adj.

胚性の、胎生期の、胎児性の

関: embryonic、embryonic day、embryonic stage、embryonically、fetal、fetal stage

WordNet

in an early stage of development; "the embryonic government staffed by survivors of the massacre"; "an embryonic nation, not yet self-governing" (同)embryotic
of an organism prior to birth or hatching; "in the embryonic stage"; "embryologic development" (同)embryologic, embryonal
of or relating to a fetus; "fetal development" (同)foetal

PrepTutorEJDIC

=embryo

Wikipedia preview

出典(authority):フリー百科事典『ウィキペディア（Wikipedia）』「2015/07/21 21:03:42」(JST)

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An embryo is a multicellular diploid eukaryote in its earliest stage of development, from the time of fertilisation through sexual reproduction until birth, hatching, or germination.

In humans, an embryo is generally considered to be between the first and the eighth week of development after fertilisation^[1] and from then it is instead called a fetus. Some definitions consider embryological life to start at the third week of development to the eighth, when most organ systems are developing.^[2]

The development of the embryo is called embryogenesis. In organisms that reproduce sexually, once a sperm fertilizes an egg cell, the result is a cell called the zygote, which possesses half the DNA of each of its two parents. In plants, animals, and some protists, the zygote will begin to divide by mitosis to produce a multicellular organism. The result of this process is an embryo.

Etymology

First attested in English in the mid-14c., the word embryon derives from Medieval Latin embryo, itself from Greek ἔμβρυον (embruon), lit. "young one",^[3] which is the neuter of ἔμβρυος (embruos), lit. "growing in",^[4] from ἐν (en), "in"^[5] + βρύω (bruō), "swell, be full";^[6] the proper Latinised form of the Greek term would be embryum.

Human

At left is an embryo 4 weeks after fertilization (i.e. 6 weeks LMP). At right is a fetus 8 weeks after fertilization (i.e. 10 weeks LMP).

An embryo 8 weeks after fertilization (i.e. 10 weeks LMP)

In this stage of human development, the human is highly undeveloped. Below is the process of how an embryo transforms.

Week 1–3: 5–7 days after fertilization, the blastocyst attaches to the wall of the uterus (endometrium). When it comes into contact with the endometrium it performs implantation. Implantation connections between the mother and the embryo will begin to form, including the umbilical cord. The embryo's growth centers around an axis, which will become the spine and spinal cord. The brain, spinal cord, heart, and gastrointestinal tract begin to form.^[7]

Week 4–5: Chemicals produced by the embryo stop the mother's menstrual cycle. Neurogenesis is underway, showing brain activity at about the 6th week.^[8] The heart will begin to beat around the same time. Limb buds appear where arms and legs will grow later. Organogenesis begins. The head represents about one half of the embryo's axial length, and more than half of the embryo's mass. The brain develops into five areas. Tissue formation occurs that develops into the vertebra and some other bones. The heart starts to beat and blood starts to flow.^[7]

Week 6–8: Myogenesis and neurogenesis have progressed to where the embryo is capable of motion, and the eyes begin to form. Organogenesis and growth continue. Hair has started to form along with all essential organs. Facial features are beginning to develop. At the end of the 8th week, the embryonic stage is over, and the fetal stage begins.^[7]

Miscarriage

A complete spontaneous abortion at about 6 weeks from conception, i.e. 8 weeks from LMP

Some embryos do not survive through to the fetal stage, which begins about two months after fertilization (10 weeks LMP). Embryos may be aborted spontaneously or purposely.

Studies using very sensitive early pregnancy tests have found that 25% of embryos are aborted by the sixth week LMP (since the woman's last menstrual period), even if a woman does not realize it.^[9]^[10] Abortions after the sixth week LMP happen in 8% of pregnancies.^[10] The risk of them is "virtually complete by the end of the embryonic period," with a rate of only two percent after 8.5 weeks LMP.^[11]

The most common natural cause of abortion of an embryo is chromosomal abnormality,^[12] which accounts for at least 50% of sampled early pregnancy losses.^[13] Advancing maternal age and a patient history of previous spontaneous abortions are the two leading risk factors.^[13]

Induced abortion

The majority of induced abortions occur during the embryonic period. For example, in England and Wales during 2006, 68% of them occurred by the end of the embryonic period.^[14]

Induced (i.e. purposeful) abortion of an embryo may be accomplished by a variety of methods, including both pharmaceutical and surgical techniques. Vacuum aspiration is the most common surgical method of aborting an embryo within the United States.^[15]

Common reasons for purposely aborting an embryo include a desire to delay or end childbearing, concern over the interruption of work or education, issues of financial or relationship stability, perceived immaturity and health concerns.^[16]^[17]

Assisted reproduction and diagnosis

Embryos are used in various techniques of assisted reproductive technology, such as in vitro fertilization (IVF) and embryo donation. They may be subject to embryo cryopreservation for later use if IVF procedures have resulted in more embryos than is currently needed. Some aspects, e.g. selective reduction, are issues in the beginning of pregnancy controversy.

Prenatal diagnosis or preimplantation diagnosis involves testing embryos for diseases or conditions.

Viability

As of 1999, current medical technology does not allow an embryo to survive outside the uterus under any circumstances, or to be transplanted from the uterus of one woman to that of another.^[18] A human embryo is therefore not considered viable.

Research

Human embryos are being researched to determine their use in treating diseases. Their use in stem cell research, reproductive cloning, and germline engineering are currently being explored. The morality of this type of research is debated because an embryo is often used.^[19]^[20]^[21]

Other species

Play media

Embryonic development of salamander, circa the 1920s.

Embryos (and one tadpole) of the wrinkled frog (Rana rugosa)

In animals, the development of the zygote into an embryo proceeds through specific recognizable stages of blastula, gastrula, and organogenesis. The blastula stage typically features a fluid-filled cavity, the blastocoel, surrounded by a sphere or sheet of cells, also called blastomeres. The embryo of a placental mammal is defined as the organism between the first division of the zygote (a fertilized ovum) until it becomes a fetus. An ovum is fertilized in a fallopian tube through which it travels into the uterus. An embryo is called a fetus at a more advanced stage of development and up until birth or hatching. In humans, this is from the eighth week of gestation. However, animals which develop in eggs outside the mother's body are usually referred to as embryos throughout development; e.g. one would refer to a chick embryo, not a "chick fetus" even at late stages.

During gastrulation the cells of the blastula undergo coordinated processes of cell division, invasion, and/or migration to form two (diploblastic) or three (triploblastic) tissue layers. In triploblastic organisms, the three germ layers are called endoderm, ectoderm, and mesoderm. The position and arrangement of the germ layers are highly species-specific, however, depending on the type of embryo produced. In vertebrates, a special population of embryonic cells called the neural crest has been proposed as a "fourth germ layer", and is thought to have been an important novelty in the evolution of head structures.

During organogenesis, molecular and cellular interactions between germ layers, combined with the cells' developmental potential, or competence to respond, prompt the further differentiation of organ-specific cell types.^{[citation needed]} For example, in neurogenesis, a subpopulation of ectoderm cells is set aside to become the brain, spinal cord, and peripheral nerves. Modern developmental biology is extensively probing the molecular basis for every type of organogenesis, including angiogenesis (formation of new blood vessels from pre-existing ones), chondrogenesis (cartilage), myogenesis (muscle), osteogenesis (bone), and many others.

Generally, if a structure pre-dates another structure in evolutionary terms, then it often appears earlier than the second in an embryo; this general observation is sometimes summarized by the phrase "ontogeny recapitulates phylogeny".^[22] For example, the backbone is a common structure among all vertebrates such as fish, reptiles, and mammals, and the backbone also appears as one of the earliest structures laid out in all vertebrate embryos. The cerebrum in humans, which is the most sophisticated part of the brain, develops last. This sequencing rule is not absolute, but it is recognized as being partly applicable to development of the human embryo.

Fossilised animals

Fossilised animal embryos are known from the Precambrian, and are found in great numbers during the Cambrian period. Even fossilised dinosaur embryos have been discovered.^{[citation needed]}

Plant embryos

The inside of a Ginkgo seed, showing the embryo

In botany, a seed plant embryo is part of a seed, consisting of precursor tissues for the leaves, stem (see hypocotyl), and root (see radicle), as well as one or more cotyledons. Once the embryo begins to germinate — grow out from the seed — it is called a seedling (plantlet). Bryophytes and ferns are among plants that produce an embryo, but do not produce seeds. In these plants, the embryo is a young plant that grows attached to a parental gametophyte.

Notes

^ "embryo". OED. Retrieved 7 November 2014.
^ Gary C. Schoenwolf ... [et al.] (2009). "Development of the Urogenital system". Larsen's human embryology (Thoroughly rev. and updated 4th ed.). Philadelphia: Churchill Livingstone/Elsevier. pp. 505–507. ISBN 9780443068119.
^ ἔμβρυον, Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, A Greek-English Lexicon, on Perseus
^ ἔμβρυος, Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, A Greek-English Lexicon, on Perseus
^ ἐν, Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, A Greek-English Lexicon, on Perseus
^ βρύω, Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, A Greek-English Lexicon, on Perseus
^ ^a ^b ^c NIH Medical Encyclopedia http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/002398.htm
^ Gazzaniga, Mike S.The Ethical Brain "not until the end of week 5 and into week 6 (usually around forty to forty-three days) does the first electrical brain activity begin to occur. This activity, however, is not coherent activity of the kind that underlies human consciousness, or even the coherent activity seen in a shrimp's nervous system."
^ Wilcox AJ, Baird DD, Weinberg CR (1999). "Time of implantation of the conceptus and loss of pregnancy.". New England Journal of Medicine 340 (23): 1796–1799. doi:10.1056/NEJM199906103402304. PMID 10362823.
^ ^a ^b Wang X, Chen C, Wang L, Chen D, Guang W, French J (2003). "Conception, early pregnancy loss, and time to clinical pregnancy: a population-based prospective study.". Fertil Steril 79 (3): 577–84. doi:10.1016/S0015-0282(02)04694-0. PMID 12620443.
^ Rodeck, Charles; Whittle, Martin. Medicine: Basic Science and Clinical Practice (Elsevier Health Sciences 1999), p. 835.
^ Conrad Stöppler, Melissa. Shiel, Jr., William C., ed. "Miscarriage (Spontaneous Abortion)". MedicineNet.com. Retrieved 2009-04-07.
^ ^a ^b Jauniaux, E.; Kaminopetros, P.; El-Rafaey, H. (1999). "Early pregnancy loss". In Martin J. Whittle and C. H. Rodeck. Fetal medicine: basic science and clinical practice. Edinburgh: Churchill Livingstone. p. 837. ISBN 0-443-05357-X. OCLC 42792567.
^ Department of Health (2007). "Abortion statistics, England and Wales: 2006". Retrieved 2007-10-12. 68% were at under 10 weeks
^ Healthwise (2004). "Manual and vacuum aspiration for abortion". WebMD. Retrieved 2008-12-05.
^ Bankole, Akinrinola, Singh, Susheela, & Haas, Taylor. (1998).Reasons Why Women Have Induced Abortions: Evidence from 27 Countries. International Family Planning Perspectives, 24 (3), 117–127 & 152. Retrieved 2006-01-18.
^ Finer, Lawrence B., Frohwirth, Lori F., Dauphinee, Lindsay A., Singh, Shusheela, & Moore, Ann M. (2005).Reasons U.S. women have abortions: quantitative and qualitative perspectives. Perspectives on Sexual and Reproductive Health, 37 (3), 110–8. Retrieved 2006-01-18.
^ Rumbold, Graham. Ethics in nursing practice, p. 120 (Elsevier Health Sciences 1999).
^ Freedman, Jeri. "America Debates Stem Cell Research." New York, NY: The Rosen Publishing Group, 2008.
^ Sandel, Michael J. "The Case Against Perfection." Michael J. Sandel, 2007.
^ Zavos, Panayiotis. “Reproductive Cloning is Moral.” Ed. James Woodward. The Ethics of Human Cloning: At Issue. Farmington Hills, MI: Greenhaven, 2005. 14–24.
^ Gould, Stephen. Ontogeny and Phylogeny, p. 206 (1977): "recapitulation was not 'disproved'; it could not be, for too many well-established cases fit its expectations."

External links

UNSW Embryology - Educational website
A Comparative Embryology Gallery
4-H Embryology, University of Nebraska-Lincoln Extension in Lancaster County
Video with embryo of a small-spotted catshark inside the egg on YouTube

Preceded by Zygote	Stages of human development Embryo	Succeeded by Fetus

UpToDate Contents

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1. 精巣腫瘍の解剖学および病理 anatomy and pathology of testicular tumors
2. 精巣胚細胞腫瘍の治療の概要 overview of the treatment of testicular germ cell tumors
3. 小児および思春期の横紋筋肉腫および未分化型肉腫：疫学、病理、および分子学的病因 rhabdomyosarcoma and undifferentiated sarcoma in childhood and adolescence epidemiology pathology and molecular pathogenesis
4. 卵巣胚細胞腫瘍：病理、臨床症状、および診断 ovarian germ cell neoplasms pathology clinical manifestations and diagnosis
5. ステージIの非セミノーマ胚細胞性腫瘍の管理 management of stage i nonseminomatous germ cell tumors

English Journal

microRNA-383 impairs phosphorylation of H2AX by targeting PNUTS and inducing cell cycle arrest in testicular embryonal carcinoma cells.

Huang H1, Tian H1, Duan Z1, Cao Y2, Zhang XS3, Sun F4.Author information 1Department of Cell and Developmental Biology, School of Life Sciences, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, Anhui 230027, China.2Reproduction Medical Center, Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Anhui Medical University, Hefei, Anhui 230032, China.3Department of Urology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Anhui Medical University, Hefei, Anhui 230032, China.4Department of Cell and Developmental Biology, School of Life Sciences, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, Anhui 230027, China; Hefei National Laboratory for Physical Sciences at Microscale and School of Life Sciences, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, Anhui 230026, China. Electronic address: feisun@ustc.edu.cn.AbstractMale germ cells with aberrant DNA damage are the weighted factor contributing to male infertility. Mounting evidence shows that DNA damage in male germ cells impairs spermatogenesis and lowers fecundity. MicroRNAs (miRNAs) regulating expression of multiple genes play a significant role in spermatogenesis. Our previous results have shown that microRNA-383 (miR-383) is one of the notable down-regulated microRNAs in the testes of sterile males with maturation arrest (MA) and is located predominantly in spermatogonia and primary spermatocytes. However, the role that miR-383 plays in DNA damage during spermatogenesis remains unknown. In this study, we found that miR-383 inhibited the focal formation and abundance of γH2AX, which is the major marker of sites of DNA damage, with or without ultraviolet irradiation and cisplatin in testicular embryonal carcinoma (NT-2) cells. In addition, NT-2 cells were remarkably sensitized to DNA damage reagent (cisplatin) by forcing expression of miR-383 and silencing expression of protein phosphatase 1, regulatory subunit 10 (PNUTS). By constructing Renilla luciferase reporters and co-transfecting miR-383 and reporters in NT-2 cells, we identified that PNUTS was a valid target of miR-383. Further results demonstrated that the repression of the phosphorylated form of H2AX by miR-383 was due to independent depletion of PNUTS and cell cycle arrest. In conclusion, we found a novel function of miR-383 in the DNA damage pathway. miR-383 impairs the phosphorylation of H2AX by targeting PNUTS and inducing cell cycle arrest independently, as well as sensitizing NT-2 cells to cisplatin.
Cellular signalling.Cell Signal.2014 May;26(5):903-11. doi: 10.1016/j.cellsig.2014.01.016. Epub 2014 Jan 22.
Male germ cells with aberrant DNA damage are the weighted factor contributing to male infertility. Mounting evidence shows that DNA damage in male germ cells impairs spermatogenesis and lowers fecundity. MicroRNAs (miRNAs) regulating expression of multiple genes play a significant role in spermatoge
PMID 24462707

Patterning human neuronal networks on photolithographically engineered silicon dioxide substrates functionalized with glial analogues.

Hughes MA1, Brennan PM, Bunting AS, Cameron K, Murray AF, Shipston MJ.Author information 1Centre for Integrative Physiology, School of Biomedical Sciences, The University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, EH8 9XD, United Kingdom.AbstractInterfacing neurons with silicon semiconductors is a challenge being tackled through various bioengineering approaches. Such constructs inform our understanding of neuronal coding and learning and ultimately guide us toward creating intelligent neuroprostheses. A fundamental prerequisite is to dictate the spatial organization of neuronal cells. We sought to pattern neurons using photolithographically defined arrays of polymer parylene-C, activated with fetal calf serum. We used a purified human neuronal cell line [Lund human mesencephalic (LUHMES)] to establish whether neurons remain viable when isolated on-chip or whether they require a supporting cell substrate. When cultured in isolation, LUHMES neurons failed to pattern and did not show any morphological signs of differentiation. We therefore sought a cell type with which to prepattern parylene regions, hypothesizing that this cellular template would enable secondary neuronal adhesion and network formation. From a range of cell lines tested, human embryonal kidney (HEK) 293 cells patterned with highest accuracy. LUHMES neurons adhered to pre-established HEK 293 cell clusters and this coculture environment promoted morphological differentiation of neurons. Neurites extended between islands of adherent cell somata, creating an orthogonally arranged neuronal network. HEK 293 cells appear to fulfill a role analogous to glia, dictating cell adhesion, and generating an environment conducive to neuronal survival. We next replaced HEK 293 cells with slower growing glioma-derived precursors. These primary human cells patterned accurately on parylene and provided a similarly effective scaffold for neuronal adhesion. These findings advance the use of this microfabrication-compatible platform for neuronal patterning. © 2013 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Biomed Mater Res Part A: 102A: 1350-1360, 2014.
Journal of biomedical materials research. Part A.J Biomed Mater Res A.2014 May;102(5):1350-60. doi: 10.1002/jbm.a.34813. Epub 2013 Jun 11.
Interfacing neurons with silicon semiconductors is a challenge being tackled through various bioengineering approaches. Such constructs inform our understanding of neuronal coding and learning and ultimately guide us toward creating intelligent neuroprostheses. A fundamental prerequisite is to dicta
PMID 23733444

Somatic CTNNB1 mutation in hepatoblastoma from a patient with Simpson-Golabi-Behmel syndrome and germline GPC3 mutation.

Kosaki R1, Takenouchi T, Takeda N, Kagami M, Nakabayashi K, Hata K, Kosaki K.Author information 1Division of Medical Genetics, National Center for Child Health and Development, Tokyo, Japan.AbstractSimpson-Golabi-Behmel syndrome is a rare overgrowth syndrome caused by the GPC3 mutation at Xq26 and is clinically characterized by multiple congenital abnormalities, intellectual disability, pre/postnatal overgrowth, distinctive craniofacial features, macrocephaly, and organomegaly. Although this syndrome is known to be associated with a risk for embryonal tumors, similar to other overgrowth syndromes, the pathogenetic basis of this mode of tumorigenesis remains largely unknown. Here, we report a boy with Simpson-Golabi-Behmel syndrome who had a germline loss-of function mutation in GPC3. At 9 months of age, he developed hepatoblastoma. A comparison of exome analysis results for the germline genome and for the tumor genome revealed a somatic mutation, p.Ile35Ser, within the degradation targeting box of β-catenin. The same somatic mutation in CTNNB1 has been repeatedly reported in hepatoblastoma and other cancers. This finding suggested that the CTNNB1 mutation in the tumor tissue represents a driver mutation and that both the GPC3 and the CTNNB1 mutations contributed to tumorigenesis in a clearly defined sequential manner in the propositus. The current observation of a somatic CTNNB1 mutation in a hepatoblastoma from a patient with a germline GPC3 mutation supports the notion that the mutation in GPC3 may influence one of the initial steps in tumorigenesis and the progression to hepatoblastoma. © 2014 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
American journal of medical genetics. Part A.Am J Med Genet A.2014 Apr;164(4):993-7. doi: 10.1002/ajmg.a.36364. Epub 2014 Jan 23.
Simpson-Golabi-Behmel syndrome is a rare overgrowth syndrome caused by the GPC3 mutation at Xq26 and is clinically characterized by multiple congenital abnormalities, intellectual disability, pre/postnatal overgrowth, distinctive craniofacial features, macrocephaly, and organomegaly. Although this s
PMID 24459012

Japanese Journal

New perspective on molecular markers as promising therapeutic targets in germ cell tumors

Intractable & Rare Diseases Research advpub(0), 2016
NAID 130005133303

成人発症の骨盤内横紋筋肉腫の1例

日本消化器外科学会雑誌 49(2), 161-168, 2016
NAID 130005128396

Integrated genetic and epigenetic analysis defines novel molecular subgroups in rhabdomyosarcoma.

Nature communications 6, 2015-07-03
NAID 120005623266

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★リンクテーブル★

リンク元	「embryonic」「fetal」「胎生期」「embryonic stage」「胎児性」
拡張検索	「embryonal cancer cell」「embryonal carcinoma stem cell」

「embryonic」

Embryo
	A 10mm embryo from an ectopic pregnancy, not having passed through in the oviduct (fallopian tube) successfully. This embryo is about five weeks old (or from the 7th week of pregnancy).
Identifiers
TE	E1.0.2.6.4.0.8
FMA	69068
	Anatomical terminology

　　[★]

adj.

胚性の、胚の、胚体の、胚芽の、胎仔の、胎生期の、胎性の、胎児性の

関: embryo、embryonal、embryonic day、embryonic stage、embryonically、fetal、fetal stage、fetus、germ、germinal

「fetal」

　　[★]

adj.

胎生期の、胎性の、(人間)胎児の、胎児性の、(動物)胎仔の、胎仔型の

関: embryo、embryonal、embryonic、embryonic day、embryonic form、embryonic stage、fetal stage、feto、fetus、foetal、foetus

「胎生期」

　　[★]

英: embryonic day、embryonic stage、fetal stage、embryonic、fetal、embryonal
関: 胎仔、胎児、胎児性、胎性、胚、胚性、胚芽、胚体、胎児期、胎仔期、胎仔型、胚期

「embryonic stage」

　　[★]

胎生期、胚期、(人間)胎児期、(動物)胎仔期

関: embryonal、embryonic、embryonic day、embryonically、fetal、fetal stage

「胎児性」

　　[★]

英

embryonic、fetal、embryonal

関: 胎仔、胎児、胎性、胚、胚性、胚芽、胚体、胎生期、胎仔型

「embryonal cancer cell」

　　[★]

胚性癌細胞、胚性がん細胞

関: embryonal carcinoma cell

「embryonal carcinoma stem cell」

　　[★]

胚性腫瘍幹細胞

関: embryonal carcinoma cell

[1] "embryo". OED. Retrieved 7 November 2014.

[LARSENS2009-2] Gary C. Schoenwolf ... [et al.] (2009). "Development of the Urogenital system". Larsen's human embryology (Thoroughly rev. and updated 4th ed.). Philadelphia: Churchill Livingstone/Elsevier. pp. 505–507. ISBN 9780443068119.

[3] ἔμβρυον, Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, A Greek-English Lexicon, on Perseus

[4] ἔμβρυος, Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, A Greek-English Lexicon, on Perseus

[5] ἐν, Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, A Greek-English Lexicon, on Perseus

[6] βρύω, Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, A Greek-English Lexicon, on Perseus

[facts-7] NIH Medical Encyclopedia http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/002398.htm

[8] Gazzaniga, Mike S.The Ethical Brain "not until the end of week 5 and into week 6 (usually around forty to forty-three days) does the first electrical brain activity begin to occur. This activity, however, is not coherent activity of the kind that underlies human consciousness, or even the coherent activity seen in a shrimp's nervous system."

[implantation-9] Wilcox AJ, Baird DD, Weinberg CR (1999). "Time of implantation of the conceptus and loss of pregnancy.". New England Journal of Medicine 340 (23): 1796–1799. doi:10.1056/NEJM199906103402304. PMID 10362823.

[epl-10] Wang X, Chen C, Wang L, Chen D, Guang W, French J (2003). "Conception, early pregnancy loss, and time to clinical pregnancy: a population-based prospective study.". Fertil Steril 79 (3): 577–84. doi:10.1016/S0015-0282(02)04694-0. PMID 12620443.

[11] Rodeck, Charles; Whittle, Martin. Medicine: Basic Science and Clinical Practice (Elsevier Health Sciences 1999), p. 835.

[mednet-12] Conrad Stöppler, Melissa. Shiel, Jr., William C., ed. "Miscarriage (Spontaneous Abortion)". MedicineNet.com. Retrieved 2009-04-07.

[fetal_med_837-13] Jauniaux, E.; Kaminopetros, P.; El-Rafaey, H. (1999). "Early pregnancy loss". In Martin J. Whittle and C. H. Rodeck. Fetal medicine: basic science and clinical practice. Edinburgh: Churchill Livingstone. p. 837. ISBN 0-443-05357-X. OCLC 42792567.

[14] Department of Health (2007). "Abortion statistics, England and Wales: 2006". Retrieved 2007-10-12. 68% were at under 10 weeks

[15] Healthwise (2004). "Manual and vacuum aspiration for abortion". WebMD. Retrieved 2008-12-05.

[bankole98-16] Bankole, Akinrinola, Singh, Susheela, & Haas, Taylor. (1998).Reasons Why Women Have Induced Abortions: Evidence from 27 Countries. International Family Planning Perspectives, 24 (3), 117–127 & 152. Retrieved 2006-01-18.

[finer2005-17] Finer, Lawrence B., Frohwirth, Lori F., Dauphinee, Lindsay A., Singh, Shusheela, & Moore, Ann M. (2005).Reasons U.S. women have abortions: quantitative and qualitative perspectives. Perspectives on Sexual and Reproductive Health, 37 (3), 110–8. Retrieved 2006-01-18.

[18] Rumbold, Graham. Ethics in nursing practice, p. 120 (Elsevier Health Sciences 1999).

[19] Freedman, Jeri. "America Debates Stem Cell Research." New York, NY: The Rosen Publishing Group, 2008.

[20] Sandel, Michael J. "The Case Against Perfection." Michael J. Sandel, 2007.

[21] Zavos, Panayiotis. “Reproductive Cloning is Moral.” Ed. James Woodward. The Ethics of Human Cloning: At Issue. Farmington Hills, MI: Greenhaven, 2005. 14–24.

[22] Gould, Stephen. Ontogeny and Phylogeny, p. 206 (1977): "recapitulation was not 'disproved'; it could not be, for too many well-established cases fit its expectations."

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