WordNet

do physical exercise; "She works out in the gym every day" (同)work_out
give a workout to; "Some parents exercise their infants"; "My personal trainer works me hard"; "work ones muscles"; "this puzzle will exercise your mind" (同)work, work_out
a task performed or problem solved in order to develop skill or understanding; "you must work the examples at the end of each chapter in the textbook" (同)example
the activity of exerting your muscles in various ways to keep fit; "the doctor recommended regular exercise"; "he did some exercising"; "the physical exertion required by his work kept him fit" (同)exercising, physical exercise, physical exertion, workout
systematic training by multiple repetitions; "practice makes perfect" (同)practice, drill, practice session, recitation
(usually plural) a ceremony that involves processions and speeches; "academic exercises"
move so as to change position, perform a nontranslational motion; "He moved his hand slightly to the right"
go or proceed from one point to another; "the debate moved from family values to the economy"
the act of changing your residence or place of business; "they say that three moves equal one fire" (同)relocation
(game) a players turn to take some action permitted by the rules of the game
the act of deciding to do something; "he didnt make a move to help"; "his first move was to hire a lawyer"
cause to move or shift into a new position or place, both in a concrete and in an abstract sense; "Move those boxes into the corner, please"; "Im moving my money to another bank"; "The director moved more responsibilities onto his new assistant" (同)displace
have a turn; make ones move in a game; "Can I go now?" (同)go
progress by being changed; "The speech has to go through several more drafts"; "run through your presentation before the meeting" (同)go, run
propose formally; in a debate or parliamentary meeting (同)make a motion
arouse sympathy or compassion in; "Her fate moved us all"
change residence, affiliation, or place of employment; "We moved from Idaho to Nebraska"; "The basketball player moved from one team to another"
dispose of by selling; "The chairman of the company told the salesmen to move the computers"
live ones life in a specified environment; "she moves in certain circles only"
the act of changing the location of something; "the movement of cargo onto the vessel"
the driving and regulating parts of a mechanism (as of a watch or clock); "it was an expensive watch with a diamond movement"
a natural event that involves a change in the position or location of something (同)motion
a group of people with a common ideology who try together to achieve certain general goals; "he was a charter member of the movement"; "politicians have to respect a mass movement"; "he led the national liberation front" (同)social movement, front
a major self-contained part of a symphony or sonata; "the second movement is slow and melodic"
a state of change; "they were in a state of steady motion"
the act of changing location from one place to another; "police controlled the motion of the crowd"; "the movement of people from the farms to the cities"; "his move put him directly in my path" (同)movement, move
a change of position that does not entail a change of location; "the reflex motion of his eyebrows revealed his surprise"; "movement is a sign of life"; "an impatient move of his hand"; "gastrointestinal motility" (同)movement, move, motility
a formal proposal for action made to a deliberative assembly for discussion and vote; "he made a motion to adjourn"; "she called for the question" (同)question
machine that converts other forms of energy into mechanical energy and so imparts motion
a nonspecific agent that imparts motion; "happiness is the aim of all men and the motor of all action"
of or relating to locomotion (同)locomotor
a wheeled vehicle consisting of a self-propelled engine that is used to draw trains along railway tracks (同)engine, locomotive engine, railway locomotive

PrepTutorEJDIC

〈U〉(身体の)『運動』;〈C〉体操 / 〈C〉(…の)『練習』,けいこ;練習問題《+『in』(『for』,『on』)+『名』》 / 〈U〉〈C〉《the~》(精神力・能力などを)『働かせること』,(権力などの)行使《+『of』+『名』》 / 《しばしば複数形で》(軍の)演習;《米》式,式典 / 〈C〉礼拝,勤行 / 〈手足など,体の器官〉‘を'『働かせる』,動かす,訓練する / 〈人〉‘に'(…の)『訓練をさらる』,(…で)〈人〉‘を'鍛練する《+『名』〈人〉+『in』+『名』(do『ing』)》 / 〈精神力・能力など〉‘を'『働かせる』,〈権力など〉‘を'行使する / 《文》《受動態で》(…について)〈人〉‘を'悩ます,心配させる《+『名』〈人〉+『about』(『over』)+『名』》 / 練習する;運動する
《しばしば副詞[句]を伴って》『動く』,移動する,揺れ動く / (…から…へ)『引っ越す』,移転する《+『from』(『out of』)+『名』+『to』+『名』》 / 《副詞[句]を伴って》〈時間などか〉経過する(ある方向へ)〈事態・仕事などが〉進展する,向かう / (…で)活動する,活躍する《+『in』(『on』)+『名』》 / 動議を出す,提案する / (チェス・チェッカーなどで)こまを動かす / 《しばしば副詞[句]を伴って》…‘を'『動かす』,移動する,進行させる;…‘を'揺り動かす / 《しばしば受動態で》〈人〉‘を'『感動させる』,‘の'気持ちを動かす / …‘を'動議する,提案する / 措置,手段 / (チェス・チェッカーなどで)こまを動かすこと,一手;こまを動かす番,手番 / 《単数形で》動き,動作
〈U〉(…の)『運動』,『動き』;移動《+『of』+『名』》 / 〈C〉動作,身振り / 〈C〉《複数形で》行動,活動 / 〈C〉(…に向かう)(事熊の)成り行き,動向《+『toward』+『名』》 / 〈C〉(目標を達成するための一群の人たちの)運動 / 〈C〉(賛団の)移動,移住;(人口の)異動《+『of』+『名』》 / 〈C〉楽章 / 〈C〉(時計などの)機械装置,動く仕掛け
〈U〉『動くこと,運動』,運行,移動 / 〈C〉『動作』;身ぶり,合図 / 〈C〉(議会などの)『動議』,提案;)法廷での)申請,申し立て / 《しばしば副詞[句]を伴って》〈人など〉‘に'『身振りで合図をする』 / 『身振りで合図する』:《『motion to(for)』+『名』+『to』 do・・・に・・・するよう身振りで合図する》
(電気の)『モーター』,電動機 / エンジン,(特に)内燃機関 / 《英》自動車(motorcar) / 《名詞の前にのみ用いて》 / モーターの;エンジンの;自動車の / モーター(エンジン)による,自動車による / (神経・筋肉について)運動の / 自動車で行く / …‘を'自動車で運ぶ
『機関車』 / 運動の,移動する,移動力のある

Wikipedia preview

出典(authority):フリー百科事典『ウィキペディア（Wikipedia）』「2012/08/24 18:52:19」(JST)

wiki en

[Wiki en表示]

"Workout" redirects here. For other uses, see Workout (disambiguation).

"Exercise" redirects here. For other uses, see Exercise (disambiguation).

Participant in a triathlon at Catoctin Mountain in 2005

Physical exercise is any bodily activity that enhances or maintains physical fitness and overall health and wellness. It is performed for various reasons including strengthening muscles and the cardiovascular system, honing athletic skills, weight loss or maintenance, as well as for the purpose of enjoyment. Frequent and regular physical exercise boosts the immune system, and helps prevent the "diseases of affluence" such as heart disease, cardiovascular disease, Type 2 diabetes and obesity.^[1]^[2] It also improves mental health, helps prevent depression, helps to promote or maintain positive self esteem, and can even augment an individual's sex appeal or body image, which is also found to be linked with higher levels of self esteem.^[3] Childhood obesity is a growing global concern^[4] and physical exercise may help decrease some of the effects of childhood and adult obesity. Health care providers often call exercise the "miracle" or "wonder" drug—alluding to the wide variety of proven benefits that it provides.^[5]^[6]

1 Classification
- 1.1 Types of exercise
- 1.2 Categories of physical exercise
- 1.3 Categories
- 1.4 Metabolic equivalent of task
2 Health effects
- 2.1 Cardiovascular system
- 2.2 Immune system
- 2.3 Brain function
- 2.4 Depression
- 2.5 Sleep
- 2.6 Excessive exercise
3 Public health measures
4 Metabolic equivalent of task
5 Exercise trends
6 Nutrition and recovery
7 History
8 In other animals
9 See also
10 References
11 Sources
12 External links

Classification

Types of exercise

Physical exercises are generally grouped into three types,^[7] depending on the overall effect they have on the human body:

Flexibility exercises, such as stretching, improve the range of motion of muscles and joints.^[8]
Aerobic exercises, such as cycling, swimming, walking, skipping rope, rowing, running, hiking or playing tennis, focus on increasing cardiovascular endurance.^[9]
Anaerobic exercises, such as weight training, functional training, eccentric training or sprinting and high-intensity interval training, increase short-term muscle strength.^[10]

Categories of physical exercise

Strength training
Agility training
Eccentric training
Resistance training
Interval training
Continuous training

Sometimes the terms 'dynamic' and 'static' are used. 'Dynamic' exercises such as steady running, tend to produce a lowering of the diastolic blood pressure during exercise, due to the improved blood flow. Conversely, static exercise (such as weight-lifting) can cause the systolic pressure to rise significantly (during the exercise).

Metabolic equivalent of task

The Compendium of Physical Activities was developed for use in epidemiologic studies to standardize the assignment of metabolic equivalent of task (MET) intensities in physical activity questionnaires. The Compendium is list of physical activities and the associated energy cost of each activity. The original Compendium was published in 1993, the first update in 2000, and the most recent update in 2011.^[12]

MET (Metabolic Equivalent): The ratio of the work metabolic rate to the resting metabolic rate. One MET is defined as 1 kcal/kg/hour and is roughly equivalent to the energy cost of sitting quietly. A MET also is defined as oxygen uptake in ml/kg/min with one MET equal to the oxygen cost of sitting quietly, equivalent to 3.5 ml/kg/min.

Health effects

A common elliptical training machine

US Marines exercising on the USS Bataan

Physical exercise is important for maintaining physical fitness and can contribute positively to maintaining a healthy weight, building and maintaining healthy bone density, muscle strength, and joint mobility, promoting physiological well-being, reducing surgical risks, and strengthening the immune system.

Exercise reduces levels of cortisol,^[13] which causes many health problems, both physical and mental.^[14]

Frequent and regular aerobic exercise has been shown to help prevent or treat serious and life-threatening chronic conditions such as high blood pressure, obesity, heart disease, Type 2 diabetes, insomnia, and depression.^[15]^{[dead link]} Endurance exercise before meals lowers blood glucose more than the same exercise after meals.^[16] According to the World Health Organization, lack of physical activity contributes to approximately 17% of heart disease and diabetes, 12% of falls in the elderly, and 10% of breast cancer and colon cancer.^[17]

There is evidence that vigorous exercise (90–95% of VO₂ Max) induces a greater degree of physiological cardiac hypertrophy than moderate exercise (40 to 70% of VO₂ Max), but it is unknown whether this has any effects on overall morbidity and/or mortality.^[18] Some studies have shown that vigorous exercise executed by healthy individuals can increase opioid peptides (a.k.a. endorphins, naturally occurring opioids that in conjunction with other neurotransmitters are responsible for exercise-induced euphoria and have been shown to be addictive), increase testosterone and growth hormone,^[19] effects that are not as fully realized with moderate exercise. More recent research^[20]^[21] indicates that anandamide may play a greater role than endorphins in "runner's high". However, training at this^[which?] intensity for long periods of time, or without proper warmup beforehand and cooldown afterwards, can lead to an increased risk of injury and overtraining.^{[citation needed]}

Both aerobic and anaerobic exercise work to increase the mechanical efficiency of the heart by increasing cardiac volume (aerobic exercise), or myocardial thickness (strength training). Such changes are generally beneficial and healthy if they occur in response to exercise.

Not everyone benefits equally from exercise. There is tremendous variation in individual response to training; where most people will see a moderate increase in endurance from aerobic exercise, some individuals will as much as double their oxygen uptake, while others can never augment endurance.^[22]^[23] However, muscle hypertrophy from resistance training is primarily determined by diet and testosterone.^[24] This genetic variation in improvement from training is one of the key physiological differences between elite athletes and the larger population.^[25]^[26] Studies have shown that exercising in middle age leads to better physical ability later in life.^[27]

Cardiovascular system

The beneficial effect of exercise on the cardiovascular system is well documented. There is a direct relation between physical inactivity and cardiovascular mortality, and physical inactivity is an independent risk factor for the development of coronary artery disease. There is a dose-response relation between the amount of exercise performed from approximately 700 to 2000 kcal of energy expenditure per week and all-cause mortality and cardiovascular disease mortality in middle-aged and elderly populations. The greatest potential for reduced mortality is in the sedentary who become moderately active. Most beneficial effects of physical activity on cardiovascular disease mortality can be attained through moderate-intensity activity (40% to 60% of maximal oxygen uptake, depending on age). ... persons who modify their behavior after myocardial infarction to include regular exercise have improved rates of survival. ... Persons who remain sedentary have the highest risk for all-cause and cardiovascular disease mortality.^[28]

Immune system

Although there have been hundreds of studies on exercise and the immune system, there is little direct evidence on its connection to illness. Epidemiological evidence suggests that moderate exercise has a beneficial effect on the human immune system; an effect which is modeled in a J curve. Moderate exercise has been associated with a 29% decreased incidence of upper respiratory tract infections (URTI), but studies of marathon runners found that their prolonged high-intensity exercise was associated with an increased risk of infection occurrence. However, another study did not find the effect. Immune cell functions are impaired following acute sessions of prolonged, high-intensity exercise, and some studies have found that athletes are at a higher risk for infections. The immune systems of athletes and nonathletes are generally similar. Athletes may have slightly elevated natural killer cell count and cytolytic action, but these are unlikely to be clinically significant.^[29]

Vitamin C supplementation has been associated with lower incidence of URTIs in marathon runners.^[29]

Biomarkers of inflammation such as C-reactive protein, which are associated with chronic diseases, are reduced in active individuals relative to sedentary individuals, and the positive effects of exercise may be due to its anti-inflammatory effects. The depression in the immune system following acute bouts of exercise may be one of the mechanisms for this anti-inflammatory effect.^[29]

Brain function

A 2008 review of cognitive enrichment therapies (strategies to slow or reverse cognitive decline) concluded that "physical activity, and aerobic exercise in particular, enhances older adults' cognitive function".^[30]

In mice, exercise improves cognitive functioning via improvement of hippocampus-dependent spatial learning, and enhancement of synaptic plasticity and neurogenesis.^[31] In addition, physical activity has been shown to be neuroprotective in many neurodegenerative and neuromuscular diseases.^[32] For instance, it reduces the risk of developing dementia.^[33] Furthermore, anecdotal evidence suggests that frequent exercise may reverse alcohol-induced brain damage.^[34]

There are several possibilities for why exercise is beneficial for the brain. Examples are as follows:

increasing the blood and oxygen flow to the brain
increasing growth factors that help create new nerve cells^[35] and promote synaptic plasticity^[36]
increasing chemicals in the brain that help cognition, such as dopamine, glutamate, norepinephrine, and serotonin^[37]

Physical activity is thought to have other beneficial effects related to cognition as it increases levels of nerve growth factors, which support the survival and growth of a number of neuronal cells.^[38]

Depression

A number of factors may contribute to depression including being overweight, low self esteem, stress, and anxiety.^[39] Endorphins act as a natural pain reliever and antidepressant in the body.^[40] Endorphins have long been regarded as responsible for what is known as "runner's high", a euphoric feeling a person receives from intense physical exertion.^[41] However, recent research^[20]^[21] indicates that anandamide may possibly play a greater role than endorphins in "runner's high". When a person exercises, levels of both circulating serotonin and endorphins are increased.^[42] These levels are known to stay elevated even several days after exercise is discontinued, possibly contributing to improvement in mood, increased self-esteem, and weight management.^[41] Exercise alone is a potential prevention method and/or treatment for mild forms of depression.^[43] Research has also shown that when exercise is done in the presence of other people (familiar or not), it can be more effective in reducing stress than simply exercising alone.^[44]

Sleep

A 2010 review of published scientific research suggested that exercise generally improves sleep for most people, and helps sleep disorders such as insomnia. The optimum time to exercise may be 4 to 8 hours before bedtime, though exercise at any time of day is beneficial, with the possible exception of heavy exercise taken shortly before bedtime, which may disturb sleep. There is, in any case, insufficient evidence to draw detailed conclusions about the relationship between exercise and sleep.^[45]

According to a 2005 study, exercise is the most recommended alternative to sleeping pills for resolving insomnia. Sleeping pills are more costly than to make time for a daily routine of staying fit, and may have dangerous side effects in the long run. Exercise can be a healthy, safe and inexpensive way to achieve more and better sleep.^[46]

Excessive exercise

Too much exercise can be harmful. Without proper rest, the chance of stroke or other circulation problems increases,^[47] and muscle tissue may develop slowly. Extremely intense, long-term cardiovascular exercise, as can be seen in athletes who train for multiple marathons, has been associated with scarring of the heart and heart rhythm abnormalities.^[48]^[49]^[50]

Inappropriate exercise can do more harm than good, with the definition of "inappropriate" varying according to the individual. For many activities, especially running and cycling, there are significant injuries that occur with poorly regimented exercise schedules. Injuries from accidents also remain a major concern,^[51] whereas the effects of increased exposure to air pollution seem only a minor concern.^[52]^[53]

In extreme instances, over-exercising induces serious performance loss. Unaccustomed overexertion of muscles leads to rhabdomyolysis (damage to muscle) most often seen in new army recruits.^[54] Another danger is overtraining, in which the intensity or volume of training exceeds the body's capacity to recover between bouts.^[55]

Stopping excessive exercise suddenly can also create a change in mood. Feelings of depression and agitation can occur when withdrawal from the natural endorphins produced by exercise occurs.^{[citation needed]} Exercise should be controlled by each body's inherent limitations. While one set of joints and muscles may have the tolerance to withstand multiple marathons, another body may be damaged by 20 minutes of light jogging. This must be determined for each individual.

Too much exercise can also cause a female to miss her period, a symptom known as amenorrhea.^[56]

Public health measures

As of 2011 the effects of community wide interventions to increase exercise levels at the population level is unknown.^[57] Signs that encourage the use of stairs, as well as community campaigns, may increase exercise levels.^[58] The city of Bogotá, Colombia, for example, blocks off 113 kilometers (70 mi) of roads on Sundays and holidays to make it easier for its citizens to get exercise. These pedestrian zones are part of an effort to combat chronic diseases, including obesity.^[59]

Metabolic equivalent of task

The Compendium of Physical Activities was developed for use in epidemiologic studies to standardize the assignment of metabolic equivalent of task (MET) intensities in physical activity questionnaires. The Compendium is list of physical activities and the associated energy cost of each activity. The original Compendium was published in 1993, the first update in 2000, and the most recent update in 2011.^[12]

MET (Metabolic Equivalent): The ratio of the work metabolic rate to the resting metabolic rate. One MET is defined as 1 kcal/kg/hour and is roughly equivalent to the energy cost of sitting quietly. A MET also is defined as oxygen uptake in ml/kg/min with one MET equal to the oxygen cost of sitting quietly, equivalent to 3.5 ml/kg/min.

Exercise trends

Main article: Exercise trends

Worldwide there has been a large shift towards less physically demanding work.^[60] This has been accompanied by increasing use of mechanized transportation, a greater prevalence of labor saving technology in the home, and less active recreational pursuits.^[60]

Nutrition and recovery

Proper nutrition is as important to health as exercise. When exercising, it becomes even more important to have a good diet to ensure that the body has the correct ratio of macronutrients whilst providing ample micronutrients, in order to aid the body with the recovery process following strenuous exercise.^[61]

History

The benefits of exercise have been known since antiquity. Marcus Cicero, around 65 BC, stated: "It is exercise alone that supports the spirits, and keeps the mind in vigor."^[62] However, the link between physical health and exercise (or lack of it) was only discovered in 1949 and reported in 1953 by a team led by Jerry Morris.^[63]^[64] Dr. Morris noted that men of similar social class and occupation (bus conductors versus bus drivers) had markedly different rates of heart attacks, depending on the level of exercise they got: bus drivers had a sedentary occupation and a higher incidence of heart disease, while bus conductors were forced to move continually and had a lower incidence of heart disease.^[64] This link had not previously been noted and was later confirmed by other researchers.

In other animals

Physical exercise has been shown to benefit a wide range of other mammals, as well as salmon, crocodiles and one species of bird.^[65] However, several studies have shown that lizards display no benefit from exercise, leading them to be termed "metabolically inflexible".^[65]

References

^ Stampfer, M. J.; Hu, F. B.; Manson, J. E.; Rimm, E. B.; Willett, W. C. (2000). "Primary Prevention of Coronary Heart Disease in Women through Diet and Lifestyle". New England Journal of Medicine 343 (1): 16–22. doi:10.1056/NEJM200007063430103. PMID 10882764. edit
^ Hu., F., Manson, J., Stampfer, M., Graham, C., et al. (2001). Diet, lifestyle, and the risk of type 2 diabetes mellitus in women. The New England Journal of Medicine, 345(11), 790–797. Retrieved October 5, 2006, from ProQuest database.
^ "Exercise". medical-dictionary.thefreedictionary.com. http://medical-dictionary.thefreedictionary.com/physical+exercise. In turn citing: Gale Encyclopedia of Medicine. Copyright 2008. Citation: "Strengthening exercise increases muscle strength and mass, bone strength, and the body's metabolism. It can help attain and maintain proper weight and improve body image and self esteem"
^ "WHO: Obesity and overweight". who.int. http://www.who.int/dietphysicalactivity/publications/facts/obesity/en/.
^ American Association of Kidney Patients, "Physical Activity and Exercise: The Wonder Drug"
^ National Center for Biotechnology Information, "The miracle drug"
^ "Your Guide to Physical Activity" (NHLBI produced publications: Color). The National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute (NHLBI). 2007. http://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/health/public/heart/obesity/phy_active.pdf. Retrieved March 2011.
^ O'Connor, D., Crowe, M., Spinks, W. 2005. Effects of static stretching on leg capacity during cycling. Turin, 46(1), 52–56. Retrieved October 5, 2006, from ProQuest database.
^ Wilmore, J., Knuttgen, H. 2003. Aerobic Exercise and Endurance Improving Fitness for Health Benefits. The Physician and Sportsmedicine, 31(5). 45. Retrieved October 5, 2006, from ProQuest database.
^ de Vos, N., Singh, N., Ross, D., Stavrinos, T., et al. 2005. Optimal Load for Increasing Muscle Power During Explosive Resistance Training in Older Adults. The Journals of Gerontology, 60A(5), 638–647. Retrieved October 5, 2006, from ProQuest database.
^ "What Is Fitness?". The CrossFit Journal. October 2002. p. 4. http://library.crossfit.com/free/pdf/CFJ-trial.pdf. Retrieved 2010-09-12.
^ ^a ^b https://sites.google.com/site/compendiumofphysicalactivities/
^ A. Cornil, A. De Coster, G. Copinschi, J. R. M. Franckson (1965). "Effect of muscular exercise on the plasma level of cortisol in man". European Journal of Endocrinology. http://www.eje-online.org/content/48/1/163.abstract.
^ Cohen S., Williamson G. M. (1991). "Stress and infectious disease in humans". Psychological Bulletin 109: 5–24. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.109.1.5. PMID 2006229.
^ Jason Menoutis, Ed.D. (2008). "Physical Activity and Health" (Abstract). Nasm Pro. http://www.nasm.org/nasmpro/library/showarticle.aspx?id=14220#one. Retrieved 2008-08-25.
^ Borer, KT; Wuorineen EC, Lukos JR, Denver JW, Porges SW, Burant F (August 2009). "Two bouts of exercise before meals but not after meals, lower fasting blood glucose". Medicine in Science and Sports and Exercise 41 (8): 1606–14. doi:10.1249/MSS.0b013e31819dfe14. PMID 19568199.
^ Silberner, Joanne (June 7, 2010). "100 Years Ago, Exercise Was Blended Into Daily Life". npr.org. http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=127525702. Retrieved 23 November 2010.
^ Wislett, Ulrik; Ellingsen O, Kemi O. (July 2009). "High=Intensity Interval Training to Maximize Cardiac Benefit of Exercise Taining?". Exercise and Sports Sciences Reviews 37 (3): 139–146. doi:10.1097/JES.0b013e3181aa65fc. PMID 19550205.
^ Hanc, J. 1987. Your Health Behind the Runner\'s Euphoria. \'\'Newsday, April 21, 1987,\'\' 11. Retrieved October 5, 2006, from ProQuest database
^ ^a ^b Sparling PB, Giuffrida A, Piomelli D, Rosskopf L, Dietrich A (December 2003). "Exercise activates the endocannabinoid system". NeuroReport 14 (17): 2209–11. doi:10.1097/01.wnr.0000097048.56589.47. PMID 14625449. http://journals.lww.com/neuroreport/Abstract/2003/12020/Exercise_activates_the_endocannabinoid_system.15.aspx.
^ ^a ^b Burfoot, Amby (June 2004). "Runner's High". Runner's World. http://www.runnersworld.com/article/0,7120,s6-243-297--1102-0,00.html. Retrieved 2009-10-10.
^ Bouchard, Claude; Ping An, Treva Rice, James S. Skinner, Jack H. Wilmore, Jacques Gagnon, Louis Perusse, Arthus S. Leon, D. C. Rao (September 1, 1999). "Familial aggregation of VO(2max) response to exercise training: results from the HERITAGE Family Study". Journal of Applied Physiology 87 (3): 1003–1008. PMID 10484570. http://jap.physiology.org/cgi/content/abstract/87/3/1003?ijkey=189eebcbc5a461258da582b4aef41ebcf7bec51f&keytype2=tf_ipsecsha. Retrieved 2007-07-17.
^ Kolata, Gina (February 12, 2002). "Why Some People Won't Be Fit Despite Exercise". The New York Times. http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9406EEDE113CF931A25751C0A9649C8B63&sec=health. Retrieved 2007-07-17.
^ Hubal, MJ; Gordish-Dressman H, Thompson PD, Price TB, Hoffman EP, Angelopoulos TJ, Gordon PM, Moyna NM, Pescatello LS, Visich PS, Zoeller RF, Seip RL, Clarkson PM (June 2005). "Variability in muscle size and strength gain after unilateral resistance training". Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise 37 (6): 964–972. PMID 15947721.
^ Brutsaert, Tom D.; Esteban J. Parra (2006). "What makes a champion? Explaining variation in human athletic performance" (PDF). Respiratory Physiology & Neurobiology 151 (2–3): 109–123. doi:10.1016/j.resp.2005.12.013. PMID 16448865. Archived from the original on 2007-08-10. http://web.archive.org/web/20070810081848/http://www.erin.utoronto.ca/~eparra/profile/PDF+files/Brutsaert+and+Parra,+2006.pdf. Retrieved 2007-07-17.
^ Geddes, Linda (2007-07-28). "Superhuman". New Scientist. pp. 35–41.
^ "Being active combats risk of functional problems". http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/news/fullstory_58065.html.
^ AHA: Physical activity recommendations
^ ^a ^b ^c Gleeson M (August 2007). "Immune function in sport and exercise". J. Appl. Physiol. 103 (2): 693–9. doi:10.1152/japplphysiol.00008.2007. PMID 17303714. http://jap.physiology.org/cgi/content/full/103/2/693.
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Donatelle, Rebecca J. (2005). Health, The Basics (6th ed.). San Francisco: Pearson Education. ISBN 0-8053-2852-1.
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External links

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Fitness training

Wikiquote has a collection of quotations related to: Exercise

Look up exercise in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.

MedLinePlus's Topic on Exercise and Physical Fitness
Science Daily's reference on Physical Exercise
Guidance on the promotion and creation of physical environments that support increased levels of physical activity."Physical activity and the environment". http://www.nice.org.uk/Guidance/PH8.

UpToDate Contents

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1. 運動の利益とリスク the benefits and risks of exercise
2. 心血管疾患の予防における運動およびフィットネス exercise and fitness in the prevention of cardiovascular disease
3. 高齢者における身体活動および運動 physical activity and exercise in older adults
4. 小児および思春期における有酸素運動試験の概要 overview of aerobic exercise testing in children and adolescents
5. 運動生理学 exercise physiology

English Journal

Analysis of the resilience of team performance during a nuclear emergency response exercise.

Gomes JO1, Borges MR2, Huber GJ3, Carvalho PV4.Author information 1Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. Electronic address: joseorlando@nce.ufrj.br.2Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. Electronic address: mborges@nce.ufrj.br.3Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. Electronic address: gilbert@archive.com.br.4Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil; Comissão Nacional de Energia Nuclear/Instituto de Engenharia Nuclear, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. Electronic address: paulov@ien.gov.br.AbstractThe current work presents results from a cognitive task analysis (CTA) of a nuclear disaster simulation. Audio-visual records were collected from an emergency room team composed of individuals from 26 different agencies as they responded to multiple scenarios in a simulated nuclear disaster. This simulation was part of a national emergency response training activity for a nuclear power plant located in a developing country. The objectives of this paper are to describe sources of resilience and brittleness in these activities, identify cues of potential improvements for future emergency simulations, and leveraging the resilience of the emergency response system in case of a real disaster. Multiple CTA techniques were used to gain a better understanding of the cognitive dimensions of the activity and to identify team coordination and crisis management patterns that emerged from the simulation exercises.
Applied ergonomics.Appl Ergon.2014 May;45(3):780-8. doi: 10.1016/j.apergo.2013.10.009. Epub 2013 Nov 14.
The current work presents results from a cognitive task analysis (CTA) of a nuclear disaster simulation. Audio-visual records were collected from an emergency room team composed of individuals from 26 different agencies as they responded to multiple scenarios in a simulated nuclear disaster. This si
PMID 24239564

Physical workload, trapezius muscle activity, and neck pain in nurses' night and day shifts: A physiological evaluation.

Nicoletti C1, Spengler CM2, Läubli T3.Author information 1Department of Health Sciences and Technology, ETH Zurich, Sensory-Motor Systems Lab, 8092 Zurich, Switzerland; Exercise Physiology Lab, Institute of Human Movement Sciences and Sport, ETH Zurich, Winterthurerstrasse 190, 8057 Zurich, Switzerland. Electronic address: corinne.nicoletti@hest.ethz.ch.2Exercise Physiology Lab, Institute of Human Movement Sciences and Sport, ETH Zurich, Winterthurerstrasse 190, 8057 Zurich, Switzerland; Zurich Center for Integrative Human Physiology (ZIHP), University of Zurich, Winterthurerstrasse 190, 8057 Zurich, Switzerland. Electronic address: christina.spengler@hest.ethz.ch.3Department of Health Sciences and Technology, ETH Zurich, Sensory-Motor Systems Lab, 8092 Zurich, Switzerland; Holistics Prosthetics Research Center, Kyoto Institute of Technology, Matsugasaki, Sakyo-ku 606-8585, Japan. Electronic address: tlaeubli@ethz.ch.AbstractThe purpose of this study was to compare physical workload, electromyography (EMG) of the trapezius muscle, neck pain and mental well-being at work between night and day shifts in twenty Swiss nurses. Work pulse (average increase of heart rate over resting heart rate) was lower during night (27 bpm) compared to day shifts (34 bpm; p < 0.01). Relative arm acceleration also indicated less physical activity during night (82% of average) compared to day shifts (110%; p < 0.01). Rest periods were significantly longer during night shifts. Trapezius muscle rest time was longer during night (13% of shift duration) than day shifts (7%; p < 0.01) and the 50th percentile of EMG activity was smaller (p = 0.02), indicating more opportunities for muscle relaxation during night shifts. Neck pain and mental well-being at work were similar between shifts. Subjective perception of burden was similar between shifts despite less physical burden at night, suggesting there are other contributing factors.
Applied ergonomics.Appl Ergon.2014 May;45(3):741-6. doi: 10.1016/j.apergo.2013.09.016. Epub 2013 Oct 17.
The purpose of this study was to compare physical workload, electromyography (EMG) of the trapezius muscle, neck pain and mental well-being at work between night and day shifts in twenty Swiss nurses. Work pulse (average increase of heart rate over resting heart rate) was lower during night (27 bpm
PMID 24140243

Effects of caffeine and menthol on cognition and mood during simulated firefighting in the heat.

Zhang Y1, Balilionis G2, Casaru C2, Geary C2, Schumacker RE3, Neggers YH4, Curtner-Smith MD2, Richardson MT2, Bishop PA2, Green JM5.Author information 1Department of Kinesiology, The University of Alabama, Tuscaloosa, AL 35487, USA. Electronic address: yzhang68@bama.ua.edu.2Department of Kinesiology, The University of Alabama, Tuscaloosa, AL 35487, USA.3Department of Educational Studies in Psychology, Research Methodology, and Counseling, The University of Alabama, Tuscaloosa, AL 35487, USA.4Department of Human Nutrition, The University of Alabama, Tuscaloosa, AL 35487, USA.5Department of Health, Physical Education, and Recreation, University of North Alabama, Florence, AL 35632, USA.AbstractThis study examined the separate effects of caffeine and menthol on cognition and mood during simulated firefighting in the heat. Participants (N = 10) performed three trials in a counterbalanced order, either with 400 mg caffeine, menthol lozenges, or placebo. The simulated firefighting consisted of 2 bouts of 20-min treadmill exercise and one bout of 20-min stepping exercise in the heat with two brief 15-min rest periods between each exercise phase. Exercise induced significant dehydration (>3%) and elevated rectal temperature (>38.9 °C), for all three conditions. Neither caffeine nor menthol reduced perceived exertion compared to placebo (p > 0.05). Mood ratings (i.e., alertness, hedonic tone, tension) significantly deteriorated over time (p < 0.05), but there was no difference among the three conditions. Simple reaction time, short-term memory, and retrieval memory did not alter with treatments or repeated evaluations. Reaction accuracy from a math test remained unchanged throughout the experimental period; reaction time from the math test was significantly faster after exposure to the heat (p < 0.05). It is concluded that, exhaustive exercise in the heat severely impacted mood, but minimally impacted cognition. These treatments failed to show ergogenic benefits in a simulated firefighting paradigm in a hot environment.
Applied ergonomics.Appl Ergon.2014 May;45(3):510-4. doi: 10.1016/j.apergo.2013.07.005. Epub 2013 Jul 26.
This study examined the separate effects of caffeine and menthol on cognition and mood during simulated firefighting in the heat. Participants (N = 10) performed three trials in a counterbalanced order, either with 400 mg caffeine, menthol lozenges, or placebo. The simulated firefighting consiste
PMID 23891504

Effect of base layer materials on physiological and perceptual responses to exercise in personal protective equipment.

Smith DL1, Arena L2, Deblois JP2, Haller JM2, Hultquist EM2, Lefferts WK2, Russell T2, Wu A2, Fehling PC2.Author information 1First Responder Health and Safety Laboratory, Department of Health and Exercise Sciences, Skidmore College, 815 N. Broadway, Saratoga Springs, NY 12866, USA. Electronic address: dsmith@skidmore.edu.2First Responder Health and Safety Laboratory, Department of Health and Exercise Sciences, Skidmore College, 815 N. Broadway, Saratoga Springs, NY 12866, USA.AbstractTen men (non-firefighters) completed a 110 min walking/recovery protocol (three 20-min exercise bouts, with recovery periods of 10, 20, and 20 min following successive bouts) in a thermoneutral laboratory while wearing firefighting personal protective equipment over one of four base layers: cotton, modacrylic, wool, and phase change material. There were no significant differences in changes in heart rate, core temperature, rating of perceived exertion, thermal discomfort, and thermal strain among base layers. Sticking to skin, coolness/hotness, and clothing humidity sensation were more favorable (p < 0.05) for wool compared with cotton; no significant differences were identified for the other 7 clothing sensations assessed. Separate materials performance testing of the individual base layers and firefighting ensembles (base layer + turnout gear) indicated differences in thermal protective performance and total heat loss among the base layers and among ensembles; however, differences in heat dissipation did not correspond with physiological responses during exercise or recovery.
Applied ergonomics.Appl Ergon.2014 May;45(3):428-36. doi: 10.1016/j.apergo.2013.06.001. Epub 2013 Jul 11.
Ten men (non-firefighters) completed a 110 min walking/recovery protocol (three 20-min exercise bouts, with recovery periods of 10, 20, and 20 min following successive bouts) in a thermoneutral laboratory while wearing firefighting personal protective equipment over one of four base layers: cotton
PMID 23849898

Japanese Journal

複数の3軸加速度センサを用いたNon-Exercise Activity Thermogenesisを含む身体活動のモデル化

中尾京子,梅田智広,高田雅美,城和貴
情報処理学会研究報告. MPS, 数理モデル化と問題解決研究報告 2014-MPS-97(21), 1-6, 2014-02-24
日常生活における運動強度の低い身体活動 (NEAT) による代謝は,人の総エネルギー消費量の 20〜30%を占め,個人差も大きい.そこで,運動だけでなく,NEAT を含むあらゆる身体活動のエネルギー消費量を推定するモデル化を行う.エネルギー消費量は体重に比例するため,体の中で最も比重の大きい胴体のエネルギー消費に注目する.胴体の動きをより正確に捉えるため,両胸椎,腰椎の 3 点の 3 軸加速度デー …
NAID 110009673893

災害対策基本法改正による自治体の個人情報保護と共有の実務への影響

岡本正
情報処理学会研究報告. EIP, [電子化知的財産・社会基盤] 2014-EIP-63(4), 1-6, 2014-02-14
2013 年災害対策基本法改正により,避難行動要支援者名簿,安否情報,被災者台帳等の,防災面における個人情報保護の共有・利活用に関する制度が創設された.これは,個人情報保護条例に基づく自治体の個人情報政策実務に対し,大きな影響を与えるものである.災害対策基本法の改正は,自治体に制度や条例の整備を促しているところ,それを成し遂げるには,地域社会全体の情報リテラシーの向上及び名簿作成システム等技術面で …
NAID 110009662631

情報基礎教育におけるペア効果とパーソナリティの特徴

内田君子,大矢芳彦,奥田隆史
情報処理学会研究報告. コンピュータと教育研究会報告 2014-CE-123(7), 1-10, 2014-02-01
大学の情報基礎教育にペアワークを導入し,成績上昇度,満足度および活性度などのペア効果に影響を及ぼす要因について,学習者のパーソナリティの特徴を中心に検討を行った.パーソナリティの分類基準として,対人コミュニケーションの傾向診断で有効性が示されているエゴグラム TEG? と学習意欲測定の標準化された心理尺度として扱われているGAMI を用いた結果,エゴグラムが示す人格特性はペアワーク満足度およびペア …
NAID 110009660291