- "Sex drive" redirects here. For other uses, see Sex drive (disambiguation). For other uses, see Libido (disambiguation).
See also: Sexual desire
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Libido (/lɨˈbiːdoʊ/) refers to a person's sexual drive or desire for sexual activity. The desire for sex is an aspect of a person's sexuality, but varies enormously from one person to another, and it also varies depending on circumstances at a particular time. Sex drive has usually biological, psychological, and social components. Biologically, levels of hormones such as testosterone are believed to affect sex drive; social factors, such as work and family, also have an impact; as do internal psychological factors, like personality and stress. Sex drive may be affected by medical conditions, medications, lifestyle and relationship issues. A person who has extremely frequent or a suddenly increased sex drive may be experiencing hypersexuality, but there is no measure of what is a healthy level for sex. Asexual people may lack any sexual desires.
A person may have a desire for sex but not have the opportunity to act on that desire, or may on personal, moral or religious reasons refrain from acting on the urge. Psychologically, a person's urge can be repressed or sublimated. On the other hand, a person can engage in sexual activity without an actual desire for it. Males reach the peak of their sex drive in their teens, while females reach it in their thirties.[1][2][3] There are multiple things which affect human sex drive like stress, illness, pregnancy etc.[4]
A sex drive can be viewed in terms of a general desire for sex or in terms of desire for sex with a particular person. A general desire for sex is an important motivator for the formation and maintenance of intimate relationships in both men and women, and a lack or loss of sexual desire can have an adverse impact on a relationship. A general change in desire for sex by either partner in a relationship for any reason if sustained and unresolved may result in a lack or loss of sexual desire for the other partner, which may cause problems in the relationship. Infidelity may be an indication of a continuing general desire for sex, though not with the primary partner or because personal sexual needs cannot be satisfied adequately by that partner. Problems can arise from the loss of sexual desire in general or for the partner or a lack of connection with the partner, or poor communication of sexual needs and preferences.[5]
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Contents
- 1 Psychological perspectives
- 2 Factors
- 2.1 Psychological factors
- 2.2 Physical factors
- 3 Medications
- 4 Testosterone and menstrual cycle
- 5 Sexual desire disorders
- 6 Endogenous substances involved in sex drive
- 7 See also
- 8 References
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Psychological perspectives
Sigmund Freud defined libido as the instinct energy or force, contained in what Freud called the id, the largely unconscious structure of the psyche. Building on the work of Karl Abraham, Freud developed the idea of a series of developmental phases in which the libido fixates on different erogenous zones—first in the oral stage (exemplified by an infant's pleasure in nursing), then in the anal stage (exemplified by a toddler's pleasure in controlling his or her bowels), then in the phallic stage, through a latency stage in which the libido is dormant, to its reemergence at puberty in the genital stage.[citation needed] Freud pointed out that these libidinal drives can conflict with the conventions of civilized behavior, represented in the psyche by the superego. It is this need to conform to society and control the libido that leads to tension and disturbance in the individual, prompting the use of ego defenses to dissipate the psychic energy of these unmet and mostly unconscious needs into other forms. Excessive use of ego defenses results in neurosis. A primary goal of psychoanalysis is to bring the drives of the id into consciousness, allowing them to be met directly and thus reducing the patient's reliance on ego defenses.[6]
Freud viewed libido as passing through a series of developmental stages within the individual. Failure to adequately adapt to the demands of these different stages could result in libidinal energy becoming 'dammed up' or fixated in these stages, producing certain pathological character traits in adulthood. Thus the psychopathologized individual for Freud was an immature individual, and the goal of psychoanalysis was to bring these fixations to conscious awareness so that the libido energy would be freed up and available for conscious use in some sort of constructive sublimation.
According to Swiss psychiatrist Carl Gustav Jung, the libido is identified as psychic energy. Duality (opposition) that creates the energy (or libido) of the psyche, which Jung asserts expresses itself only through symbols: "It is the energy that manifests itself in the life process and is perceived subjectively as striving and desire." (Ellenberger, 697)
Defined more narrowly, libido also refers to an individual's urge to engage in sexual activity. In this sense, the antonym of libido is destrudo.[citation needed]
Factors
Psychological factors
Psychological factors can reduce the desire for sex. These factors can include lack of privacy and/or intimacy, stress or fatigue, distraction or depression. Environmental stress, such as prolonged exposure to elevated sound levels or bright light, can also affect libido. Other causes include experience of sexual abuse, assault, trauma, or neglect, body image issues and sexual performance anxiety.[7]
Some people have suggested that contraception may influence the desire for sex by women, by decreasing the anxiety level from an unexpected pregnancy.[citation needed]
Physical factors
Physical factors that can affect libido include: endocrine issues such as hypothyroidism, levels of available testosterone in the bloodstream of both women and men, the effect of certain prescription medications (for example flutamide), various lifestyle factors and the attractiveness and biological fitness of one's partner.[8] Inborn lack of sexual desire, often observed in asexual people, can also be considered a physical factor.
Being very underweight or malnourished can cause a low libido due to disruptions in normal hormonal levels.[citation needed]
Anemia is particularly a cause of lack of libido in women due to the loss of iron during the period.[9]
Smoking, alcohol abuse and drug abuse may also cause disruptions in the hormonal balances and therefore leads to a decreased libido. However, specialists suggest that several lifestyle changes such as drinking milk, exercising, quitting smoking, lower consumption of alcohol or using prescription drugs may help increase one's sexual desire. Moreover, learning stress management techniques can be helpful for individuals who experience libido impairment due to a stressful life.
Aphrodisiacs are known to increase individuals' libido due to either their chemical composition or their consistency[disambiguation needed].[10]
Medications
Reduced libido is also often iatrogenic and can be caused by many medications, such as hormonal contraception, SSRIs and other antidepressants, antipsychotics, opioids and beta blockers. In some cases iatrogenic impotence or other sexual dysfunction can be permanent, as in post-SSRI sexual dysfunction (PSSD).
Testosterone is one of the hormones controlling libido in human beings. Emerging research[11] is showing that hormonal contraception methods like "the pill" (which rely on estrogen and progesterone together) are causing low libido in females by elevating levels of sex hormone binding globulin (SHBG). SHBG binds to sex hormones, including testosterone, rendering them unavailable. Research is showing that even after ending a hormonal contraceptive method, SHBG levels remain elevated and no reliable data exists to predict when this phenomenon will diminish.[12]
Testosterone and menstrual cycle
A woman's desire for sex is correlated to her menstrual cycle, with many women experiencing a heightened sexual desire in the several days immediately before ovulation.[13]
This cycle has been associated with changes in a woman's testosterone levels during the menstrual cycle. According to Gabrielle Lichterman, testosterone levels have a direct impact on a woman's interest in sex. According to her, testosterone levels rise gradually from about the 24th day of a woman's menstrual cycle until ovulation on about the 14th day of the next cycle, and during this period the woman's desire for sex increase consistently. The 13th day is generally the day with the highest testosterone levels. In the week following ovulation, the testosterone level is the lowest and as a result women will experience less interest in sex.[14]
Also, during the week following ovulation, progesterone levels increase, resulting in a woman experiencing difficulty achieving orgasm. Although the last days of the menstrual cycle are marked by a constant testosterone level, women's libido may boost as a result of the thickening of the uterine lining which stimulates nerve endings and makes a woman feel aroused.[15] Also, during these days, estrogen levels also decline, resulting in a decrease of natural lubrication.
Although some specialists disagree with this theory, menopause is still considered by the majority a factor that can cause decreased sex desire in women. The levels of estrogen decrease at menopause and this usually causes a lower interest in sex and vaginal dryness which makes intercourse painful. However, the levels of testosterone increase at menopause and this is why some women may experience a contrary effect, of an increased libido.[citation needed]
Sexual desire disorders
See also: Hypoactive sexual desire disorder
See also: Hypersexuality
There is no measure of what is a healthy level for sex desire. Some people want to have sex every day, or more than once a day; others once a year or not at all. However, a person who lacks a desire for sexual activity for some period of time may be experiencing a hypoactive sexual desire disorder or may be asexual. A sexual desire disorder is more common in women, but rare in men.[citation needed] Erectile dysfunction can only occur in men and may be a cause for the lack of sexual desire, however, these two should not be confused.[9] Moreover, specialists have brought to attention that libido impairment may not even occur in cases of men with erectile dysfunction.[citation needed] However, men can also experience a decrease in their libido as they age.
The American Medical Association has estimated that several million US women suffer from a female sexual arousal disorder, though arousal is not at all synonymous with desire, so this finding is of limited relevance to the discussion of libido.[9] Some specialists claim that women may experience low libido due to some hormonal abnormalities such as lack of luteinising hormone or androgenic hormones, although these theories are still controversial. Also, women commonly lack sexual desire in the period immediately after giving birth. Moreover, any condition affecting the genital area can make women reject the idea of having intercourse. It has been estimated that half of women experience different health problems in the area of the vagina and vulva, such as thinning, tightening, dryness or atrophy. Frustration may appear as a result of these issues and because many of them lead to painful sexual intercourse, many women prefer not having sex at all. Surgery or major health conditions such as arthritis, cancer, diabetes, high blood pressure, coronary artery disease or infertility may have the same effect in women.[5] Common surgeries that affect the hormonal levels in women include hysterectomies.
Endogenous substances involved in sex drive
See also: Sexual motivation and hormones, Sexual arousal#Hormones, and Sexual desire#Hormones
- 5-HT1A agonist,[16][17] as stabilizer; endogenously by serotonin (see below)
- Acetylcholine[18]
- Androgens: testosterone[19][20][21] [22][23][24]
- Cortisol
- Dopamine[25][26][27]
- Estrogens:[28][29][30][24] estradiol[31]
- MC4R agonist;[32] endogenously by α-Melanocyte-stimulating hormone
- Norepinehrine,[25] positively or negatively
- Oxytocin[33][34]
- Progesterone,[35] negatively; increased during the week following ovulation
- Serotonin,[25] negatively or positively. Low libido is a common side effect with selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors,[36][37] but decrease in sexual desire may occur due to imbalance between excitatory neurotransmitters and inhibitory neurotransmitters, such as serotonin.[25]
- Sex hormone-binding globulin, negatively
See also
- Aphrodisiac
- Cathexis
- Coitus reservatus
- Destrudo
- Eros
- Giles' theory of sexual desire
- Id, ego, and super-ego
- Lust
- Mortido
- Orgastic potency
- Perimenopause
- Repression
- Psychosexual development
- Seeking system
- Sexual arousal
- Sexual attraction
- Sexual desire
- Sexual motivation and hormones
- Sublimation
References
- Notes
- ^ Reconceiving the second sex Marcia Claire Inhorn - 2009
- ^ Principles and practice of adult health nursing Patricia Gauntlett Beare
- ^ Sex, time, and power retrieved 6 February 2012
- ^ "Top 10 reasons for low libido". http://www.health24.com/sex/Problems/1253-1264-2440,22996.asp. Retrieved 28 March 2012.
- ^ a b "Low sex drive in women". http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/low-sex-drive-in-women/DS01043/DSECTION=causes. Retrieved July 28, 2010.
- ^ Reber, Arthur S.; Reber, Emily S. (2001). Dictionary of Psychology. New York: Penguin Reference. ISBN 0-14-051451-1.
- ^ Yalom, I.D., Love's Executioner and Other Tales of Psychotherapy. New York: Basic Books, 1989. ISBN 0-06-097334-X.
- ^ Psychology Today – The orgasm Wars
- ^ a b c "Lack of sex drive in men (lack of libido)". http://www.netdoctor.co.uk/sex_relationships/facts/lackingsexdrive.htm. Retrieved July 28, 2010.
- ^ "Natural Aphrodisiacs". http://www.sexdriveintensity.com/aphrodisiac.html. Retrieved July 28, 2010.
- ^ Warnock, J. K.; Clayton, A.; Croft, H.; Segraves, R.; Biggs, F. C. (2006). "Comparison of Androgens in Women with Hypoactive Sexual Desire Disorder: Those on Combined Oral Contraceptives (COCs) vs. Those not on COCs". The Journal of Sexual Medicine 3 (5): 878–882. doi:10.1111/j.1743-6109.2006.00294.x. PMID 16942531. edit.
- ^ Panzer, C.; Wise, S.; Fantini, G.; Kang, D.; Munarriz, R.; Guay, A.; Goldstein, I. (2006). "Impact of Oral Contraceptives on Sex Hormone-Binding Globulin and Androgen Levels: A Retrospective Study in Women with Sexual Dysfunction". The Journal of Sexual Medicine 3 (1): 104–113. doi:10.1111/j.1743-6109.2005.00198.x. PMID 16409223. edit.
- ^ Susan B. Bullivant, Sarah A. Sellergren, Kathleen Stern, et al. (February 2004). "Women's sexual experience during the menstrual cycle: identification of the sexual phase by noninvasive measurement of luteinizing hormone". Journal of Sex Research 41 (1): 82–93 (in online article, see pp.14–15,18–22). doi:10.1080/00224490409552216. PMID 15216427. http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m2372/is_1_41/ai_n6032944.
- ^ 28 Days: What Your Cycle Reveals about Your Love Life, Moods, and Potential, Gabrielle Lichterman, ISBN 978-1-59337-345-0
- ^ "Women Can Now Predict When They Will Have The Best Sex". http://www.emaxhealth.com/48/4247.html. Retrieved July 28, 2010.
- ^ Fernández-Guasti A, Rodríguez-Manzo G (January 1997). "8-OH-DPAT and male rat sexual behavior: partial blockade by noradrenergic lesion and sexual exhaustion". Pharmacology, Biochemistry, and Behavior 56 (1): 111–6. doi:10.1016/S0091-3057(96)00165-7. PMID 8981617.
- ^ Haensel SM, Slob AK (July 1997). "Flesinoxan: a prosexual drug for male rats". European Journal of Pharmacology 330 (1): 1–9. doi:10.1016/S0014-2999(97)00170-2. PMID 9228408. http://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0014-2999(97)00170-2.
- ^ Int J Impot Res. 2000 Oct;12 Suppl 4:S26-33.
- ^ Wallen, K. (2001). Sex and context: hormones and primate sexual motivation. Hormones and Behavior, 40(2), 339.
- ^ Harding SM, Velotta JP (May 2011). "Comparing the relative amount of testosterone required to restore sexual arousal, motivation, and performance in male rats". Horm Behav 59 (5): 666–73. doi:10.1016/j.yhbeh.2010.09.009. PMID 20920505.
- ^ 28 Days: What Your Cycle Reveals about Your Love Life, Moods, and Potential, Gabrielle Lichterman, ISBN 978-1-59337-345-0
- ^ Davis SR, Moreau M, Kroll R, Bouchard C, Panay N, Gass M, Braunstein GD, Hirschberg AL, Rodenberg C, Pack S, Koch H, Moufarege A, Studd J (November 2008). "Testosterone for low libido in postmenopausal women not taking estrogen". N. Engl. J. Med. 359 (19): 2005–17. doi:10.1056/NEJMoa0707302. PMID 18987368.
- ^ Renneboog B (2012). "[Andropause and testosterone deficiency: how to treat in 2012?]". Rev Med Brux. 33 (4): 443-9. PMID 23091954.
- ^ a b DeLamater, J.D.; Sill, M. (2005). "Sexual Desire in Later Life". The Journal of Sex Research 42 (2): 138–149.
- ^ a b c d Clayton AH (July 2010). "The pathophysiology of hypoactive sexual desire disorder in women". Int J Gynaecol Obstet 110 (1): 7–11. doi:10.1016/j.ijgo.2010.02.014. PMID 20434725. http://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0020-7292(10)00138-4.
- ^ Raji, Y.; Ifabunmi, S.O.; Akinsomisoye, O.S.; Morakinyo, A.O.; Oloyo, A.K. (2005). "Gonadal Responses to Antipsychotic Drugs: Chlorpromazine and Thioridazine Reversibly Suppress Testicular Functions in Albino Rats". International Journal of Pharmacology 1 (3): 287292. doi:10.3923/ijp.2005.287.292. ISSN 18117775.
- ^ Vogel, H. P., & Schiffter, R. (1983). Hypersexuality: A complication of dopaminergic therapy in Parkinson's disease. Pharmacopsychiatria, 16, 107-110.
- ^ Heiman JR, Rupp H, Janssen E, Newhouse SK, Brauer M, Laan E (May 2011). "Sexual desire, sexual arousal and hormonal differences in premenopausal US and Dutch women with and without low sexual desire". Horm Behav. 59 (5): 772–779. doi:10.1016/j.yhbeh.2011.03.013. PMID 21514299.
- ^ Warnock JK, Swanson SG, Borel RW, Zipfel LM, Brennan JJ (2005). "Combined esterified estrogens and methyltestosterone versus esterified estrogens alone in the treatment of loss of sexual interest in surgically menopausal women". Menopause 12 (4): 359–60. doi:10.1097/01.GME.0000153933.50860.FD. PMID 16037752.
- ^ Ziegler, T. E. (2007). Female sexual motivation during non-fertile periods: a primate phenomenon. Hormones and Behavior, 51(1), 1-2
- ^ Simerly, Richard B. (2002-03-27). "Wired for reproduction: organization and development of sexually dimorphic circuits in the mammalian forebrain" (pdf). Annual Rev. Neurosci. 25: 507–536. doi:10.1146/annurev.neuro.25.112701.142745. PMID 12052919. http://www.healthsystem.virginia.edu/internet/neuroscience/BehavioralNeuroscience/Simerley-EFR-1-4.pdf. Retrieved 2007-03-07.
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- ^ Tolman, D.L.; Diamond, L.M. (2001). "Desegregating Sexuality Research: Cultural and Biological Perspectives on Gender and Desire". Annual Review of Sex Research 12 (33): 33–75.
- ^ Gagnon, John H (2004). An Interpretation of Desire. Chicago: University of Chicago.
- ^ Ziegler, T. E. (2007). Female sexual motivation during non-fertile periods: a primate phenomenon. Hormones and Behavior, 51(1), 1-2
- ^ Hu XH, Bull SA, Hunkeler EM, et al. (July 2004). "Incidence and duration of side effects and those rated as bothersome with selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor treatment for depression: patient report versus physician estimate". The Journal of Clinical Psychiatry 65 (7): 959–65. doi:10.4088/JCP.v65n0712. PMID 15291685. http://article.psychiatrist.com/?ContentType=START&ID=10000968.
- ^ Landén M, Högberg P, Thase ME (January 2005). "Incidence of sexual side effects in refractory depression during treatment with citalopram or paroxetine". The Journal of Clinical Psychiatry 66 (1): 100–6. doi:10.4088/JCP.v66n0114. PMID 15669895.
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- Further reading
- Ellenberger, Henri (1970). The Discovery of the Unconscious: The History and Evolution of Dynamic Psychiatry. New York: Basic Books. Hardcover ISBN 0-465-01672-3, softcover ISBN 0-465-01672-3.
- Froböse, Gabriele; Froböse, Rolf and Gross, Michael Gross (trans). Lust and Love: Is it more than Chemistry? Publisher: Royal Society of Chemistry, ISBN 0-85404-867-7, (200
- Giles, James, The Nature of Sexual Desire, Lanham, Maryland: University Press of America, 2008.
