Na (Northern Thailand', in: Forbes, Andrew, and Henley, David, Ancient Chiang Mai Volume 4. Chiang Mai, Cognoscenti Books, 2012. ASIN: B006J541LE
^ Spirits. Thaiworldview.com. Retrieved on 2013-03-21.
^ Conze, Edward (1993). A Short History of Buddhism (2 ed.). Oxford: Oneworld.
^ Newport F, Strausberg M. 2001. "Americans' belief in psychic and paranormal phenomena is up over last decade", Gallup Poll News Service. 8 June"Science and Technology: Public Attitudes and Understanding-Public Knowledge About S&T: Belief in Pseudoscience", Chapter 7 of Science and Engineering Indicators 2004, National Science Board, National Science Foundation; Science and Engineering Indicators 2006, National Science Board, National Science Foundation.
^ Lyons, Linda (July 12, 2005). "One-Third of Americans Believe Dearly May Not Have Departed". Gallup Polls. Retrieved 2010-11-28.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d Darrell Schweitzer 2005, p. 338-340.
^ Ann Jones & Peter Stallybrass, Renaissance Clothing and the Materials of Memory, Cambridge University Press, 2000.
^ James, M. R. "Some Remarks on Ghost Stories", The Bookman, December 1929.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d Newman, Kim (ed.) BFI Companion to Horror, Cassell: London, 1996, ISBN 030433216X, p. 135.
^ Chanko, Kenneth M. (August 8, 1993). "FILM; When It Comes to the Hereafter, Romance and Sentiment Rule". The New York Times. Retrieved 2009-01-29.
^ Rafferty, Terence (June 8, 2003). "Why Asian Ghost Stories Are the Best". The New York Times. Retrieved 2009-01-29.
^ Mohamed, Shoaib (September 24, 2007). "The Bus Conductor Turned Superstar Who Took the Right Bus to Demi". Behindwoods. Retrieved 2010-03-17.
^ Quoted in Gary Gutting ed., The Cambridge Companion to Foucault (2003) p. 235
^ C. G. Jung, Two Essays on Analytical Psychology (London 1953) p. 197
^ Nick Harkaway, The Gone-Away World (2008) p. 380
^ Michael Parsons, The Dove that Returns, the Dove that Vanishes (2000) p. 83-4

Bibliography

Finucane, R. C., Appearances of the Dead: A Cultural History of Ghosts, Prometheus Books, 1984, ISBN 0879752386.
Hervey, Sheila, Some Canadian Ghosts, in series, Original Canadian Pocket Book[s], Richmond Hill, Ont.: Pocket Books, 1973, SBN 671-78629-6
Hole, Christina, Haunted England, Batsford: London, 1950.

External links

"Ghost Theory" of 18th century German theologian Johan Ernst Schubert and a list of vernacular house spirits and ghosts
Historical Ghost Stories

UpToDate Contents

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1. 外傷性前房出血：マネージメント traumatic hyphema management
2. 皮膚付属器癌 cutaneous adnexal tumors
3. 全身疾患による外因性の非免疫性溶血性貧血 extrinsic nonimmune hemolytic anemia due to systemic disease
4. 脂肪織炎：認識および診断 panniculitis recognition and diagnosis
5. 小児および思春期における「窒息ゲーム」およびその他の首絞め行動 the choking game and other strangulation activities in children and adolescents

English Journal

Expressing Full-Length Functional PfEMP1 Proteins in the HEK293 Expression System.

Srivastava A, Durocher Y, Gamain B.SourceInstitut National de Transfusion Sanguine, Université Paris Diderot, Paris, France.
Methods in molecular biology (Clifton, N.J.).Methods Mol Biol.2013;923:307-19.
Due to the A/T-richness of the genome of Plasmodium falciparum, expressing P. falciparum proteins in heterologous expression systems is challenging. In addition, many P. falciparum proteins have high cysteine content and high molecular weight, which further complicates expression of these proteins i
PMID 22990788

Synergistic effect of conjugated linolenic acid isomers against induced oxidative stress, inflammation and erythrocyte membrane disintegrity in rat model.

Saha SS, Dasgupta P, Sengupta Bandyopadhyay S, Ghosh M.SourceDepartment of Chemical Technology, University College of Science & Technology, University of Calcutta, 92, A.P.C. Road, Kolkata 700 009, India. Electronic address: sahasidh@gmail.com.
Biochimica et biophysica acta.Biochim Biophys Acta.2012 Dec;1820(12):1951-70. doi: 10.1016/j.bbagen.2012.08.021. Epub 2012 Sep 4.
BACKGROUND: α-Eleostearic acid and punicic acid, two typical conjugated linolenic acid (CLnA) isomers present in bitter gourd and snake gourd oil respectively, exhibit contrasting cis-trans configuration which made them biologically important.METHODS: Rats were divided into six groups. Group 1 was
PMID 22967758

The cholesterol content of the erythrocyte membrane is an important determinant of phosphatidylserine exposure.

van Zwieten R, Bochem AE, Hilarius PM, van Bruggen R, Bergkamp F, Hovingh GK, Verhoeven AJ.SourceLaboratory of Red Blood Cell Diagnostics, Dept. of Blood Cell Research, Sanquin Blood Supply Foundation, Amsterdam, The Netherlands. Electronic address: r.vanzwieten@sanquin.nl.
Biochimica et biophysica acta.Biochim Biophys Acta.2012 Dec;1821(12):1493-500. doi: 10.1016/j.bbalip.2012.08.008. Epub 2012 Aug 31.
Maintenance of the asymmetric distribution of phospholipids across the plasma membrane is a prerequisite for the survival of erythrocytes. Various stimuli have been shown to induce scrambling of phospholipids and thereby exposure of phosphatidylserine (PS). In two types of patients, both with aberra
PMID 22960544

Japanese Journal

Morphological character changes through decapodid-stage larva and juveniles in the ghost shrimp Nihonotrypaea harmandi from western Kyushu, Japan: Clues for inferring pre- and post-settlement states and processes

Tamaki Akio,Saitoh Yuko,Itoh Jun-ichi,Hongo Yuichiro,Sen-ju Shun-suke,Takeuchi Seiji,Ohashi Satoshi
Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology 443, 90-113, 2013-05-00
Some decapod crustaceans release larvae from estuarine or coastal shores to coastal oceans. Decapodids (last-stage larvae) return home, settle, and metamorphose into juveniles I, which go through furt …
NAID 120005231327

子どもはなぜ「学校の怪談」を語るのか:アンケート調査による抑圧説の検証

吉岡一志
山口県立大学学術情報 6, 33-38, 2013-03-31
… For this analysis it was examined what variables determined children's attitude toward ghost story by means of four independent variables: sex, educational phase, student subculture, and parent-child relationship. … It was proposed a new hypothesis that the source of occurring" Gakkou no Kwaidan" was will of children trying to acquire an identity of its own because there was correlation between attitude toward ghost story and variables associated with recognition and communication. …
NAID 110009556997

光学機器とメタフィクション : アドルフォ・ビオイ=カサーレス『モレルの発明』とスティーヴン・ミルハウザー「幻影師、アイゼンハイム」

坪野圭介
れにくさ 4, 118-131, 2013-03-29
… During the same period, "phantasmagoria," which originally referred to a sort of magic ghost show using an optical device, became a metaphor for a phantasmic realm of existence in 19th century literature. …
NAID 120005246063

上方落語演題の意味的分類

角岡賢一
龍谷大学国際センター研究年報 22, 49-69, 2013-03-00
… In this paper, 433 Rakugo stories are semantically categorized: stories based on Kabuki and Bunraku plays, ghost stories, heart-warming stories and funny stories. …
NAID 110009558486

Related Pictures

★リンクテーブル★

リンク元	「ゴースト」「形骸」
拡張検索	「red cell ghost」「erythrocyte ghost」「ghost cell」

「ゴースト」

Ghost
	Engraving of the Hammersmith Ghost in Kirby's Wonderful and Scientific Museum, a magazine published in 1804
Grouping	Legendary creature
Sub grouping	Undead
Similar creatures	Revenant
Region	Europe, The Americas, Asia, Africa, Oceania

　　[★]

英: [[]]
同: ghost
関: [[]]

同: ghost

「形骸」

　　[★]

英: ghost
関: ゴースト

「red cell ghost」

　　[★]

赤血球ゴースト

関: erythrocyte cytoskeleton、erythrocyte ghost、erythrocyte membrane、red blood cell ghost

「erythrocyte ghost」

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