WordNet

a personal enemy; "they had been political foes for years" (同)enemy
a disorderly outburst or tumult; "they were amazed by the furious disturbance they had caused" (同)disruption, commotion, flutter, hurly burly, to-do, hoo-ha, hoo-hah, kerfuffle
an unhappy and worried mental state; "there was too much anger and disturbance"; "she didnt realize the upset she caused me" (同)perturbation, upset
the act of disturbing something or someone; setting something in motion
a condition or state of affairs almost beyond ones ability to deal with and requiring great effort to bear or overcome; "grappling with financial difficulties"
the quality of being difficult; "they agreed about the difficulty of the climb" (同)difficultness
a factor causing trouble in achieving a positive result or tending to produce a negative result; "serious difficulties were encountered in obtaining a pure reagent"
suffer or be susceptible to damage; "These fine china cups damage easily"
inflict damage upon; "The snow damaged the roof"; "She damaged the car when she hit the tree"
the act of damaging something or someone (同)harm, hurt, scathe
loss of military equipment (同)equipment casualty
the occurrence of a change for the worse (同)harm, impairment
any obstruction that impedes or is burdensome (同)hinderance, hitch, preventive, preventative, encumbrance, incumbrance, interference
the act of hindering or obstructing or impeding (同)hinderance, interference
something immaterial that interferes with or delays action or progress (同)hinderance, deterrent, impediment, balk, baulk, check, handicap
a structure or object that impedes free movement
any condition that makes it difficult to make progress or to achieve an objective; "intolerance is a barrier to understanding" (同)roadblock
anything serving to maintain separation by obstructing vision or access
English writer remembered particularly for his novel about Robinson Crusoe (1660-1731) (同)Daniel Defoe

PrepTutorEJDIC

敵,かたき;(競技・論争などの)相手,敵対者
〈U〉乱す(騒がす,妨害する)こと;乱れた状態 / 〈C〉騒ぎ,騒動,動乱 / 〈C〉乱す(騒がす,妨害する)もの
〈U〉『難しさ』,困難 / 〈C〉『困難なこと』,難事,障害 / 〈C〉《通例複数形で》『困難な状況』,(特に)財政困難 / 〈C〉〈U〉(…との)不和,仲たがい《+『with』(『between』)+『名』》 / 〈C〉苦情,反対
〈U〉『損害』,損傷,被害 / 《複数形で》損害賠障[金] / 《the~》《単数形で》《話》飛用 / …‘に'損傷する
〈C〉(…を)じゃまする人(物),(…の)妨害物《+『to』+『名』》 / 〈U〉妨害,じゃま
(通行をはばむ)『さく』,『障壁』;関門;《ふざけて》改札口 / (…の)『難関』,障害《+『to』+『名』》
デフォー(Daniel~;1659?‐1731;英国の小説家・ジャーナリスト;Robinson Crusoeの作者)
=fetus
敵,敵兵
farad / forte

Wikipedia preview

出典(authority):フリー百科事典『ウィキペディア（Wikipedia）』「2016/03/27 12:23:38」(JST)

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Enemy or foe is an individual or a group that is seen as forcefully adverse or threatening. The concept of an enemy has been observed to be "basic for both individuals and communities".^[1] The term "enemy" serves the social function of designating a particular entity as a threat, thereby invoking an intense emotional response to that entity.^[2] The state of being or having an enemy is enmity, foehood or foeship.

Terms

Duel between two enemies

As for the etymology the term enemy is derived from Latin language for 'bad friend' (Latin: inimicus).^[3] "Enemy" is a strong word, and "emotions associated with the enemy would include anger, hatred, frustration, envy, jealousy, fear, distrust, and possibly grudging respect".^[2] As a political concept, an enemy is likely to be met with hate, violence, battle and war. The opposite of an enemy is a friend or ally. Because the term "the enemy" is a bit bellicose and militaristic to use in polite society, informal substitutes are more often used. Often the substituted terms become pejoratives in the context that they are used. In any case, the designation of an "enemy" exists solely to denote the status of a particular group of people as a threat, and to propagate this designation within the local context. Substituted terms for an enemy often go further to meaningfully identify a known group as an enemy, and to pejoratively frame that identification. A government may seek to represent a person or group as a threat to the public good by designating that person or group to be a public enemy.

The characterization of an individual or/and group as an enemy is called demonization. The propagation of demonization is a major aspect of propaganda. An "enemy" may also be conceptual; used to describe impersonal phenomena such disease, and a host of other things. In theology, "the Enemy" is typically reserved to represent an evil deity,^[4] devil or a demon. For example, "in early Iroquois legend, the Sun and Moon, as god and goddess of Day and Night, had already acquired the characters of the great friend and enemy of man, the Good and Evil Deity".^[4] Conversely, some religions describe a monotheistic God as an enemy; for example, in 1 Samuel 28:16, the spirit of Samuel tells a disobedient Saul: "Wherefore then dost thou ask of me, seeing the LORD is departed from thee, and is become thine enemy?"

War-time propaganda representation of an enemy

"The enemy," as the object of social anger or repulsion, has throughout history been used as the prototypical propaganda tool to focus the fear and anxiety within a society toward a particular target. The target is often general, as with an ethnic group or race of people, or it can also be a conceptual target, as with an ideology which characterises a particular group. In some cases the concept of the enemy have morphed; whereas once racial and ethnic claims to support a call to war may later have changed to ideological and conceptual based claims.

During the Cold War, the terms "Communists" or "Reds" were believed by many in American society to mean "the enemy," and the meaning of the two terms could be extremely pejorative, depending on the political context, mood, or state of fear and agitation within the society at the time.

Generally, the counterpoint to an enemy is a friend or ally, although the term frenemy has been coined to capture the sense of a relationship wherein the parties are allied for some purposes and at odds with one another for other purposes.

As a function of social science

Unity of various countries against a common enemy

The existence or perceived existence of a collective enemy tends to increase the cohesiveness of the group.^[5] However, the identification and treatment of other entities as enemies may be irrational, and a sign of a psychological dysfunction. For example, group polarization may devolve into groupthink, which may lead members of the "in" group to perceive nonmembers or other groups as enemies even where the others present neither antagonism nor an actual threat.^[6] Paranoid schizophrenia is characterized by the irrational belief that other people, ranging from family members and personal acquaintances to celebrities seen on television, are personal enemies plotting harm to the sufferer.^[7]^[8] Irrational approaches may extend to treating impersonal phenomena not merely as conceptual enemies, but as sentient actors intentionally bringing strife to the sufferer.

The concept of the enemy is well covered in the field of peace and conflict studies, which is available as a major at many major universities. In peace studies, enemies are those entities who are perceived as frustrating or preventing achievement of a goal. The enemy may not even know they are being regarded as such, since the concept is one-sided.

Thus, in order to achieve peace, one must eliminate the threat. This can be achieved by:

destroying the enemy
changing one's perception of an entity as enemy
achieving the goal the enemy is frustrating.

Personal conflicts are frequently either unexamined (one's goals are not well defined) or examined only from one point of view. This means it is often possible to resolve conflict (to eliminate the cause of the conflict) by redefining goals such that the frustration (not the person) is eliminated, obvious, negotiated away, or decided upon.

In literature

In literature, stories are often developed by presenting a primary character, the protagonist, as overcoming obstacles presented by an antagonist who is depicted as a personal enemy of the protagonist. Serial fictional narratives of heroes often present the hero contending against an archenemy whose capabilities match or exceed those of the hero, thereby establishing tension as to whether the hero will be able to defeat this enemy. The enemy may be displayed as an evil character who plans to harm innocents, so that the reader will side with the protagonist in the need to battle the enemy.^[9]

Treatment

Former enemy rebel (on the left) forgiven by a police commander (on the right)

Various legal and theological regimes exist governing the treatment of enemies. Many religions have precepts favoring forgiveness and reconciliation with enemies. The Jewish Encyclopedia states that "[h]atred of an enemy is a natural impulse of primitive peoples",^[10] while "willingness to forgive an enemy is a mark of advanced moral development".^[10] It contends that the teaching of the Bible, Talmud, and other writings, "gradually educates the people toward the latter stage",^[10] stating that "indications in the Bible of a spirit of hatred and vengeance toward the enemy... are for the most part purely nationalistic expressions—hatred of the national enemy being quite compatible with an otherwise kindly spirit".^[10]

Religious doctrines

Virtually all major religions have "similar ideals of love, the same goal of benefiting humanity through spiritual practice, and the same effect of making their followers into better human beings".^[11] It is therefore widely expressed in world religions that enemies should be treated with love, kindness, compassion, and forgiveness.

The Book of Exodus states: "If thou meet thine enemy's ox or his ass going astray, thou shalt surely bring it back to him again. If thou see the ass of him that hateth thee lying under his burden, and thou wouldest forbear to help him, thou shalt surely help with him."^[12] The Book of Proverbs similarly states: "Rejoice not when thine enemy falleth and let not thy heart be glad when he stumbleth",^[13] and: "If thine enemy be hungry give him bread to eat, and if he be thirsty give him water to drink. For thus shalt thou heap coals of fire upon his head, and the Lord shall reward thee".^[14] The Jewish Encyclopedia contends that the opinion that the Old Testament commanded hatred of the enemy derives from a misunderstanding of the Sermon on the Mount, wherein Jesus said: "Ye have heard that it hath been said, Thou shalt love thy neighbor and hate thine enemy. But I say unto you, Love your enemies and pray for them that persecute you".^[15]

The Jewish Encyclopedia also cites passages in the Talmud stating: "If a man finds both a friend and an enemy requiring assistance he should assist his enemy first in order to subdue his evil inclination",^[10] and: "Who is strong? He who converts an enemy into a friend".^[10]

The concept of Ahimsa found in Hinduism, Jainism and Buddhism also captures this sentiment, requiring kindness and non-violence towards all living things on the basis that they all are connected. Indian leader Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi strongly believed in this principle,^[16] stating that "[t]o one who follows this doctrine there is no room for an enemy".^[17]

References

^ Mortimer Ostow, Spirit, Mind, & Brain: A Psychoanalytic Examination of Spirituality and Religion (2007), p. 73.
^ ^a ^b Martha L. Cottam, Beth Dietz-Uhler, Elena Mastors, Introduction to Political Psychology (2009), p. 54.
^ Robert Greene (3 September 2010). The 33 Strategies Of War. Profile Books. p. 9. ISBN 978-1-84765-142-6. Retrieved 29 August 2013. ...the word “enemy”—from the Latin inimicus, “not a friend”...
^ ^a ^b Edward Burnett Tylor, Primitive culture (1873), p. 323-4.
^ Joan Ferrante-Wallace, Sociology: A Global Perspective (2006), p. 120.
^ Wayne Weiten, Psychology: Themes and Variations, p. 546.
^ Wayne Weiten, Psychology: Themes and Variations, p. 468.
^ Mortimer Ostow, Spirit, Mind, & Brain: A Psychoanalytic Examination of Spirituality and Religion (2007), p. 74.
^ Patrick Colm Hogan, What Literature Teaches Us about Emotion (2011), p. 294.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f Kaufmann Kohler, David Philipson, Treatment of an Enemy, The Jewish Encyclopedia (1906).
^ The Dalai Lama, quoted in John Templeton, Agape Love: Tradition In Eight World Religions (2008), p. 2-3.
^ Exodus 23:4-5.
^ Proverbs 24:17.
^ Proverbs 25:21-22.
^ Matthew 5:43-44.
^ Gandhi's Philosophy of Ahimsa and Its Application to Current Conflicts. Newsblaze.com (2007-10-14). Retrieved on 2011-06-15.
^ Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi, The Satyagraha Ashram, reported in The Gandhi Reader: A Source Book of His Life and Writings, 2nd ed. (Madras: Samata Books, 1984), p. 138.

External links

Kaufmann Kohler, David Philipson, Treatment of an Enemy, The Jewish Encyclopedia (1906).

English Journal

Transcriptomic profiling permits the identification of pollutant sources and effects in ambient water samples.

Hasenbein M, Werner I, Deanovic LA, Geist J, Fritsch EB, Javidmehr A, Foe C, Fangue NA, Connon RE.Author information Department of Anatomy, Physiology and Cell Biology, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, CA 95616, USA; Aquatic Systems Biology Unit, Department of Ecology and Ecosystem Management, Technische Universität München, Mühlenweg 22, D-85354 Freising, Germany; Department of Wildlife, Fish & Conservation Biology, University of California, Davis, CA 95616, USA.AbstractContaminant exposure is one possible contributor to population declines of endangered fish species in the Sacramento-San Joaquin Estuary, California, including the endangered delta smelt (Hypomesus transpacificus). Herein we investigated transcriptional responses in larval delta smelt resulting from exposure to water samples collected at the Department of Water Resources Field Station at Hood, a site of concern, situated upstream of known delta smelt habitat and spawning sites and downstream of the Sacramento Regional Wastewater Treatment Plant (SRWTP). Microarray assessments indicate impacts on energy metabolism, DNA repair mechanisms and RNA processing, the immune system, development and muscle function. Transcription responses of fish exposed to water samples from Hood were compared with exposures to 9% effluent samples from SRWTP, water from the Sacramento River at Garcia Bend (SRGB), upstream of the effluent discharge, and SRGB water spiked with 2mg/L total ammonium (9% effluent equivalent). Results indicate that transcriptomic profiles from Hood are similar to 9% SRWTP effluent and ammonium spiked SRGB water, but significantly different from SRGB. SRGB samples however were also significantly different from laboratory controls, suggesting that SRWTP effluent is not solely responsible for the responses determined at Hood, that ammonium exposure likely enhances the effect of multiple-contaminant exposures, and that the observed mortality at Hood is due to the combination of both effluent discharge and contaminants arising from upstream of the tested sites.
The Science of the total environment.Sci Total Environ.2014 Jan 15;468-469:688-98. doi: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2013.08.081. Epub 2013 Sep 21.
Contaminant exposure is one possible contributor to population declines of endangered fish species in the Sacramento-San Joaquin Estuary, California, including the endangered delta smelt (Hypomesus transpacificus). Herein we investigated transcriptional responses in larval delta smelt resulting from
PMID 24061060

Tromboprophylaxis with heparin in hospitalized patients with cirrhosis: friend or foe.

Cerini F, Garcia-Pagán JC.Author information Barcelona Hepatic Hemodynamic Laboratory, Liver Unit, IDIBAPS and CIBERehd, Hospital Clinic, IMDIM, Barcelona, Spain.AbstractThe paradigm that the hemostatic disturbances observed in patients with severe chronic liver disorders protect them from thrombotic events has completely changed in the last years (1, 2). In fact, despite bleeding is the most common clinical manifestation of advanced liver cirrhosis, thrombotic complications can be also observed. It has been recently demonstrated that patients with cirrhosis are at risk of developing not only thrombotic complications in the portal venous axis (3), but also in other territories (4, 5). This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.
Liver international : official journal of the International Association for the Study of the Liver.Liver Int.2014 Jan 2. doi: 10.1111/liv.12453. [Epub ahead of print]
The paradigm that the hemostatic disturbances observed in patients with severe chronic liver disorders protect them from thrombotic events has completely changed in the last years (1, 2). In fact, despite bleeding is the most common clinical manifestation of advanced liver cirrhosis, thrombotic comp
PMID 24382271

Circulating endothelial progenitor cells and in-stent restenosis: friend, foe, or none of the above?

Hibbert B1, O'Brien ER2.
The Canadian journal of cardiology.Can J Cardiol.2014 Jan;30(1):6-7. doi: 10.1016/j.cjca.2013.11.010. Epub 2013 Nov 14.
PMID 24290519

An antibiotic-altered microbiota provides fuel for the enteric foe.

Stiemsma LT1, Turvey SE2, Finlay BB1.Author information 1Department of Microbiology & Immunology, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, V6T 1Z4.2Department of Pediatrics, Child & Family Research Institute, Vancouver, BC, V5Z 4H4.AbstractAntibiotic therapies disrupt the intestinal microbiota and render the host susceptible to enteric infections. A recent report by Ng et al. explores the ability of two intestinal pathogens (Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium and Clostridium difficile) to use this disruption to their advantage and consume host carbohydrates that would otherwise be unavailable in the presence of a normal gut microbiota.
Cell research.Cell Res.2014 Jan;24(1):5-6. doi: 10.1038/cr.2013.142. Epub 2013 Oct 29.
Antibiotic therapies disrupt the intestinal microbiota and render the host susceptible to enteric infections. A recent report by Ng et al. explores the ability of two intestinal pathogens (Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium and Clostridium difficile) to use this disruption to their advantage an
PMID 24165893