A specific anxiety about being in a place or situation where escape is difficult or where help may be unavailable.
Agoraphobia
An ancient agora in Delos, Greece. One of the public spaces after which the condition is named.
Specialty
Psychiatry
Symptoms
Anxiety in situations perceived to be unsafe, panic attacks[1][2]
Complications
Depression, substance use disorder[1]
Duration
> 6 months[1]
Causes
Genetic and environmental factors[1]
Risk factors
Family history, stressful event[1]
Differential diagnosis
Separation anxiety, posttraumatic stress disorder, major depressive disorder[1]
Treatment
Cognitive behavioral therapy[3]
Prognosis
Resolution in half with treatment[4]
Frequency
1.7% of adults[1]
Agoraphobia is an anxiety disorder characterized by symptoms of anxiety in situations where the person perceives their environment to be unsafe with no easy way to escape.[1] These situations can include open spaces, public transit, shopping centers, or simply being outside their home.[1] Being in these situations may result in a panic attack.[2] The symptoms occur nearly every time the situation is encountered and last for more than six months.[1] Those affected will go to great lengths to avoid these situations.[1] In severe cases people may become completely unable to leave their homes.[2]
Agoraphobia is believed to be due to a combination of genetic and environmental factors.[1] The condition often runs in families, and stressful or traumatic events such as the death of a parent or being attacked may be a trigger.[1] In the DSM-5 agoraphobia is classified as a phobia along with specific phobias and social phobia.[1][3] Other conditions that can produce similar symptoms include separation anxiety, posttraumatic stress disorder, and major depressive disorder.[1] Those affected are at higher risk of depression and substance use disorder.[1]
Without treatment it is uncommon for agoraphobia to resolve.[1] Treatment is typically with a type of counselling called cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT).[3][5] CBT results in resolution for about half of people.[4] Agoraphobia affects about 1.7% of adults.[1] Women are affected about twice as often as men.[1] The condition often begins in early adulthood and becomes less common in old age.[1] It is rare in children.[1] The term "agoraphobia" is from Greek ἀγορά, agorá, meaning a "public square" and -φοβία, -phobia, meaning "fear".[6]
Contents
1Signs and symptoms
1.1Panic attacks
2Causes
2.1Substance induced
2.2Attachment theory
2.3Spatial theory
2.4Evolutionary psychology
3Diagnosis
4Treatments
4.1Therapy
4.2Medications
4.3Alternative medicine
5Epidemiology
6Society and culture
6.1Notable cases
7See also
8References
9External links
Signs and symptoms
Agoraphobia is a condition where sufferers become anxious in unfamiliar environments or where they perceive that they have little control. Triggers for this anxiety may include wide-open spaces, crowds (social anxiety), or traveling (even short distances). Agoraphobia is often, but not always, compounded by a fear of social embarrassment, as the agoraphobic fears the onset of a panic attack and appearing distraught in public. Most of the time they avoid these areas and stay in the comfort of their safe haven, usually their home.[1]
Agoraphobia is also defined as "a fear, sometimes terrifying, by those who have experienced one or more panic attacks".[7] In these cases, the sufferer is fearful of a particular place because they have experienced a panic attack at the same location at a previous time. Fearing the onset of another panic attack, the sufferer is fearful or even avoids a location. Some refuse to leave their homes even in medical emergencies because the fear of being outside of their comfort areas is too great.[8]
The sufferers can sometimes go to great lengths to avoid the locations where they have experienced the onset of a panic attack. Agoraphobia, as described in this manner, is actually a symptom professionals check when making a diagnosis of panic disorder. Other syndromes like obsessive compulsive disorder or post-traumatic stress disorder can also cause agoraphobia. Essentially, any irrational fear that keeps one from going outside can cause the syndrome.[9]
Agoraphobics may suffer from temporary separation anxiety disorder when certain other individuals of the household depart from the residence temporarily, such as a parent or spouse, or when the agoraphobic is left home alone. Such temporary conditions can result in an increase in anxiety or a panic attack or feeling the need to separate themselves from family or maybe friends.[10][11]
People with agoraphobia sometimes fear waiting outside for long periods of time; that symptom can be called "macrophobia".[12]
Panic attacks
Agoraphobia patients can experience sudden panic attacks when traveling to places where they fear they are out of control, help would be difficult to obtain, or they could be embarrassed. During a panic attack, epinephrine is released in large amounts, triggering the body's natural fight-or-flight response. A panic attack typically has an abrupt onset, building to maximum intensity within 10 to 15 minutes, and rarely lasts longer than 30 minutes.[13] Symptoms of a panic attack include palpitations, rapid heartbeat, sweating, trembling, nausea, vomiting, dizziness, tightness in the throat, and shortness of breath. Many patients report a fear of dying or of losing control of emotions and/or behaviors.[13]
Causes
Agoraphobia is believed to be due to a combination of genetic and environmental factors.[1] The condition often runs in families, and stressful or traumatic events such as the death of a parent or being attacked may be a trigger.[1]
Research has uncovered a link between agoraphobia and difficulties with spatial orientation.[14][15] Individuals without agoraphobia are able to maintain balance by combining information from their vestibular system, their visual system, and their proprioceptive sense. A disproportionate number of agoraphobics have weak vestibular function and consequently rely more on visual or tactile signals. They may become disoriented when visual cues are sparse (as in wide-open spaces) or overwhelming (as in crowds).[16] Likewise, they may be confused by sloping or irregular surfaces.[16] In a virtual reality study, agoraphobics showed impaired processing of changing audiovisual data in comparison with nonsuffering subjects.[17]
Substance induced
Chronic use of tranquilizers and sleeping pills such as benzodiazepines has been linked to onset of agoraphobia.[18] In 10 patients who had developed agoraphobia during benzodiazepine dependence, symptoms abated within the first year of assisted withdrawal.[19] Similarly, alcohol use disorders are associated with panic with or without agoraphobia; this association may be due to the long-term effects of alcohol misuse causing a distortion in brain chemistry.[20]
Tobacco smoking has also been associated with the development and emergence of agoraphobia, often with panic disorder; it is uncertain how tobacco smoking results in anxiety-panic with or without agoraphobia symptoms, but the direct effects of nicotine dependence or the effects of tobacco smoke on breathing have been suggested as possible causes. Self-medication or a combination of factors may also explain the association between tobacco smoking and agoraphobia and panic.[21]
Attachment theory
Main article: Attachment theory
Some scholars[22][23] have explained agoraphobia as an attachment deficit, i.e., the temporary loss of the ability to tolerate spatial separations from a secure base.[24] Recent empirical research has also linked attachment and spatial theories of agoraphobia.[25]
Spatial theory
In the social sciences, a perceived clinical bias[26] exists in agoraphobia research. Branches of the social sciences, especially geography, have increasingly become interested in what may be thought of as a spatial phenomenon. One such approach links the development of agoraphobia with modernity.[27] Factors considered contributing to agoraphobia within modernity are the ubiquity of cars and urbanization. These have helped develop the expansion of public space, on one hand, and the contraction of private space on the other, thus creating in the minds of agoraphobic-prone people a tense, unbridgeable gulf between the two.
Evolutionary psychology
An evolutionary psychology view is that the more unusual primary agoraphobia without panic attacks may be due to a different mechanism from agoraphobia with panic attacks. Primary agoraphobia without panic attacks may be a specific phobia explained by it once having been evolutionarily advantageous to avoid exposed, large, open spaces without cover or concealment. Agoraphobia with panic attack, though, may be an avoidance response secondary to the panic attacks due to fear of the situations in which the panic attacks occurred.[28][29]
Diagnosis
Most people who present to mental health specialists develop agoraphobia after the onset of panic disorder.[30] Agoraphobia is best understood as an adverse behavioral outcome of repeated panic attacks and subsequent anxiety and preoccupation with these attacks that leads to an avoidance of situations where a panic attack could occur.[31] Early treatment of panic disorder can often prevent agoraphobia.[32] Agoraphobia is typically determined when symptoms are worse than panic disorder, but also do not meet the criteria for other anxiety disorders such as depression.[33] In rare cases where agoraphobics do not meet the criteria used to diagnose panic disorder, the formal diagnosis of agoraphobia without history of panic disorder is used (primary agoraphobia).
Treatments
Therapy
Systematic desensitization can provide lasting relief to the majority of patients with panic disorder and agoraphobia. The disappearance of residual and subclinical agoraphobic avoidance, and not simply of panic attacks, should be the aim of exposure therapy.[34] Many patients can deal with exposure easier if they are in the company of a friend on whom they can rely.[35] Patients must remain in the situation until anxiety has abated because if they leave the situation, the phobic response will not decrease and it may even rise.[35]
A related exposure treatment is in vivo exposure, a Cognitive Behavioral Therapy method, that gradually exposes patients to the feared situations or objects.[36] This treatment was largely effective with an effect size from d = 0.78 to d = 1.34, and these effects were shown to increase over time, proving that the treatment had long term efficacy (up to 12 months after treatment).[36]
Psychological interventions in combination with pharmaceutical treatments were overall more effective than treatments simply involving either CBT or pharmaceuticals.[36] Further research showed there was no significant effect between using group CBT versus individual CBT.[36]
Cognitive restructuring has also proved useful in treating agoraphobia. This treatment involves coaching a participant through a dianoetic discussion, with the intent of replacing irrational, counterproductive beliefs with more factual and beneficial ones.
Relaxation techniques are often useful skills for the agoraphobic to develop, as they can be used to stop or prevent symptoms of anxiety and panic.[37]
Medications
Antidepressant medications most commonly used to treat anxiety disorders are mainly selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors. Benzodiazepines, monoamine oxidase inhibitor, and tricyclic antidepressants are also sometimes prescribed for treatment of agoraphobia.[38] Antidepressants are important because some have antipanic effects.[35] Antidepressants should be used in conjunction with exposure as a form of self-help or with cognitive behaviour therapy.[35] A combination of medication and cognitive behaviour therapy is sometimes the most effective treatment for agoraphobia.[35]
Benzodiazepines, antianxiety medications such as alprazolam and clonazepam, are used to treat anxiety and can also help control the symptoms of a panic attack. If taken for too long, they can cause dependence. Treatment with benzodiazepines should not exceed 4 weeks. Side effects may include confusion, drowsiness, light-headedness, loss of balance, and memory loss.
Alternative medicine
Eye movement desensitization and reprocessing (EMDR) has been studied as a possible treatment for agoraphobia, with poor results.[39] As such, EMDR is only recommended in cases where cognitive-behavioral approaches have proven ineffective or in cases where agoraphobia has developed following trauma.[40]
Many people with anxiety disorders benefit from joining a self-help or support group (telephone conference-call support groups or online support groups being of particular help for completely housebound individuals). Sharing problems and achievements with others, as well as sharing various self-help tools, are common activities in these groups. In particular, stress management techniques and various kinds of meditation practices and visualization techniques can help people with anxiety disorders calm themselves and may enhance the effects of therapy, as can service to others, which can distract from the self-absorption that tends to go with anxiety problems. Also, preliminary evidence suggests aerobic exercise may have a calming effect. Since caffeine, certain illicit drugs, and even some over-the-counter cold medications can aggravate the symptoms of anxiety disorders, they should be avoided.[41]
Epidemiology
Agoraphobia occurs about twice as commonly among women as it does in men.[42] The gender difference may be attributable to several factors: sociocultural traditions that encourage, or permit, the greater expression of avoidance coping strategies by women (including dependent and helpless behaviors), women perhaps being more likely to seek help and therefore be diagnosed, and men being more likely to abuse alcohol in reaction to anxiety and be diagnosed as an alcoholic.[43] Research has not yet produced a single clear explanation for the gender difference in agoraphobia.[43]
Panic disorder with or without agoraphobia affects roughly 5.1% of Americans,[36] and about 1/3 of this population with panic disorder have comorbid agoraphobia. It is uncommon to have agoraphobia without panic attacks, with only 0.17% of people with agoraphobia not presenting panic disorders as well.[36]
Society and culture
Notable cases
Will Friedle (b. 1976) American actor, known for role of Eric in Boy Meets World
Woody Allen (b. 1935), American actor, director, musician[44]
Kim Basinger (b. 1953), American actress[45]
Earl Campbell (b. 1955), American pro football player[46]
Macaulay Culkin (b. 1980), American actor, known for his portrayal of Kevin McCallister in Home Alone and Home Alone 2: Lost in New York, said he had "self-diagnosed" agoraphobia.[47]
Paula Deen (b. 1947), American chef, author, and television personality[48]
H.L. Gold (1914–1996), science fiction editor – as a result of trauma during his wartime experiences, his agoraphobia became so severe that for more than two decades he was unable to leave his apartment. Towards the end of his life, he acquired some control over the condition.[citation needed]
Daryl Hannah (b. 1960), American actress[49]
Howard Hughes (1905–1976), American aviator, industrialist, film producer and philanthropist[50]
Shirley Jackson (1916–1965), American writer – her agoraphobia is considered to be a primary inspiration for the novel We Have Always Lived in the Castle.[53][54]
Elfriede Jelinek (b. 1946), Austrian writer, Nobel Prize laureate in Literature in 2004[55]
Bolesław Prus (1847–1912), Polish journalist and novelist[56]
Peter Robinson (b. 1962), British musician known as Marilyn[57]
Brian Wilson (b. 1942), American singer and songwriter, primary songwriter of the Beach Boys, a former recluse and agoraphobic who has schizophrenia[58]
See also
List of phobias
References
^ abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxAmerican Psychiatric Association (2013), Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (5th ed.), Arlington: American Psychiatric Publishing, pp. 217–221, 938, ISBN 978-0890425558
^ abc"Agoraphobia". PubMed Health. Retrieved 11 August 2016.
^ abcWyatt, Richard Jed; Chew, Robert H. (2008). Wyatt's Practical Psychiatric Practice: Forms and Protocols for Clinical Use. American Psychiatric Pub. pp. 90–91. ISBN 9781585626878. Archived from the original on 2016-08-21.
^Pompoli, A; Furukawa, TA; Imai, H; Tajika, A; Efthimiou, O; Salanti, G (13 April 2016). "Psychological therapies for panic disorder with or without agoraphobia in adults: a network meta-analysis". The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. 4: CD011004. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD011004.pub2. PMID 27071857.
^Elster, Charles Harrington (2009). Verbal Advantage: Ten Easy Steps to a Powerful Vocabulary. Diversified Publishing. p. PT717. ISBN 9780307560971. Archived from the original on 2016-08-21.
^"Agoraphobia – Dictionary of Psychotherapy". Archived from the original on 2016-04-03.
^"Agoraphobia". betterhealth.vic.gov.au. Archived from the original on 22 March 2017. Retrieved 21 March 2017.
^"Agoraphobia - Symptoms and causes". Mayo Clinic. Retrieved 2019-07-01.
^"What Are Anxiety Disorders?". www.psychiatry.org. Retrieved 2019-07-01.
^Adamec, Christine (2010). The Encyclopedia of Phobias, Fears, and Anxieties, Third Edition. Infobase Publishing. p. 328. ISBN 9781438120980.
^ abDavid Satcher; et al. (1999). "Chapter 4.2". Mental Health: A Report of the Surgeon General. Archived from the original on 2006-04-27.
^Yardley L, Britton J, Lear S, Bird J, Luxon LM (May 1995). "Relationship between balance system function and agoraphobic avoidance". Behav Res Ther. 33 (4): 435–9. doi:10.1016/0005-7967(94)00060-W. PMID 7755529.
^Jacob RG, Furman JM, Durrant JD, Turner SM (1996). "Panic, agoraphobia, and vestibular dysfunction". Am J Psychiatry. 153 (4): 503–512. doi:10.1176/ajp.153.4.503. PMID 8599398.
^ abJacob RG, Furman JM, Durrant JD, Turner SM (1997). "Surface dependence: a balance control strategy in panic disorder with agoraphobia". Psychosom Med. 59 (3): 323–30. doi:10.1097/00006842-199705000-00016. PMID 9178344.
^Viaud-Delmon I, Warusfel O, Seguelas A, Rio E, Jouvent R (October 2006). "High sensitivity to multisensory conflicts in agoraphobia exhibited by virtual reality". Eur. Psychiatry. 21 (7): 501–8. doi:10.1016/j.eurpsy.2004.10.004. PMID 17055951.
^Hammersley D, Beeley L (1996). "The effects of medication on counselling". In Palmer S, Dainow S, Milner P (eds.). Counselling: The BACP Counselling Reader. 1. Sage. pp. 211–4. ISBN 978-0-8039-7477-7.
^Ashton H (June 1987). "Benzodiazepine withdrawal: outcome in 50 patients". Br J Addict. 82 (6): 665–71. doi:10.1111/j.1360-0443.1987.tb01529.x. PMID 2886145.
^Cosci F, Schruers KR, Abrams K, Griez EJ (June 2007). "Alcohol use disorders and panic disorder: a review of the evidence of a direct relationship". J Clin Psychiatry. 68 (6): 874–80. doi:10.4088/JCP.v68n0608. PMID 17592911.
^Cosci F, Knuts IJ, Abrams K, Griez EJ, Schruers KR (May 2010). "Cigarette smoking and panic: a critical review of the literature". J Clin Psychiatry. 71 (5): 606–15. doi:10.4088/JCP.08r04523blu. PMID 19961810.
^G. Liotti, (1996). Insecure attachment and agoraphobia, in: C. Murray-Parkes, J. Stevenson-Hinde, & P. Marris (Eds.). Attachment Across the Life Cycle.
^J. Bowlby, (1998). Attachment and Loss (Vol. 2: Separation).
^Jacobson K (2004). "Agoraphobia and Hypochondria as Disorders of Dwelling". International Studies in Philosophy. 36 (2): 31–44. doi:10.5840/intstudphil2004362165.
^Holmes J (2008). "Space and the secure base in agoraphobia: a qualitative survey". Area. 40 (3): 357–382. doi:10.1111/j.1475-4762.2008.00820.x.
^J. Davidson, (2003). Phobic Geographies
^Holmes J (2006). "Building Bridges and Breaking Boundaries: Modernity and Agoraphobia". Opticon1826. 1: 1. doi:10.5334/opt.010606. Archived from the original on 2016-03-03.
^Bracha HS (2006). "Human brain evolution and the "Neuroevolutionary Time-depth Principle:" Implications for the Reclassification of fear-circuitry-related traits in DSM-V and for studying resilience to warzone-related posttraumatic stress disorder" (PDF). Progress in Neuro-Psychopharmacology and Biological Psychiatry. 30 (5): 827–853. doi:10.1016/j.pnpbp.2006.01.008. PMID 16563589.
^Raffaello S, Alessandra SM, Alessandra S (2011). "[Primary agoraphobia specific symptoms: from natural information to mental representations]" (PDF). Italian Journal of Psychopathology (in Italian). 17 (3): 265–276. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2012-04-26.
^American Psychiatric Association, 1998
^Barlow DH (1988). Anxiety and its disorders: The nature and treatment of anxiety and panic. Guilford Press.
^pmhdev. "Agoraphobia – National Library of Medicine". Archived from the original on 30 March 2014. Retrieved 25 January 2017.
^Kenny, Tim; Lawson, Euan. "Agoraphobia". Patient.info. Archived from the original on 7 June 2015. Retrieved 8 December 2014.
^Fava GA, Rafanelli C, Grandi S, Conti S, Ruini C, Mangelli L, Belluardo P (2001). "Long-term outcome of panic disorder with agoraphobia treated by exposure". Psychological Medicine. 31 (5): 891–898. doi:10.1017/S0033291701003592. PMID 11459386.
^ abcdeGelder, Michael G.; Mayou, Richard.; Geddes, John (2005). Psychiatr. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-852863-0.
^ abcdefSanchez-Meca, Rosa-Alcazar, Marin-Martinez, Gomez-Conesa (September 11, 2008). "Psychological treatment of panic disorder with or without agoraphobia: A meta-analysis". Clinical Psychology Review. 30 (1): 37–50. doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2009.08.011. PMID 19775792.CS1 maint: uses authors parameter (link)
^"Agoraphobia - Diagnosis and treatment - Mayo Clinic". www.mayoclinic.org. Retrieved 2019-07-01.
^Lydiard, R. Bruce; Ballenger, James C. (16 June 1987). "Antidepressants in panic disorder and agoraphobia". Journal of Affective Disorders. 13 (2): 153–168. doi:10.1016/0165-0327(87)90020-6.
^
Goldstein, Alan J., de Beurs, Edwin, Chambless, Dianne L., Wilson, Kimberly A. (2000). "EMDR for Panic Disorder With Agoraphobia : Comparison With Waiting List and Credible Attention-Placebo Control Conditions". Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology. 68 (6): 947–957. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.527.315. doi:10.1037/0022-006X.68.6.947.CS1 maint: uses authors parameter (link)
^Agoraphobia Resource Center. "Agoraphobia treatments—Eye movement desensitization and reprogramming". Archived from the original on 5 April 2008. Retrieved 2008-04-18.
^National Institute of Mental Health. "How to get help for anxiety disorders". Archived from the original on 2008-07-04. Retrieved 2008-04-18.
^Magee WJ, Eaton WW, Wittchen HU, McGonagle KA, Kessler RC (Feb 1996). "Agoraphobia, simple phobia, and social phobia in the National Comorbidity Survey". Arch Gen Psychiatry. 53 (2): 159–68. doi:10.1001/archpsyc.1996.01830020077009. PMID 8629891.
^ abAgoraphobia Research Center. "Is agoraphobia more common in men or women?". Archived from the original on 2 December 2007. Retrieved 2007-11-15.
^Peter Biskind. "Reconstructing Woody". Vanity Fair. Archived from the original on 2012-10-17.
^Saul, Helen (2003). Phobias : fighting the fear. New York: Arcade. p. 6. ISBN 978-1559706933. Archived from the original on 16 October 2015. Retrieved 11 September 2015.
^"Campbell Breaks Free Again" Los Angeles Times. Retrieved 2011-05-01
^"CNN.com – Transcripts". CNN. 2004-05-27. Archived from the original on 2009-07-20. Retrieved 2009-08-07.
^Julia Moskin (February 28, 2007). "From Phobia To Fame: A Southern Cook's Memoir". The New York Times. Archived from the original on February 1, 2017.
^Biography for Daryl Hannah on IMDb
^"Psychological Autopsy can help understand controversial deaths—The Crime Library on truTV.com". Archived from the original on 14 February 2015. Retrieved 25 January 2017.
^Olivia Hussey—People Magazine—March 16, 1992 Archived March 18, 2012, at the Wayback Machine
^Biography for Olivia Hussey on IMDb
^NYT Review[dead link] by Joyce Carol Oates
^[1] essay by Jonathan Lethem Archived April 29, 2012, at the Wayback Machine
^Mike Conklin. (2004-12-10). "Where is Elfriede Jelinek?". Chicago Tribune. Archived from the original on 2013-06-17. Retrieved 2013-05-08.
^Stanisław Fita, ed., Wspomnienia o Bolesławie Prusie (Reminiscences about Bolesław Prus), Warsaw, Państwowy Instytut Wydawniczy (State Publishing Institute), 1962, p. 113.
^Whatever Happened to the Gender Benders?, Channel 4 documentary, United Kingdom.
^Profile of Brian Wilson Archived 2009-01-20 at the Wayback Machine. The Independent. Retrieved 3 September 2007.
This article incorporates public domain material from websites or documents of the National Institute of Mental Health.
External links
Classification
D
ICD-10: F40.0
ICD-9-CM: 300.22 Without panic disorder, 300.21 With panic disorder
MeSH: D000379
External resources
MedlinePlus: 000923
Patient UK:
Agoraphobia
Agoraphobia at Curlie
v
t
e
Mental and behavioral disorders (F00–F99 & 290–319)
Adult personality and behavior
Gender dysphoria
Ego-dystonic sexual orientation
Paraphilia
Fetishism
Voyeurism
Sexual maturation disorder
Sexual relationship disorder
Other
Factitious disorder
Munchausen syndrome
Impulse control disorder
Dermatillomania
Kleptomania
Pyromania
Trichotillomania
Personality disorder
Childhood and learning
Emotional and behavioral
ADHD
Conduct disorder
ODD
Emotional and behavioral disorders
Separation anxiety disorder
Movement disorders
Stereotypic
Social functioning
DAD
RAD
Selective mutism
Speech
Stuttering
Cluttering
Tic disorder
Tourette syndrome
Intellectual disability
X-linked intellectual disability
Lujan–Fryns syndrome
Psychological development (developmental disabilities)
Pervasive
Specific
Mood (affective)
Bipolar
Bipolar I
Bipolar II
Bipolar NOS
Cyclothymia
Depression
Atypical depression
Dysthymia
Major depressive disorder
Melancholic depression
Seasonal affective disorder
Mania
Neurological and symptomatic
Autism spectrum
Autism
Asperger syndrome
High-functioning autism
PDD-NOS
Savant syndrome
Dementia
AIDS dementia complex
Alzheimer's disease
Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease
Frontotemporal dementia
Huntington's disease
Mild cognitive impairment
Parkinson's disease
Pick's disease
Sundowning
Vascular dementia
Wandering
Other
Delirium
Organic brain syndrome
Post-concussion syndrome
Neurotic, stress-related and somatoform
Adjustment
Adjustment disorder with depressed mood
Anxiety
Phobia
Agoraphobia
Social anxiety
Social phobia
Anthropophobia
Specific social phobia
Specific phobia
Claustrophobia
Other
Generalized anxiety disorder
OCD
Panic attack
Panic disorder
Stress
Acute stress reaction
PTSD
Dissociative
Depersonalization disorder
Dissociative identity disorder
Fugue state
Psychogenic amnesia
Somatic symptom
Body dysmorphic disorder
Conversion disorder
Ganser syndrome
Globus pharyngis
Da Costa's syndrome
Hypochondriasis
Mass psychogenic illness
Neurasthenia
Nosophobia
Psychalgia
Somatization disorder
Physiological and physical behavior
Eating
Anorexia nervosa
Bulimia nervosa
Rumination syndrome
Other specified feeding or eating disorder
Nonorganic sleep
Hypersomnia
Insomnia
Parasomnia
Night terror
Nightmare
REM sleep behavior disorder
Postnatal
Postpartum depression
Postpartum psychosis
Sexual dysfunction
Arousal
Erectile dysfunction
Female sexual arousal disorder
Desire
Hypersexuality
Hypoactive sexual desire disorder
Orgasm
Anorgasmia
Delayed ejaculation
Premature ejaculation
Sexual anhedonia
Pain
Nonorganic dyspareunia
Nonorganic vaginismus
Psychoactive substances, substance abuse and substance-related
The fear of crowds or Enochlophobia is known by different names such as Ochlophobia and Demophobia. As the name indicates, this phobia consists of an irrational fear of large crowds and gatherings of people. Enochlophobia is ...
Enochlophobia describes people who get nervous in/of crowds or fearful in/of crowds. The word is originated from the Greek ochlo meaning "crowd" and phobos meaning "fear". This would make ochlophobia, which is technically the
The enochlophobia or demophobia is an anxiety disorder characterized by the experimentation of an irrational, excessive and uncontrollable fear towards the crowds. Who suffers this alteration fears unjustifiably crowded spaces of ...