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Motion, the process of movement, is described using specific anatomical terms. Motion includes movement of organs, joints, limbs, and specific sections of the body. The terminology used, describes this motion according to its direction relative to the anatomical position of the joints. Anatomists use a unified set of terms to describe most of the movements, although other, more specialized terms are necessary for describing the uniqueness of the movements such as those of the hands, feet, and eyes.

In general, motion is classified according to the anatomical plane it occurs in. Flexion and extension are examples of angular motions, in which two axes of a joint are brought closer together or moved further apart. Rotational motion may occur at other joints, for example the shoulder, and are described as internal or external. Other terms, such as elevation and depression, refer to movement above or below the horizontal plane. Many anatomical terms derive from Latin terms with the same meaning.

1 Classification
- 1.1 Abnormal motion
2 General motion
- 2.1 Flexion and extension
- 2.2 Abduction and adduction
- 2.3 Elevation and depression
- 2.4 Rotation
- 2.5 Other
3 Special motion
- 3.1 Special motions of the hands and feet
  - 3.1.1 Flexion and extension of the foot
  - 3.1.2 Flexion and extension of the hand
  - 3.1.3 Pronation and supination
  - 3.1.4 Inversion and eversion
- 3.2 Special motions of the eyes
- 3.3 Special motions of the jaw and teeth
- 3.4 Other
4 Notes
5 References
6 Sources
7 External links

Classification

Motions are classified after the anatomical planes they occur in,^[1] although movement is more often than not a combination of different motions occurring simultaneously in several planes.^[2] Motions can be split into categories relating to the nature of the joints involved:

Gliding motions occur between flat surfaces, such as in the intervertebral discs or between the carpal and metacarpal bones of the hand.^[1]
Angular motions occur over synovial joints and causes them to either increase or decrease angles between bones.^[1]
Rotational motions move a structure in a rotational motion along a longitudinal axis, such as turning the head to look to either side.^[3]

Apart from this motions can also be divided into:

Linear motions (or translatory motions), which move in a line between two points. A rectilinear motion refers to a motion in a straight line between two points, whereas a curvilinear motion refers to a motion following a curved path.^[2]
Angular motions (or rotary motions) occur when an object is around another object increasing or decreasing the angle. The different parts of the object do not move the same distance. Examples include a movement of the knee, where the lower leg changes angle compared to the femur, or movements of the ankle.^[2]

The study of movement is known as kinesiology.^[4] A categoric list of movements of the human body and the muscles involved can be found at list of movements of the human body.

Abnormal motion

The prefix hyper- is sometimes added to describe movement beyond the normal limits, such as in hypermobility, hyperflexion or hyperextension. The range of motion describes the total range of motion that a joint is able to do. ^[5] For example, if a part of the body such as a joint is overstretched or "bent backwards" because of exaggerated extension motion, then it can be described as hyperextended. Hyperextension increases the stress on the ligaments of a joint, and is not always because of a voluntary movement. It may be a result of accidents, falls, or other causes of trauma. It may also be used in surgery, such as in temporarily dislocating joints for surgical procedures. ^[6]

General motion

These are general terms that can be used to describe most movements the body makes. Most terms have a clear opposite, and so are treated in pairs.^[7]

Flexion and extension

Flexion and extension describe movements that affect the angle between two parts of the body. These terms come from the Latin words with the same meaning.^[a]

Flexion describes a bending movement that decreases the angle between a segment and its proximal segment.^[9] For example, bending the elbow, or clenching a hand into a fist, are examples of flexion. When sitting down, the knees are flexed. When a joint can move forward and backward, such as the neck and trunk, flexion refers to movement in the anterior direction.^[10] Flexion of the shoulder or hip refers to movement of the arm or leg forward.^[11]

Extension is the opposite of flexion, describing a straightening movement that increases the angle between body parts.^[12] When a joint can move forward and backward, such as the neck and trunk, extension refers to movement in the posterior direction.^[10] For example, when standing up, the knees are extended. Extension of the hip or shoulder moves the arm or leg backward.^[11] When the chin is against the chest, the head is flexed, and the trunk is flexed when a person leans forward. ^[10]

Abduction and adduction

Abduction and adduction refer to motions that move a structure away from or towards the centre of the body.^[13] The centre of the body is defined as the midsagittal plane.^[3] These terms come from the Latin words with the same meaning.^[b]

Abduction refers to a motion that pulls a structure or part away from the midline of the body. In the case of fingers and toes, it refers to spreading the digits apart, away from the centerline of the hand or foot. Abduction of the wrist is also called radial deviation.^[13] For example, raising the arms up, such as when tightrope-walking, is an example of abduction at the shoulder.^[11] When the legs are splayed at the hip, such as when doing a star jump or doing a split, the legs are abducted at the hip.^[3]

Adduction refers to a motion that pulls a structure or part toward the midline of the body, or towards the midline of a limb. In the case of fingers and toes, it refers to bringing the digits together, towards the centerline of the hand or foot. Adduction of the wrist is also called ulnar deviation. For example, dropping the arms to the sides, or bringing the knees together, are examples of adduction.^[13]

Elevation and depression

The terms elevation and depression refer to movement above and below the horizontal. They derive from the Latin terms with the same meaning^[c]

Elevation refers to movement in a superior direction.^[16] For example, shrugging is an example of elevation of the scapula. ^[17]

Depression refers to movement in an inferior direction, the opposite of elevation.^[18]

Rotation

Rotation of body parts is referred to as internal or external, referring to rotation towards or away from the center of the body.^[19]

Internal rotation (or medial rotation) refers to rotation towards the axis of the body.^[19]

External rotation (or lateral rotation) refers to rotation away from the center of the body.^[19]

The lotus posture of yoga, demonstrating external rotation of the leg at the hip.
Rotating the arm away from the body is external rotation.
Rotating the arm closer to the body is internal rotation.

Other

Anterograde and Retrograde flow, refers to movement of blood or other fluids in a normal (anterograde) or abnormal (retrograde) direction.^[20]
Circumduction refers to a conical movement of a body part, such as a ball-and-socket joint or the eye. Circumduction is a combination of flexion, extension, adduction and abduction. Circumduction can be best performed at ball and socket joints, such as the hip and shoulder, but may also be performed by other parts of the body such as fingers, hands, feet, and head.^[21] For example, circumduction occurs when spinning the arm when performing a serve in tennis or bowling a cricket ball. ^[22]
Reduction refers to a motion returning a bone to its original state,^[23] such as a shoulder reduction following shoulder dislocation, or reduction of a hernia.

The swinging action made during a tennis serve is an example of circumduction

Special motion

Special motions of the hands and feet

Flexion and extension of the foot

Dorsiflexion and plantar flexion refers to extension or flexion of the foot at the ankle. These terms refer to flexion between the foot and the body's dorsal surface, considered the front of the leg, and flexion between the foot and the body's plantar surface, considered the back of the leg.^[24] These terms are used to resolve confusion, as technically extension of the joint refers to dorsiflexion, which could be considered counter-intuitive as the motion reduces the angle between the foot and the leg. ^[25]

Dorsiflexion where the toes are brought closer to the shin. This decreases the angle between the dorsum of the foot and the leg.^[26] For example, when walking on the heels the ankle is described as dorsiflexion.^[25]

Plantar flexion is the movement which decreases the angle between the sole of the foot and the back of the leg. For example, the movement when depressing a car pedal or standing on the tiptoes can be described as plantar flexion.^[25]

A ballerina, demonstrating plantar flexion of the feet.
Dorsi and plantar flexion of the foot.

Flexion and extension of the hand

Palmarflexion and dorsiflexion refer to movement of the flexion (palmarflexion) or extension (dorsiflexion) of the hand at the wrist.^[27] These terms refer to flexion between the hand and the body's dorsal surface, which is the back of the arm, and flexion between the hand and the body's plantar surface, which in anatomical position is considered the anterior side of the arm.^[28] The direction of terms are opposite to those in the foot because of embryological rotation of the limbs in opposite directions.^[10]

Palmarflexion refers to decreasing the angle between the palm and the anterior forearm.^[27]

Dorsiflexion refers to extension at the wrist joint. This brings the hand closer to the dorsum of the body.^[27]

Praying Hands by Albrecht Dürer, demonstrating dorsiflexion of the hands.

Pronation and supination

Pronation and supination refer to rotation of the forearm or foot so that in the anatomical position the palm or sole is facing anteriorly (supination) or posteriorly (pronation).^[29]

Pronation at the forearm is a rotational movement where the hand and upper arm are turned inwards. Pronation of the foot refers to turning of the foot outwards, so that weight is borne on the medial part of the foot.^[30]

Supination of the forearm occurs when the forearm or palm are rotated outwards. Supination of the foot refers to turning of the sole of the foot inwards.^[31]

Supination and pronation of the foot
Supination and pronation of the arm

Inversion and eversion

Inversion and eversion refer to movements that tilt the sole of the foot away from (eversion) or towards (inversion) the midline of the body.^[32]

Eversion is the movement of the sole of the foot away from the median plane.^[33] Inversion is the movement of the sole towards the median plane. For example, inversion describes the motion when an ankle is twisted.^[26]

Example showing inversion and eversion of the foot
Eversion of the right foot
Inversion of the right foot

Special motions of the eyes

Unique terminology is also used to describe the eye. For example:

A version is an eye movement involving both eyes moving synchronously and symmetrically in the same direction.^[34]
Torsion refers to eye movement that affects the vertical axis of the eye,^[35] such as the movement made when looking in to the nose.

Special motions of the jaw and teeth

Occlusion refers to motion of the mandibula towards the maxilla making contact between the teeth.^[36]
Protrusion and Retrusion are sometimes used to describe the anterior (protrusion) and posterior (retrusion) movement of the jaw.^[37]

Examples showing protrusion and retrusion.
Elevation and depression of the jaw.

Other

Other terms include:

Nutation and counternutation^[d] refer to movement of the sacrum defined by the rotation of the promontory downwards and anteriorly (nutation) or upwards and posteriorly (counternutation).^[39]
Opposition refers to the movement that involves grasping of the thumb and fingers.^[40]
Protraction and Retraction refer to an anterior (protraction) or posterior (retraction) movement,^[41] such as of the arm at the shoulders, although these terms have been criticised as non-specific. ^[42]
Reciprocal motion refers to alternating motions in opposing directions. ^[43]
Reposition refers to restoring an object to its natural condition.^[44]

Nutation at left, counternutation at right
An example of opposition
Example of opposition of the thumb and index finger

Notes

^ "to stretch out" (Latin: extendere), "to bend" Latin: flectere) ^[8]
^ "to bring in" (Latin: adductere), "to lead away" Latin: abducere^[14]
^ "press down" (Latin: deprimere), "to raise" (Latin: elevare)^[15]
^ "to nod" (Latin: Nutare)^[38]

References

^ ^a ^b ^c Marieb 2010, p. 212.
^ ^a ^b ^c Lippert 2011, pp. 6-7.
^ ^a ^b ^c Kendall 2005, p. 57.
^ Lippert 2011, pp. 1-7.
^ Kendall 2005, p. G-4.
^ Seeley 1998, p. 229.
^ "Anatomy & Physiology". Openstax college at Connexions. Retrieved November 16, 2013.
^ OED 1989, "flexion", "extension".
^ OED 1989, "flexion".
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d Kendall 2005, p. 56.
^ ^a ^b ^c Cook 2012, pp. 180-193.
^ OED 1989, "extension".
^ ^a ^b ^c Swartz 2010, pp. 590–591.
^ OED 1989, "adduction", "abduction", "abduct".
^ OED 1989.
^ OED 1989, "elevation".
^ Kendall 2005, p. 303.
^ OED 1989, "depression".
^ ^a ^b ^c Swartz 2010, pp. 590-1.
^ OED 1989, "anterograde", "retrograde".
^ Saladin 2010, p. 300.
^ Kendall 2005, p. 304.
^ Taber 2001, "reduction".
^ OED 1989, "plantar flexion", "dorsiflexion".
^ ^a ^b ^c Kendall 2005, p. 371.
^ ^a ^b Kyung 2005, p. 123.
^ ^a ^b ^c Swartz 2010, pp. 591-593.
^ OED 1989, "plantarflexion", "dorsiflexion".
^ Swartz 2010, pp. 591–592.
^ OED 1989, "pronation".
^ OED 1989, "supination".
^ Swartz 2010, p. 591.
^ Kyung 2005, p. 108.
^ DMD 2012, "version".
^ Taber 2001, "torsion".
^ Taber 2001, "occlusion".
^ Taber 2001, "protrusion", "retrusion".
^ OED 1989, "nutation".
^ Houglum 2012, p. 333.
^ Taber 2001, "opposition".
^ OED 1989, "protraction", "retraction".
^ Kendall 2005, p. 302.
^ Taber 2001, "reciprocation".
^ OED 1989, "resposition".

Sources

Albert, Daniel (2012). Dorland's Illustrated Medical Dictionary. (32nd ed.). Philadelphia, PA: Saunders/Elsevier. ISBN 978-1416062578.
Chung, Kyung Won (2005). Gross Anatomy (Board Review). Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. ISBN 0-7817-5309-0.
Cook, Chad E. (2012). Orthopedic Manual Therapy: An Evidence Based Approach (2nd ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education. ISBN 978-0-13-802173-3.
Houglum, Peggy A.; Bertoli, Dolores B. (2012). Brunnstrom's Clinical Kinesiology. F. A. Davis Company. ISBN 978-0-8036-2352-1.
Kendall, Florence Peterson; [et al.] et al. (2005). Muscles : testing and function with posture and pain (5th ed.). Baltimore, MD: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. ISBN 0-7817-4780-5.
Lippert, Lynn S. (2011). Clinical Kinesiology and Anatomy (5th ed.). F. A. Davis Company. ISBN 978-0-8036-2363-7.
Marieb, Elaine N.; Wilhelm, Patricia B.; Mallat, Jon (2010). Human Anatomy. Pearson. ISBN 978-0-321-61611-1.
Saladin, Kenneth S. (2010). Anatomy & Physiology The Unity of Form and Function (5th ed.). McGraw Hill.
Seeley, Rod R.; Stephens, Trent D.; Tate, Philip (1998). Anatomy & Physiology (4th ed.). WCB/McGraw-Hill. ISBN 0-697-41107-9.
Simpson, John A.; Weiner, Edmung (1989). The Oxford English Dictionary. Oxford: Clarendon Press. ISBN 9780198611868.
Swartz, Mark H. (2010). Textbook of Physical Diagnosis: History and Examination (6th ed.). Saunders/Elsevier. ISBN 978-1-4160-6203-5.
Venes, Donald (Editor); Thomas, Clayton L. (Editor); Egan, Elizabeth J. (Managing Editor); Morelli, Nancee A. (Assistant Editor); Nell, Alison D. (Assistant Editor); Matkowski, Joy (2001). Taber's Cyclopedic Medical Dictionary (illustrated in full color 19th ed.). Philadelphia: F.A.Davis Co. ISBN 0-8036-0655-9.

External links

Hypermuscle: Muscles in Action at med.umich.edu

UpToDate Contents

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1. 遠位指節間関節（つち指）の伸筋腱損傷 extensor tendon injury of the distal interphalangeal joint mallet finger
2. 指、手、および手首の骨折の概要 overview of finger hand and wrist fractures
3. 上顆炎（テニス肘およびゴルフ肘） epicondylitis tennis and golf elbow
4. 滑膜ひだ症候群（タナ障害） plica syndrome
5. 手の痛みを有する患者の評価 evaluation of the patient with hand pain

English Journal

The functional demand (FD) placed on the knee and hip of older adults during everyday activities.

Samuel D, Rowe P, Nicol A.SourceFaculty of Health Sciences, University of Southampton, UK. Electronic address: D.Samuel@soton.ac.uk.
Archives of gerontology and geriatrics.Arch Gerontol Geriatr.2013 Sep-Oct;57(2):192-7. doi: 10.1016/j.archger.2013.03.003. Epub 2013 Apr 2.
Age-related decline in physical capacity and diminishing physiological reserves may increase the demand placed on lower extremity joints during everyday activities. This study aimed to characterize the FD at the knee and hip joints of older adults during various mobility activities. Eighty-four heal
PMID 23561852

In vivo kinematics of the extensor mechanism of the knee during deep flexion.

Kobayashi K, Hosseini A, Sakamoto M, Qi W, Rubash HE, Li G.AbstractWhile various factors have been assumed to affect knee joint biomechanics, few data have been reported on the function of the extensor mechanism in deep flexion of the knee. This study analyzed the patellofemoral joint contact kinematics and the ratio of the quadriceps and patellar tendon forces in living subjects when they performed a single leg lunge up to 150 deg of flexion. The data revealed that in the proximal-distal direction, the patellofemoral articular contact points were in the central one-third of the patellar cartilage. Beyond 90 deg of flexion, the contact points moved towards the medial-lateral edges of the patellar surface. At low flexion angles, the patellar tendon and quadriceps force ratio was approximately 1.0 but reduced to about 0.7 after 60 deg of knee flexion, implying that the patella tendon carries lower loads than the quadriceps. These data may be valuable for improvement of contemporary surgical treatments of diseased knees that are aimed to achieve deep knee flexion.
Journal of biomechanical engineering.J Biomech Eng.2013 Aug 1;135(8):81002-7. doi: 10.1115/1.4024284.
While various factors have been assumed to affect knee joint biomechanics, few data have been reported on the function of the extensor mechanism in deep flexion of the knee. This study analyzed the patellofemoral joint contact kinematics and the ratio of the quadriceps and patellar tendon forces in
PMID 23719832

The effectiveness of proprioceptive neuromuscular facilitation techniques and hidrotherapy to improve knee stability after anterior cruciate ligament reconstruction.

Boca IC, Dan M.SourceVasile Goldis Western University of Arad, Arad, Romania.
British journal of sports medicine.Br J Sports Med.2013 Jul;47(10):e3. doi: 10.1136/bjsports-2013-092558.68.
BACKGROUND: Rehabilitation after anterior cruciate ligament reconstruction is a significant process which may decisively influence patient capacity to return to usual activity levels. Physiotherapy has a favourable influence on improving stability in the ACL deficient knee by using physical exercise
PMID 23757696

Japanese Journal

歩行可能な脳性麻痺児における大腿直筋および内側ハムストリングス延長術後4週の関節トルク変化

楠本泰士,新田收,松田雅弘
日本保健科学学会誌 16(1), 38-42, 2013-06-25
本研究では脳性麻痺児における選択的股関節筋解離術の術前・術後4週の膝関節トルクを比較し延長筋と関節トルクの関係を明らかにすることを目的とした。大腿直筋と内側ハムストリングスを侵襲した歩行可能な脳性麻痺児8名14肢を対象とした。術前・術後4週時の膝伸展・屈曲トルクを測定し,関節トルクを従属変数とした反復測定二元配置分散分析・多重比較にて検討した。分散分析の結果,膝伸展・屈曲の運動方向に有意差があり運 …
NAID 110009615111

人口股関節全置換術後患者の股関節・膝関節筋力，股関節機能，歩行能力の推移

上村明子,榊間春利,宮崎雅司,酒瀬川恵美,松田史代,米和徳,吉田義弘,砂原伸彦,松田剛正,カミムラアキコ,サカキマハルトシ,ミヤザキマサシ,サカセガワメグミ,マツダフミヨ,ヨネカズノリ,ヨシダヨシヒロ,スナハラノブヒコ,マツダタケマサ,KAMIMURA Akiko,SAKAKIMA Harutoshi,MIYAZAKI Masashi,SAKASEGAWA Megumi,MATSUDA Fumiyo,YONE Kazunori,YOSHIDA Yoshihiro,SUNAHARA Nobuhiko,MATSUDA Takemasa
鹿児島大学医学部保健学科紀要=Bulletin of the School of Health Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, Kagoshima University 23(1), 19-23, 2013-03-29
… We measured leg muscle strengths (hip abductor, hip extensor and knee extensor), function of the hip joint, ipsilateral hip pain, ambulation ability. … Hip extensor and knee strength of affected side also decreased at 1 week after surgery. …
NAID 120005324785

筋膜による筋間連結の機能的役割 : ウシガエル膝伸筋を用いた研究

石井禎基,崎田正博,笹井宣昌,笠松大輔,米井信二,福田智之,土屋禎三
理学療法学 40(1), 16-23, 2013-02-20
【目的】大腿部における筋間連結の機能的役割をあきらかにする。【方法】標本として,ウシガエル膝伸筋の大腿三頭筋のうち前大腿直筋を除いた内側広筋と外側広筋の2筋を用いた。標本の支配神経分枝以外をすべて切断した坐骨神経に電気刺激を与えて,様々に筋長を変えたときの等尺性強縮張力を測定した。張力測定は,生体そのままの条件(連結条件)と標本をハムストリングスおよび股関節内転筋群から切り離した条件(切離条件)で …
NAID 110009594479

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[9] "to stretch out" (Latin: extendere), "to bend" Latin: flectere) ^[8]

[16] "to bring in" (Latin: adductere), "to lead away" Latin: abducere^[14]

[18] "press down" (Latin: deprimere), "to raise" (Latin: elevare)^[15]

[42] "to nod" (Latin: Nutare)^[38]

[FOOTNOTEMarieb2010212-1] Marieb 2010, p. 212.

[FOOTNOTELippert20116-7-2] Lippert 2011, pp. 6-7.

[FOOTNOTEKendall200557-3] Kendall 2005, p. 57.

[FOOTNOTELippert20111-7-4] Lippert 2011, pp. 1-7.

[FOOTNOTEKendall2005G-4-5] Kendall 2005, p. G-4.

[FOOTNOTESeeley1998229-6] Seeley 1998, p. 229.

[Openstax_Anatomy_.26_Physiology-7] "Anatomy & Physiology". Openstax college at Connexions. Retrieved November 16, 2013.

[FOOTNOTEOED1989.22flexion.22.2C_.22extension.22-8] OED 1989, "flexion", "extension".

[FOOTNOTEOED1989.22flexion.22-10] OED 1989, "flexion".

[FOOTNOTEKendall200556-11] Kendall 2005, p. 56.

[FOOTNOTECook2012180-193-12] Cook 2012, pp. 180-193.

[FOOTNOTEOED1989.22extension.22-13] OED 1989, "extension".

[FOOTNOTESwartz2010590.E2.80.93591-14] Swartz 2010, pp. 590–591.

[FOOTNOTEOED1989.22adduction.22.2C_.22abduction.22.2C_.22abduct.22-15] OED 1989, "adduction", "abduction", "abduct".

[FOOTNOTEOED1989-17] OED 1989.

[FOOTNOTEOED1989.22elevation.22-19] OED 1989, "elevation".

[FOOTNOTEKendall2005303-20] Kendall 2005, p. 303.

[FOOTNOTEOED1989.22depression.22-21] OED 1989, "depression".

[FOOTNOTESwartz2010590-1-22] Swartz 2010, pp. 590-1.

[FOOTNOTEOED1989.22anterograde.22.2C_.22retrograde.22-23] OED 1989, "anterograde", "retrograde".

[FOOTNOTESaladin2010300-24] Saladin 2010, p. 300.

[FOOTNOTEKendall2005304-25] Kendall 2005, p. 304.

[FOOTNOTETaber2001.22reduction.22-26] Taber 2001, "reduction".

[FOOTNOTEOED1989.22plantar_flexion.22.2C_.22dorsiflexion.22-27] OED 1989, "plantar flexion", "dorsiflexion".

[FOOTNOTEKendall2005371-28] Kendall 2005, p. 371.

[FOOTNOTEKyung2005123-29] Kyung 2005, p. 123.

[FOOTNOTESwartz2010591-593-30] Swartz 2010, pp. 591-593.

[FOOTNOTEOED1989.22plantarflexion.22.2C_.22dorsiflexion.22-31] OED 1989, "plantarflexion", "dorsiflexion".

[FOOTNOTESwartz2010591.E2.80.93592-32] Swartz 2010, pp. 591–592.

[FOOTNOTEOED1989.22pronation.22-33] OED 1989, "pronation".

[FOOTNOTEOED1989.22supination.22-34] OED 1989, "supination".

[FOOTNOTESwartz2010591-35] Swartz 2010, p. 591.

[FOOTNOTEKyung2005108-36] Kyung 2005, p. 108.

[FOOTNOTEDMD2012.22version.22-37] DMD 2012, "version".

[FOOTNOTETaber2001.22torsion.22-38] Taber 2001, "torsion".

[FOOTNOTETaber2001.22occlusion.22-39] Taber 2001, "occlusion".

[FOOTNOTETaber2001.22protrusion.22.2C_.22retrusion.22-40] Taber 2001, "protrusion", "retrusion".

[FOOTNOTEOED1989.22nutation.22-41] OED 1989, "nutation".

[FOOTNOTEHouglum2012333-43] Houglum 2012, p. 333.

[FOOTNOTETaber2001.22opposition.22-44] Taber 2001, "opposition".

[FOOTNOTEOED1989.22protraction.22.2C_.22retraction.22-45] OED 1989, "protraction", "retraction".

[FOOTNOTEKendall2005302-46] Kendall 2005, p. 302.

[FOOTNOTETaber2001.22reciprocation.22-47] Taber 2001, "reciprocation".

[FOOTNOTEOED1989.22resposition.22-48] OED 1989, "resposition".

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Contents

Classification

Abnormal motion

General motion

Flexion and extension

Abduction and adduction

Elevation and depression

Rotation

Other

Special motion

Special motions of the hands and feet

Flexion and extension of the foot

Flexion and extension of the hand

Pronation and supination

Inversion and eversion

Special motions of the eyes

Special motions of the jaw and teeth

Other

Notes

References

Sources

External links

UpToDate Contents

English Journal

Japanese Journal

Related Links

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「musculus extensor digiti quinti proprius」

Anatomical terminology

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Muscle
Bone
Neuroanatomy
v t e