出典(authority):フリー百科事典『ウィキペディア(Wikipedia)』「2013/04/09 06:40:42」(JST)
ドキュメンタリー(英語: documentary film)は、映画フィルムもしくはビデオなどの映像記録媒体で撮影された記録映像作品を指す。
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記録映像、記録映画とも言われ、テレビ番組として放送する場合もある。文学におけるノンフィクションに相当し、「取材対象に演出を加えることなくありのままに記録された素材映像を編集してまとめた映像作品」と定義される。個別の作品については様々な手法がとられている。
一般的にドキュメンタリーは制作者の意図や主観を含まぬ事実の描写、劇映画 (Drama film) ・ドラマは創作・フィクションであると認識されているが、本質的に差はないと実務者(森達也など)に指摘されている[1]。
ドキュメンタリーの歴史は映画と共にはじまった。リュミエール兄弟による歴史上最初の映画『工場の出口』(1895年)は、その名の通り工場の出口にカメラを設置して、従業員らが出てくる様子をワンショットで撮影しただけのものである。続く『ラ・シオタ駅への列車の到着』(1896年)では観客はスクリーンの映像を現実のものと見間違えて大騒ぎしたという。これらは上記の定義においてはドキュメンタリーである[2]。リュミエールらが撮影したその他の映像(家族で会食している場面など)も一種の記録映画と言える。
初期の映画においては世界各地の風景が盛んに撮影され、大衆に向けて興業された。これも紀行ドキュメンタリーのさきがけともいえる。
初期の映画におけるフィクション・ノンフィクションの境界は曖昧であり、のちに生まれる様々なジャンルへは未分化に状態にあった。この段階ではただ映像が映っていること、物珍しいものが映っていることに観客の関心が始終した(この流れの中で、演劇を固定カメラによって撮影した映像から劇映画が生まれていくことになる)。
やがて映画という媒体の持ついくつかの可能性が明確になるなかで、記録媒体という要素を重視しながら自らの問題意識を作品に投影する意志を持った制作者が現れてきた。ドキュメンタリーの父と言われたロバート・フラハティ(アメリカ、1884年 - 1951年)やヨリス・イヴェンス(オランダ、1899年 - 1989年)、ジガ・ヴェルトフ(ソビエト、1896年 - 1954年)などである。
フラハティは代表作である『極北の怪異 (Nanook of the North) 』(1922年)を、イヌイットナヌーク一家と一年間共に生活しながら制作した。イヴェンスは当初『橋』(1928年)や『雨』(1929年)によってアヴァンギャルド映画作家としての評価を得たが、これらの映像制作はその後の一貫した記録映画作家としての活動の序章となっている。ヴェルトフは代表作『カメラを持った男』 (en:Человек с киноаппаратом) の制作などを通して、現実の徹底的な記録を至上とする記録映画主義「映画眼」を提唱し、後の記録映画作家達に影響を与え続けている。
こうした1920年代の成果をもとに1930年代に至って、イギリスの記録映画作家ポール・ローサ (Paul Rotha) 、ジョン・グリアスン (John Grierson) らが提唱した「英国ドキュメンタリー映画運動」など、映画のもつ教育効果、宣伝効果を利用して社会を変革する意図をもった映画制作が隆盛した。現代の「ドキュメンタリー」という用語はこの運動が発祥とされる。
こうしたドキュメンタリーの技法や技術が確立されるにともなって、映画の大衆宣伝能力が注目され、国家的なプロパガンダを目的とした作品も多くあらわれた。特に第一次世界大戦以降、総力戦を遂行可能にする施策の一つとしてプロパガンダ映画の製作が重視された。
たとえば、レニ・リーフェンシュタール(1902〜2003)の作品『意志の勝利』(1935年)はナチスの党大会を記録した映像であるが、当時としては究めて洗練された映像作品として仕上げられており、その美的印象によって大衆をナチズムに誘導したとされる。そのため未だにドイツでは上映が禁止されている[3]。
ナチス・ドイツは自らの活動について詳細に映像記録を残したが、このなかにはユダヤ人強制収容所の映像なども含まれていた。こうした、もともとはナチスの記録・宣伝用として撮られた記録映像を素材として使用し、反対にその犯罪性を告発した記録映画の代表作がアラン・レネ(1922〜)の『夜と霧』である。
1930年代から、映画カメラは文化人類学のフィールドワークにも活用されるようになった。こうした映像を活用した人類学は特に映像人類学 (Visual anthropology) と呼ばれ、撮影された映像を人類学映画と呼ぶ。ここでは映像は記録者の主観的な解釈に影響される事のない絶対的な客観性をもった記録手段として捉えられている。
人類学映画は純粋に学術的記録であり、今日的な意味でのドキュメンタリーとは一線を画するが、ドキュメンタリー映画作家たちに一定の影響を与えてきたと言われる。
第二次世界大戦後、ドキュメンタリーは、産業映画・教育映画と呼ばれる分野から、新植民地主義、資本主義への異議を唱えるものにいたるまで多様化し、さらにテレビジョンの登場・普及によってテレビ・ドキュメンタリーという放送を前提とした作品分野が登場した。
その中で、古典的スタイルのドキュメンタリー制作は深刻な社会的問題に連動して盛んに制作された。たとえばベトナム戦争の時代にはヨリス・イヴェンスは米軍の北爆に曝されるハノイに入り、市民の日常を撮影し て『ベトナムから遠く離れて』(1967年)や『北緯17度』(17e parallèle: La guerre du peuple 1968年)を制作した。なかでも『ベトナムから遠く離れて』はクリス・マルケルやジャン・リュック・ゴダールなどフランスの気鋭の映画作家たちとの共作となった。
日本人では、牛山純一がテレビドキュメンタリーとして『南ベトナム海兵大隊戦記』を制作した。日本においてはほかに『絵を描く子供たち』を制作した羽仁進、水俣病を追求し続けた土本典昭や三里塚闘争を描いた小川紳介、『ゆきゆきて、神軍』の原一男などが活躍した。
さらに8ミリ映画、16ミリ (16 mm film) 映画、ビデオカメラなど廉価に扱える機材が普及したことで、極めて私的な世界を扱った個人映画も勃興した。たとえばジョナス・メカス (Jonas Mekas) の『リトアニアへの旅の追憶』(Reminiscences of a Journey to Lithuania 1972年)はアメリカに暮らす作者自身が生まれ故郷であるリトアニアを訪ねる様子を自らの撮影で構成した。一見ホームビデオ的な作品であるが、世界中で個人映画の記念碑的作品として支持された。
一方で、観客の劣情に訴える娯楽としてのドキュメンタリー映画もテレビ・ドキュメンタリーの普及以前には流行した。これらは世界各地の大都市の夜の風俗、退廃的・奇怪なイベント、欧米以外のアジア(日本も含む)やアフリカの民族の「野蛮な」風習を切り取ったものである。特にグァルティエロ・ヤコペッティの『世界残酷物語』(1962年)は海外旅行の珍しい時代に世界の奇習を紹介して大ヒットを記録し、以後1980年代前半に衰退するまでこの手のドキュメンタリーは数多く制作された(これらの映画はモンド映画と呼ばれている)。
これらのモンド映画は当初から多くのやらせを含んでいたほか、ヨーロッパの側から劣った東洋やアフリカを見るというオリエンタリズム的な視線があったことが批判されている。モンド映画ブームの後半にはやらせの手の内を見せる半ばフィクション的なものが登場したほか、観客もやらせの存在を暗黙の了解として楽しむようになり、やがてテレビによるショッキングな特集番組などに吸収されて消えていった。
また、ドキュメンタリーの制作技法がステレオタイプ化し、手持ちカメラなどドキュメンタリーに特有の技法を逆手に取って臨場感・本物感のあるフィクション(ドラマ)が制作されるようなケースが1970年代以降現れ、こうした手法はすでにハリウッドなどでも一般化している。さらに日本においては1980年代頃から伝統的な取材・構成形式の他に、ドラマとともに構成された「ドキュメンタリードラマ」 (Docudrama) (アメリカでは1970年代に確立された形式である)、クイズやスタジオでのトークショーなどを織り交ぜた「ドキュメントバラエティー」などが登場し、それぞれ一般化している。
1990年代以降、テレビ放送では「リアリティーショー」と呼ばれる、一定の極端な設定のもとでの、台本なし(という建前)の、視聴者から募った素人出演者など登場人物の言行を固定カメラで観察するというスタイルが世界的に流行した。この技法は真実らしく表現するという意味では、その監視カメラ的な映像故に斬新であったが、演出された(または虚構の)撮影対象を表現手法よって真実らしく見せてしまう実例が目立つ。
リアリティー番組や実話再現番組、警官密着番組(日本の警察24時、アメリカでは全米警察24時 コップス)などの隆盛により、人々が台本のあるドラマよりも真実やドキュメンタリーらしく見えるものを好みつつある傾向が明らかになってきた。また、2001年のアメリカ同時多発テロ事件の影響でドラマは打撃を受け、一方で監督本人や素人が社会問題などに突撃するリアリティー番組に似たスタイルのドキュメンタリー映画が良い興行成績を出すようになった。『華氏911』や『スーパーサイズ・ミー』などはその例である。
フィクションとノンフィクションの境界は曖昧なものとなり、全体としてはドキュメンタリーは以前ほど「真実」と近しいものとしては受け入れられなくなりつつある。近年では、ブレア・ウィッチ・プロジェクトなどに始まるドキュメンタリータッチのフィクション映画(いわゆるモキュメンタリー映画)も増加しつつあり、フィクションとノンフィクションの境界はさらに変化しつつある。
社会問題を取り上げるという点においてはドキュメンタリーも報道も同じだが、森達也は、ドキュメンタリーは制作者の主観や世界観を表出することが最優先順位にあるのに対して報道は可能な限り客観性や中立性を常に意識に置かなければならないという違いがあると述べている[1]。
(テレビ・ドキュメンタリーも含む)
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Documentary films constitute a broad category of nonfictional motion pictures intended to document some aspect of reality, primarily for the purposes of instruction or maintaining a historical record.[1] A 'documentary film' was originally shot on film stock—the only medium available—but now includes video and digital productions that can be either direct-to-video, made as a television program or released for screening in cinemas. "Documentary" has been described as a "filmmaking practice, a cinematic tradition, and mode of audience reception" that is continually evolving and is without clear boundaries.[2]
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In popular myth, the word documentary was coined by Scottish documentarian John Grierson in his review of Robert Flaherty's film Moana (1926), published in the New York Sun on 8 February 1926, written by "The Moviegoer" (a pen name for Grierson).[3]
Grierson's principles of documentary were that cinema's potential for observing life could be exploited in a new art form; that the "original" actor and "original" scene are better guides than their fiction counterparts to interpreting the modern world; and that materials "thus taken from the raw" can be more real than the acted article. In this regard, Grierson's definition of documentary as "creative treatment of actuality"[4] has gained some acceptance, with this position at variance with Soviet film-maker Dziga Vertov's provocation to present "life as it is" (that is, life filmed surreptitiously) and "life caught unawares" (life provoked or surprised by the camera).
The American film critic Pare Lorentz defines a documentary film as "a factual film which is dramatic."[5] Others further state that a documentary stands out from the other types of non-fiction films for providing an opinion, and a specific message, along with the facts it presents.[6]
Documentary Practice is the complex process of creating documentary projects. It refers to what people do with media devices, content, form, and production strategies in order to address the creative, ethical, and conceptual problems and choices that arise as they make documentaries.
There are clear connections in terms of practice with magazine and newspaper feature-writing and indeed to non-fiction literature. Many of the generic forms of documentary, for example the biopic or profile; or the observational piece. These generic forms are explored on the University of Winchester Journalism Department 'features web' where 'long form journalism' is classified by genre or content, rather than in terms of production as film, radio or 'print'.[7]
Early film (pre-1900) was dominated by the novelty of showing an event. They were single-shot moments captured on film: a train entering a station, a boat docking, or factory workers leaving work. These short films were called "actuality" films; the term "documentary" was not coined until 1926. Many of the first films, such as those made by Auguste and Louis Lumière, were a minute or less in length, due to technological limitations.
Films showing many people (for example, leaving a factory) were often made for commercial reasons: the people being filmed were eager to see, for payment, the film showing them. One notable film clocked in at over an hour and a half, The Corbett-Fitzsimmons Fight. Using pioneering film-looping technology, Enoch J. Rector presented the entirety of a famous 1897 prize-fight on cinema screens across the country.
The French surgeon Eugène-Louis Doyen started a series of surgical films sometime before July 1898. Until 1906, the year of his last film, Doyen recorded more than 60 operations. As Doyen said that his first films taught him how to correct professional errors he had been unaware of. For scientific purposes, after 1906 Doyen combined 15 of his films into three compilations, two of which survive, the six-film series Extirpation des tumeurs encapsulées (1906), and the four-film Les Opérations sur la cavité crânienne (1911). These and five other of Doyen's films survive.[8]
Between July 1898 and 1901 the Romanian professor Gheorghe Marinescu made several science films in his neurology clinic in Bucharest:[9] The walking troubles of organic hemiplegy (1898), The walking troubles of organic paraplegies (1899), A case of hysteric hemiplegy healed through hypnosis (1899), The walking troubles of progressive locomotion ataxy (1900) and Illnesses of the muscles (1901). All these short films have been preserved. The professor called his works "studies with the help of the cinematograph," and published the results, along with several consecutive frames, in issues of "La Semaine Médicale" magazine from Paris, between 1899 and 1902.[10] In 1924, Auguste Lumiere recognized the merits of Marinescu's science films: "I've seen your scientific reports about the usage of the cinematograph in studies of nervous illnesses, when I was still receiving "La Semaine Médicale," but back then I had other concerns, which left me no spare time to begin biological studies. I must say I forgot those works and I am thankful to you that you reminded them to me. Unfortunately, not many scientists have followed your way."[11][12][13]
Travelogue films were very popular in the early part of the 20th century. They were often referred to by distributors as "scenics." Scenics were among the most popular sort of films at the time.[14] An important early film to move beyond the concept of the scenic was In the Land of the Head Hunters (1914), which embraced primitivism and exoticism in a staged story presented as truthful re-enactments of the life of Native Americans.
Contemplation is a separate area. Pathé is the best-known global manufacturer of such films of the early 20th century. A vivid example is Moscow clad in snow (1909).
Early color motion picture processes such as Kinemacolor -- known for the feature With Our King and Queen Through India (1912) -- and Prizmacolor -- known for Everywhere With Prizma (1919) and the five-reel feature Bali the Unknown (1921) -- used travelogues to promote the new color processes. In contrast, Technicolor concentrated primarily on getting their process adopted by Hollywood studios for fictional feature films.
Also during this period, Frank Hurley's feature documentary film, South (1919), about the Imperial Trans-Antarctic Expedition was released. The film documented the failed Antarctic expedition led by Ernest Shackleton in 1914.
With Robert J. Flaherty's Nanook of the North in 1922, documentary film embraced romanticism; Flaherty filmed a number of heavily staged romantic films during this time period, often showing how his subjects would have lived 100 years earlier and not how they lived right then. For instance, in Nanook of the North Flaherty did not allow his subjects to shoot a walrus with a nearby shotgun, but had them use a harpoon instead. Some of Flaherty's staging, such as building a roofless igloo for interior shots, was done to accommodate the filming technology of the time.
Paramount Pictures tried to repeat the success of Flaherty's Nanook and Moana with two romanticized documentaries, Grass (1925) and Chang (1927), both directed by Merian Cooper and Ernest Schoedsack.
The continental, or realist, tradition focused on humans within human-made environments, and included the so-called "city symphony" films such as Walter Ruttmann's Berlin, Symphony of a City (of which Grierson noted in an article[15] that Berlin represented what a documentary should not be), Alberto Cavalcanti's Rien que les heures, and Dziga Vertov's Man with the Movie Camera. These films tend to feature people as products of their environment, and lean towards the avant-garde.
Dziga Vertov was central to the Soviet Kino-Pravda (literally, "cinematic truth") newsreel series of the 1920s. Vertov believed the camera—with its varied lenses, shot-counter shot editing, time-lapse, ability to slow motion, stop motion and fast-motion—could render reality more accurately than the human eye, and made a film philosophy out of it.
The newsreel tradition is important in documentary film; newsreels were also sometimes staged but were usually re-enactments of events that had already happened, not attempts to steer events as they were in the process of happening. For instance, much of the battle footage from the early 20th century was staged; the cameramen would usually arrive on site after a major battle and re-enact scenes to film them.
The propagandist tradition consists of films made with the explicit purpose of persuading an audience of a point. One of the most notorious propaganda films is Leni Riefenstahl's film Triumph of the Will (1935), which chronicled the 1934 Nazi Party Congress and was commissioned by Adolf Hitler. Leftist filmmakers Joris Ivens and Henri Storck directed Borinage (1931) about the Belgian coal mining region. Luis Buñuel directed a "surrealist" documentary Las Hurdes (1933).
Pare Lorentz's The Plow That Broke the Plains (1936) and The River (1938) and Willard Van Dyke's The City (1939) are notable New Deal productions, each presenting complex combinations of social and ecological awareness, government propaganda, and leftist viewpoints. Frank Capra's Why We Fight (1942–1944) series was a newsreel series in the United States, commissioned by the government to convince the U.S. public that it was time to go to war. Constance Bennett and her husband Henri de la Falaise produced two feature length documentaries, Legong: Dance of the Virgins (1935) filmed in Bali, and Kilou the Killer Tiger (1936) filmed in Indochina.
In Canada the Film Board, set up by John Grierson, was created for the same propaganda reasons. It also created newsreels that were seen by their national governments as legitimate counter-propaganda to the psychological warfare of Nazi Germany (orchestrated by Joseph Goebbels).
In Britain, a number of different filmmakers came together under John Grierson. They became known as the Documentary Film Movement. Grierson, Alberto Cavalcanti, Harry Watt, Basil Wright, and Humphrey Jennings amongst others succeeded in blending propaganda, information, and education with a more poetic aesthetic approach to documentary. Examples of their work include Drifters (John Grierson), Song of Ceylon (Basil Wright), Fires Were Started and A Diary for Timothy (Humphrey Jennings). Their work involved poets such as W. H. Auden, composers such as Benjamin Britten, and writers such as J. B. Priestley. Among the best known films of the movement are Night Mail and Coal Face.
Cinéma vérité (or the closely related direct cinema) was dependent on some technical advances in order to exist: light, quiet and reliable cameras, and portable sync sound.
Cinéma vérité and similar documentary traditions can thus be seen, in a broader perspective, as a reaction against studio-based film production constraints. Shooting on location, with smaller crews, would also happen in the French New Wave, the filmmakers taking advantage of advances in technology allowing smaller, handheld cameras and synchronized sound to film events on location as they unfolded.
Although the terms are sometimes used interchangeably, there are important differences between cinéma vérité (Jean Rouch) and the North American "Direct Cinema" (or more accurately "Cinéma direct"), pioneered by, among others, Canadians Allan King, Michel Brault and Pierre Perrault,[citation needed] and Americans Robert Drew, Richard Leacock, Frederick Wiseman and Albert and David Maysles.
The directors of the movement take different viewpoints on their degree of involvement with their subjects. Kopple and Pennebaker, for instance, choose non-involvement (or at least no overt involvement), and Perrault, Rouch, Koenig, and Kroitor favor direct involvement or even provocation when they deem it necessary.
The films Primary and Crisis: Behind a Presidential Commitment (both produced by Robert Drew), Harlan County, USA (directed by Barbara Kopple), Dont Look Back (D. A. Pennebaker), Lonely Boy (Wolf Koenig and Roman Kroitor) are all frequently deemed cinéma vérité films.
The fundamentals of the style include following a person during a crisis with a moving, often handheld, camera to capture more personal reactions. There are no sit-down interviews, and the shooting ratio (the amount of film shot to the finished product) is very high, often reaching 80 to one. From there, editors find and sculpt the work into a film. The editors of the movement—such as Werner Nold, Charlotte Zwerin, Muffie Myers, Susan Froemke, and Ellen Hovde—are often overlooked, but their input to the films was so vital that they were often given co-director credits.
Famous cinéma vérité/direct cinema films include Les Raquetteurs,[16] Showman, Salesman, Near Death, The Children Were Watching, and Grey Gardens.
In the 1960s and 1970s, documentary film was often conceived as a political weapon against neocolonialism and capitalism in general, especially in Latin America, but also in a changing Quebec society. La Hora de los hornos (The Hour of the Furnaces, from 1968), directed by Octavio Getino and Fernando E. Solanas, influenced a whole generation of filmmakers. Among the many political documentaries produced in the early 1970s was "Chile: A Special Report," public television's first in-depth expository look of the September 1973 overthrow of the Salvador Allende government in Chile by military leaders under Augusto Pinochet, produced by documentarians Ari Martinez and José Garcia.
Box office analysts have noted that this film genre has become increasingly successful in theatrical release with films such as Fahrenheit 9/11, Super Size Me, Food, Inc., Earth, March of the Penguins, Religulous, and An Inconvenient Truth among the most prominent examples. Compared to dramatic narrative films, documentaries typically have far lower budgets which makes them attractive to film companies because even a limited theatrical release can be highly profitable.
The nature of documentary films has expanded in the past 20 years from the cinema verité style introduced in the 1960s in which the use of portable camera and sound equipment allowed an intimate relationship between filmmaker and subject. The line blurs between documentary and narrative and some works are very personal, such as the late Marlon Riggs's Tongues Untied (1989) and Black Is...Black Ain't (1995), which mix expressive, poetic, and rhetorical elements and stresses subjectivities rather than historical materials.[17]
Historical documentaries, such as the landmark 14-hour Eyes on the Prize: America's Civil Rights Years (1986 – Part 1 and 1989 – Part 2) by Henry Hampton, Four Little Girls (1997) by Spike Lee, and The Civil War by Ken Burns, UNESCO awarded independent film on slavery 500 Years Later, expressed not only a distinctive voice but also a perspective and point of views. Some films such as The Thin Blue Line by Errol Morris incorporated stylized re-enactments, and Michael Moore's Roger & Me placed far more interpretive control with the director. The commercial success of these documentaries may derive from this narrative shift in the documentary form, leading some critics to question whether such films can truly be called documentaries; critics sometimes refer to these works as "mondo films" or "docu-ganda."[18] However, directorial manipulation of documentary subjects has been noted since the work of Flaherty, and may be endemic to the form due to problematic ontological foundations.
Although documentaries are financially more viable with the increasing popularity of the genre and the advent of the DVD, funding for documentary film production remains elusive. Within the past decade the largest exhibition opportunities have emerged from within the broadcast market, making filmmakers beholden to the tastes and influences of the broadcasters who have become their largest funding source.[19]
Modern documentaries have some overlap with television forms, with the development of "reality television" that occasionally verges on the documentary but more often veers to the fictional or staged. The making-of documentary shows how a movie or a computer game was produced. Usually made for promotional purposes, it is closer to an advertisement than a classic documentary.
Modern lightweight digital video cameras and computer-based editing have greatly aided documentary makers, as has the dramatic drop in equipment prices. The first film to take full advantage of this change was Martin Kunert and Eric Manes' Voices of Iraq, where 150 DV cameras were sent to Iraq during the war and passed out to Iraqis to record themselves.
Films in the documentary form without words have been made. From 1982, the Qatsi trilogy and the similar Baraka could be described as visual tone poems, with music related to the images, but no spoken content. Koyaanisqatsi (part of the Qatsi trilogy) consists primarily of slow motion and time-lapse photography of cities and many natural landscapes across the United States. Baraka tries to capture the great pulse of humanity as it flocks and swarms in daily activity and religious ceremonies.
Bodysong was made in 2003 and won a British Independent Film Award for "Best British Documentary."
The 2004 film Genesis shows animal and plant life in states of expansion, decay, sex, and death, with some, but little, narration.
Docufiction is a hybrid genre from two basic ones, fiction film and documentary, practiced since the first documentary films were made.
Compilation films were pioneered in 1927 by Esfir Schub with The Fall of the Romanov Dynasty. More recent examples include Point of Order (1964), directed by Emile de Antonio about the McCarthy hearings and The Atomic Cafe which is made entirely out of found footage that various agencies of the U.S. government made about the safety of nuclear radiation (for example, telling troops at one point that it is safe to be irradiated as long as they keep their eyes and mouths shut). Similarly, The Last Cigarette combines the testimony of various tobacco company executives before the U.S. Congress with archival propaganda extolling the virtues of smoking.
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