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1. 〈U〉輸出 / 〈C〉輸出品

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出典(authority):フリー百科事典『ウィキペディア（Wikipedia）』「2015/07/20 21:43:00」(JST)

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For other uses, see Export (disambiguation).

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The term export means shipping the goods and services out of the port of a country. The seller of such goods and services is referred to as an "exporter" and is based in the country of export whereas the overseas based buyer is referred to as an "importer". In International Trade, "exports" refers to selling goods and services produced in the home country to other markets.

Export of commercial quantities of goods normally requires involvement of the customs authorities in both the country of export and the country of import. The advent of small trades over the internet such as through Amazon and eBay have largely bypassed the involvement of Customs in many countries because of the low individual values of these trades. Nonetheless, these small exports are still subject to legal restrictions applied by the country of export. An export's counterpart is an import.

History

For more details on this topic, see History of international trade.

The theory of international trade and commercial policy is one of the oldest branches of economic thought. Exporting is a major component of international trade, and the macroeconomic risks and benefits of exporting are regularly discussed and disputed by economists and others. Two views concerning international trade present different perspectives. The first recognizes the benefits of international trade. The second concerns itself with the possibility that certain domestic industries (or laborers, or culture) could be harmed by foreign competition.

Process

Methods of export include a product or good or information being mailed, hand-delivered, shipped by air, shipped by vessel, uploaded to an internet site, or downloaded from an internet site. Exports also include the distribution of information that can be sent in the form of an email, an email attachment, a fax or can be shared during a telephone conversation.

National regulations

United States

The export of defense-related articles and services on the United States Munitions List (USML) is governed by the Department of State under the International Traffic in Arms Regulations (ITAR). The Bureau of Industry and Security (BIS) is responsible for implementing and enforcing the Code of Federal Regulations Title 15 chapter VII, subchapter C, also known as Export Administration Regulations (EAR), in the United States. The BIS regulates the export and reexport of most commercial items. Some commodities require a license in order to export. There are different requirements to export lawfully depending on the product or service being exported. Depending on the category the 'item' falls under, the company may need to obtain a license prior to exporting. EAR restrictions can vary from country to country. The most restricted destinations are countries under economic embargoes or designated as supporting terrorist activities, including Cuba, North Korea, Sudan, Syria and Iran (see: Sanctions against Iran). Some products have received worldwide restrictions prohibiting exports. If any items would support a proliferation activity, such as nuclear, chemical/biological, or missile proliferation activities in a country of concern, a license would be required. Part 744 of the Export Administration Regulations spells out the specific regulations related to end-user and end-use controls. There are many prohibited end users. See the consolidated U.S. Government screening list, including proscribed parties from the Departments of State and Treasury as well as Commerce, at [1]

An item is considered an export whether or not it is leaving the United States temporarily, if it is leaving the United State but is not for sale (a gift), or if it is going to a wholly owned U.S. subsidiary in a foreign country. A foreign-origin item exported from the United States, transmitted or transhipped through the United States, or being returned from the United States to its foreign country of origin is considered an export. How an item is transported outside of the United States does not matter in determining export license requirements. Refer to U.S. Census Data for data on exports by industry for 2013.

Canada

Canadian Export and Import Controls Bureau (EICB)

India

The import or export of any foreign products in India are regulated under the Foreign Trade (Development and Regulation) Act. Under this act the Central government of India can make the provisions for development and also regulates the foreign trade. Also the Central government can prohibit, restrict and regulates the export activities. Under this act every importer or exporter must obtain an Importer Exporter Code number 'IEC' code number from Director of General of Foreign Trade.

Bangladesh

Export Promotion Bureau, Bangladesh

Australia

Australian Defence Export Control Office (DECO)

Barriers

Trade barriers are generally defined as government laws, regulations, policy, or practices that either protect domestic products from foreign competition or artificially stimulate exports of particular domestic products. While restrictive business practices sometimes have a similar effect, they are not usually regarded as trade barriers. The most common foreign trade barriers are government-imposed measures and policies that restrict, prevent, or impede the international exchange of goods and services.

Strategic

International agreements limit trade in and the transfer of, certain types of goods and information e.g. goods associated with weapons of mass destruction, advanced telecommunications, arms and torture, and also some art and archaeological artefacts. Examples include Nuclear Suppliers Group - limiting trade in nuclear weapons and associated goods (currently only 45 countries participate), The Australia Group - limiting trade in chemical & biological weapons and associated goods (currently only 39 countries), Missile Technology Control Regime - limiting trade in the means of delivering weapons of mass destruction (currently only 34 countries) and The Wassenaar Arrangement - limiting trade in conventional arms and technological developments (currently only 40 countries).

Tariffs

A tariff is a tax placed on a specific good or set of goods exported from or imported to a country, creating an economic barrier to trade.
Usually the tactic is used when a country's domestic output of the good is falling and imports from foreign competitors are rising, particularly if there exist strategic reasons for retaining a domestic production capability.
Some failing industries receive a protection with an effect similar to a subsidies in that by placing the tariff on the industry, the industry is less enticed to produce goods in a quicker, cheaper, and more productive fashion. The third reason for a tariff involves addressing the issue of dumping. Dumping involves a country producing highly excessive amounts of goods and dumping the goods on another foreign country, producing the effect of prices that are "too low". Too low can refer to either pricing the good from the foreign market at a price lower than charged in the domestic market of the country of origin. The other reference to dumping relates or refers to the producer selling the product at a price in which there is no profit or a loss. The purpose (and expected outcome) of the tariff is to encourage spending on domestic goods and services. Protective tariffs sometimes protect what are known as infant industries that are in the phase of expansive growth. A tariff is used temporarily to allow the industry to succeed in spite of strong competition. Protective tariffs are considered valid if the resources are more productive in their new use than they would be if the industry had not been started. The infant industry eventually must incorporate itself into a market without the protection of government subsidies. Tariffs can create tension between countries. Examples include the United States steel tariff of 2002 and when China placed a 14% tariff on imported auto parts. Such tariffs usually lead to filing a complaint with the World Trade Organization (WTO) and, if that fails, could eventually head toward the country placing a tariff against the other nation in spite, to impress pressure to remove the tariff.

Subsidies

To subsidize an industry or company refers to, in this instance, a governmental providing supplemental financial support to manipulate the price below market value. Subsidies are generally used for failing industries that need a boost in domestic spending. Subsidizing encourages greater demand for a good or service because of the slashed price. The effect of subsidies deters other countries that are able to produce a specific product or service at a faster, cheaper, and more productive rate. With the lowered price, these efficient producers cannot compete. The life of a subsidy is generally short-lived, but sometimes can be implemented on a more permanent basis. The agricultural industry is commonly subsidized, both in the United States, and in other countries including Japan and nations located in the European Union (EU). Critics argue such subsidies cost developing nations $24 billion annually in lost income according to a study by the International Food Policy Research Institute, a D.C. group funded partly by the World Bank. However, other nations are not the only economic 'losers'. Subsidies in the U.S. heavily depend upon taxpayer dollars. In 2000, the U.S. spent an all-time record $32.3 billion for the agricultural industry. The EU spends about $50 billion annually, nearly half its annual budget on its common agricultural policy and rural development.

Exports and free trade

The theory of comparative advantage materialized during the first quarter of the 19th century in the writings of 'classical economists'. While David Ricardo is most credited with the development of the theory (in Chapter 7 of his Principles of Political Economy, 1817), James Mill and Robert Torrens produced similar ideas. The theory states that all parties maximize benefit in an environment of unrestricted trade, even if absolute advantages in production exist between the parties. In contrast to Mercantilism, the first systematic body of thought devoted to international trade, emerged during the 17th and 18th centuries in Europe. While most views surfacing from this school of thought differed, a commonly argued key objective of trade was to promote a "favorable" balance of trade, referring to a time when the value of domestic goods exported exceeds the value of foreign goods imported. The "favorable" balance in turn created a balance of trade surplus. Mercantilists advocated that government policy directly arrange the flow of commerce to conform to their beliefs. They sought a highly interventionist agenda, using taxes on trade to manipulate the balance of trade or commodity composition of trade in favor of the home country.

Export strategy

Export strategy is to ship commodities to other places or countries for sale or exchange. In economics, an export is any good or commodity, transported from one country to another country in a legitimate fashion, typically for use in trade.

The four key pillars of a successful export strategy:

Internal 1: Export readiness assessment of a company (and gap analysis with recommendations how to address the change required)

Internal 2: Export readiness assessment of a product (including benchmarking with similar products that are currently successfully traded on target markets; technical characteristics; packaging and labelling).

External 3: Research of 220 countries and the World’s major trade channels to find target market/s.

External 4: Develop export strategy to enter the selected above target market/s (that will include such considerations like transport, partnership, key distribution channels, pricing, volumes, advertising, etc.).

Vessel at Container Terminal Altenwerder (Hamburg)

Overview

Advantages of exporting

Ownership advantages are the firm's specific assets, international experience, and the ability to develop either low-cost or differentiated products within the contacts of its value chain. The locational advantages of a particular market are a combination of market potential and investment risk. Internationalization advantages are the benefits of retaining a core competence within the company and threading it though the value chain rather than obtain to license, outsource, or sell it. In relation to the Eclectic paradigm, companies that have low levels of ownership advantages either do not enter foreign markets. If the company and its products are equipped with ownership advantage and internalization advantage, they enter through low-risk modes such as exporting. Exporting requires significantly lower level of investment than other modes of international expansion, such as FDI. As you might expect, the lower risk of export typically results in a lower rate of return on sales than possible though other modes of international business. In other words, the usual return on export sales may not be tremendous, but neither is the risk. Exporting allows managers to exercise operation control but does not provide them the option to exercise as much marketing control. An exporter usually resides far from the end consumer and often enlists various intermediaries to manage marketing activities. After two straight months of contraction, exports from India rose a whopping 11.64% at $25.83 billion in July 2013 against $23.14 billion in the same month of the previous year.

Disadvantages of exporting

For Small-and-Medium Enterprises (SME) with less than 250 employees, selling goods and services to foreign markets seems to be more difficult than serving the domestic market. The lack of knowledge for trade regulations, cultural differences, different languages and foreign-exchange situations as well as the strain of resources and staff interact like a block for exporting. Indeed, there are some SME's which are exporting, but nearly two-third of them sell in only to one foreign market. The following assumption shows the main disadvantages:

• Financial management effort: To minimize the risk of exchange-rate fluctuation and transactions processes of export activity the financial management needs more capacity to cope the major effort
• Customer demand: International customers demand more services from their vendor like installation and startup of equipment, maintenance or more delivery services.
• Communication technologies improvement: The improvement of communication technologies in recent years enable the customer to interact with more suppliers while receiving more information and cheaper communications cost at the same time like 20 years ago. This leads to more transparency. The vendor is in duty to follow the real-time demand and to submit all transaction details.
• Management mistakes: The management might tap in some of the organizational pitfalls, like poor selection of oversea agents or distributors or chaotic global organization.

Ways of exporting

The company can decide to export directly or indirectly to a foreign country.

Direct selling in export strategy

Direct selling involves sales representatives, distributors, or retailers who are located outside the exporter's home country. Direct exports are goods and services that are sold to an independent party outside of the exporter’s home country. Mainly the companies are pushed by core competencies and improving their performance of value chain.

Direct selling through distributors

It is considered to be the most popular option to companies, to develop their own international marketing capability. This is achieved by charging personnel from the company to give them greater control over their operations. Direct selling also give the company greater control over the marketing function and the opportunity to earn more profits. In other cases where network of sales representative, the company can transfer them exclusive rights to sell in a particular geographic region.
A distributor in a foreign country is a merchant who purchases the product from the manufacturer and sells them at profit. Distributors usually carry stock inventory and service the product, and in most cases distributes deals with retailers rather than end users. Evaluating Distributors

• The size and capabilities of its sales force.
• An analysis of its territory.
• Its current product mix.
• Its facilities and equipment.
• Its marketing polices.
• Its customer profit.
• Its promotional strategy.
• Its policy against the abstract data protocols.

Direct selling through foreign retailers and end users

Exporters can also sell directly to foreign retailers. Usually, products are limited to consumer lines; it can also sell to direct end users. A good way to generate such sales is by printing catalogs or attending trade shows.

Direct selling over the Internet

Electronic commerce is an important mean to small and big companies all over the world, to trade internationally. We already can see how important E-commerce is for marketing growth among exporters companies in emerging economies, in order to overcome capital and infrastructure barriers.

E-commerce eased engagements, provided faster and cheaper delivery of information, generates quick feedback on new products, improves customer service, accesses a global audience, levels the field of companies, and support electronics data interchange with suppliers and customers.

Indirect selling

Indirect exports, is simply selling goods to or through an independent domestic intermediary in their own home county. Then intermediaries export the products to customers foreign markets.

Making the export decision

Once a company determines it has exportable products, it must still consider other factors, such as the following:

• What does the company want to gain from exporting?
• Is exporting consistent with other company goals?
• What demands will exporting place on the company's key resources - management and personnel, production capacity, and finance - and how will these demands be met?
• Are the expected benefits worth the costs, or would company resources be better used for developing new domestic business?

Export promotion

In the U.S.

The U.S. Department of Commerce provides U.S. companies the opportunity to promote their products and services free of charge. To do so, the Export Yellow Pages is published online and in print and is delivered to embassies, trade centers, consulates, and associations worldwide.

The California Centers for International Trade Development (CITD's) have 13 offices throughout California, each CITD is hosted by a local community college and provides a variety of free or low-cost programs & services to assist local companies in doing business abroad. These include one-on-one technical assistance and consulting, market research, training and educational programs, trade leads and special events.

In the U.K. & E.U.

The UK Trade & Investment (UKTI), formed in 1999, is a government body that assists British companies with their exporting needs.

Internationally

There are several global B2B directories and also country-specific directories, such as ExportersIndia.com in India, Kelly's Directory in the U.S. and Alibaba in China.

Challenges

Exporting to foreign countries poses challenges not found in domestic sales. With domestic sales, manufacturers typically sell to wholesalers or direct to retailer or even direct to consumers. When exporting, manufacturers may have to sell to importers who then in turn sell to wholesalers. Extra layer(s) in the chain of distribution squeezes margins and manufacturers may need to offer lower prices to importers than to domestic wholesalers.

See also

• Commodity currency
• Commodity Classification Automated Tracking System
• Demand vacuum
• Export-oriented industrialization
• Export performance
• Import
• International trade
• List of countries by exports
• Sales

Notes

External links

• Import and Export at DMOZ
• Glossary of Trade Terms
• UK Institute Of Export
• Export Guide of Uzbekistan
• World Bank 2012 Top exporters
• Import and export open directory

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