craftsmanship

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出典(authority):フリー百科事典『ウィキペディア（Wikipedia）』「2015/07/28 06:06:37」(JST)

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Rolls Royce are so renowned for their workmanship that the name is used for any work of the highest quality.

Workmanship is a human attribute relating to knowledge and skill at performing a task. The type of work may include the creation of handcrafts, art, writing, machinery and other products. Workmanship is also a quality imparted to a product.

Workmanship in society

Workmanship is considered to have been a valued human attribute even in prehistoric times. In the opinion of the economist and sociologist Thorstein Veblen, the sense of workmanship is probably the single most important attribute governing the material well being of a people, with only the parental instinct coming a close second.^[1] There have however been periods in history where workmanship was looked down on; for example in Classical Greece and Ancient Rome, where it had become associated with slavery. This was not always the case - back in the archaic period, Greeks had valued workmanship, celebrating it in Homeric hymns.^[2] In the western world, a return to a more positive attitude towards work emerged with the rise of Christianity.^[3] In Europe, Veblen considers that the social value of workmanship reached its peak with the "Era of handicraft". The era began as workmanship flourished with the relative peace and security of property rights that Europe had achieved by the Late middle ages. The era ended as machine driven processes began to displace the need for workmanship after the Industrial revolution. Workmanship was such a central concept during the handicraft era, that according to Veblen, even key theological questions about God's intentions for humanity were re-framed from "What has God ordained?" to "What has God wrought?".^[4] The high value placed on workmanship could sometimes be an oppressive force for certain individuals - for example, one explanation for the origin of the English phrase sent to Coventry is that it was born from the practice where London guild members expelled due to poor workmanship were forced to move to Coventry, which used to be a guild free town. But workmanship was still widely appreciated by the common people themselves.^[4] For example, when workers accustomed to practicing high standards of workmanship were first recruited to work on production lines in factories, it would be common for them to walk out, as the new roles were relatively monotonous, giving them little scope to use their skills. After Henry Ford introduced the first Assembly line in 1913, he could need to recruit about ten men to find one willing to stay in the job. Over time, and with Ford offering high rates of pay, the aversion of labor to the new ways of working was reduced.^[5]

Workmanship began to receive considerable attention from scholars once its place in society came under threat by the rise of industrialization. The Arts and Crafts movement arose in the late 19th and early 20th century, as workmanship began to be displaced by developments like greater emphases on process, machine work, and the separation of design and planning skills from the actual execution of work. Scholars involved in founding the movement, like William Morris, John Ruskin and Charles Eliot Norton, argued that the opportunity to engage in workmanship used to be a great source of fulfillment for the working class.^[4] From a historical perspective however, the arts and crafts movement has been seen as a palliative, which unintentionally reduced resistance to the displacement of workmanship.^[5]^[6]

In a book written on the nature of workmanship, David Pye writes that the displacement of workmanship has continued into the late 20th century. He writes that since World War II especially, there has been "an enormous intensification of interest in design", at the expense of workmanship. The trend started in the 19th century has continued, with Industrial processes increasingly designed to minimize the skill needed for workers to produce quality products.^[7] 21st century scholars such as Matthew Crawford have argued that office and other white collar work is now being displaced by similar technological developments to the ones that caused large numbers of manual workers to be made redundant from the late 19th to early 20th century. Even when the jobs remain, the cognitive aspects of the jobs taken away from the workers, due to knowledge being centralized. He calls for a revaluing of workmanship, saying that certain manual roles like mechanics, plumbers and carpenters have been resistant to further automation, and are among the most likely to continue offering the worker the chance for independent thought.^[5] Writers like Alain de Botton and Jane McGonigal have argued that the world of work needs to be reformed to make it more fulfilling and less stressful. In particular, workers need to be able to make a deeply felt imaginative connection between their own efforts and the end product. Gonigal argues that computer games can be a source of ideas for doing this; she says the primary reason for World of Warcraft being so popular is the sense of "blissful productivity" that its players enjoy.^[8]^[9]

Workmanship and craftsmanship

Ruben's 1536 rendition of Vulcan, the Roman counterpart of Hephaestus, the Greek God of Craftsmen.

Workmanship and Craftsmanship are sometimes considered synonyms, but many draw a distinction between the two terms, or at least consider craftsmanship to mean "workmanship of the better sort".^[10] Among those who do consider workmanship and craftsmanship to be different, the word "workmanlike" is sometimes even used as a pejorative, to suggest for example that while an author might understand the basics of their craft, they lack flair. David Pye has written that no one can definitively state where workmanship ends and craftsmanship begins.^[10]

“

Sing clear-voiced Muse, of Hephaestus famed for skill. With bright-eyed Athena he taught me glorious crafts throughout the world - men who before used to dwell in caves in the mountains like wild beasts. But now that they have learned craftsmanship through Hephaestus famous for his art they live a peaceful life in own houses the whole year round.

”

- an extract from a Homeric hymn celebrating craftsmanship.^[11]

During the Middle Ages, smiths and especially armor smiths developed unique symbols of workmanship^[12] to distinguish the quality of their work. These became some of the most unique signs of workmanship, comparable to the mon family crests of Japan.^[13]

Workmanship and aversion to labor

It has often been held in older economic writings that people are always adverse to labor and can only be motivated to work by threats or tangible rewards such as money. While Christianity has generally been positive about workmanship, certain Bible passages such as Genesis 3:17 ("...Cursed is the ground because of you; through painful toil you will eat food from it all the days of your life.") have contributed to the view that labor is a necessary evil, part of the punishment for original sin.^[3] Veblen and others have argued against this view, saying that work can be inherently joyful and satisfying in its own right. Veblen acknowledges that humans have an innate tendency towards idleness, but asserts that they also have a countervailing tendency to value work for its own sake, as is demonstrated by the vast amount of work that is undertaken without obvious external pressure. As evidence for the widely shared instinct towards workmanship, Veblen also notes the near universal tendency for humans to approve of others good work. Psychologist Pernille Rasmussen has written that the tendency to value work can become so strong that it stops being a positive source of motivation, contributing instead to some people losing balance and becoming workaholics.^[14] ^[3] ^[6]

Electronics manufacturing

The reliability of electronic devices is greatly affected by the quality of the workmanship. Therefore, the electronics manufacturing industry has developed several voluntary consensus standards to provide guidance on how products should be designed, built, inspected, and tested.^[15]

References

Notes

Citations

^ Veblen 1914, Chpt 1: Introduction
^ Sennett 209, pp. 22-23
^ ^a ^b ^c Rasmussen 2008, Chpt 2: Work Curse or Blessing
^ ^a ^b ^c Veblen 1914, Chpt 6: The era of handicraft
^ ^a ^b ^c Matthew B. Crawford (Summer 2006). "Shop Class as Soulcraft (for a fuller treatment, see the authors 2011 book of the same name)". The New Atlantis (journal). Retrieved 2013-06-13.
^ ^a ^b Jackson Lear 1994, Chpt 2: The figure of the artisan: arts and crafts ideology
^ Pye 1968, Chpt 1: Design proposes: Workmanship disposes
^ de Botton 2010
^ McGonigal 2011, Chpt 3: More satisfying work
^ ^a ^b Pye 1968, Chpt 2: The workmanship of risk and the workmanship of certainty
^ quoted in Sennett (2009) p. 21
^ Ffoulkes, John. The Armourer and His Craft: From the XIth to the XVIth Century. Dover, 1988.
^ Matsuya Piece-Goods Store. Japanese Design Motifs: 4,260 Illustrations of Japanese Crests. Dover, 1972.
^ Thorstein Veblen (1898). "The Instinct of Workmanship and the Irksomeness of Labor". American Journal of Sociology 4. Retrieved 2013-08-26.
^ L-3 Communications, WS-000: Workmanship Standards Introduction

Sources

Veblen, Thorstein (1914), The Instinct of Workmanship and the State of the Industrial Arts, Transaction Pub, ISBN 9780887388071
Pye, David (1968), The Nature and Art of Workmanship, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 9780521060165
Jackson Lears, T.J (1994), No Place of Grace, University of Chicago Press, ISBN 0226469700
Rasmussen, Pernille (2008), When Work Takes Control: The Psychology and Effects of Work Addiction, Karnack books, ISBN 1855755939
Sennett, Richard (2009), The Craftsman, Penguine, ISBN 9780141022093
de Botton, Alain (2010), The Pleasures and Sorrows of Work, Penguin, ISBN 0141027916
McGonigal, Jane (2011), Reality is Broken, Random House, ISBN 9780099540281

English Journal

Peer review versus editorial review and their role in innovative science.

Steinhauser G, Adlassnig W, Risch JA, Anderlini S, Arguriou P, Armendariz AZ, Bains W, Baker C, Barnes M, Barnett J, Baumgartner M, Baumgartner T, Bendall CA, Bender YS, Bichler M, Biermann T, Bini R, Blanco E, Bleau J, Brink A, Brown D, Burghuber C, Calne R, Carter B, Castaño C, Celec P, Celis ME, Clarke N, Cockrell D, Collins D, Coogan B, Craig J, Crilly C, Crowe D, Csoka AB, Darwich C, Del Kebos T, Derinaldi M, Dlamini B, Drewa T, Dwyer M, Eder F, de Palma RE, Esmay D, Rött CE, Exley C, Falkov R, Farber CI, Fearn W, Felsmann S, Flensmark J, Fletcher AK, Foster M, Fountoulakis KN, Fouratt J, Blanca JG, Sotelo MG, Gittler F, Gittler G, Gomez J, Gomez JF, Polar MG, Gonzalez J, Gösselsberger C, Habermacher L, Hajek M, Hakala F, Haliburton MS, Hankins JR, Hart J, Hasslberger S, Hennessey D, Herrmann A, Hersee M, Howard C, Humphries S, Isharc L, Ivanovski P, Jenuth S, Jerndal J, Johnson C, Keleta Y, Kenny A, Kidd B, Kohle F, Kolahi J, Koller-Peroutka M, Kostova L, Kumar A, Kurosawa A, Lance T, Lechermann M, Lendl B, Leuchters M, Lewis E, Lieb E, Lloyd G, Losek A, Lu Y, Maestracci S, Mangan D, Mares AW, Barnett JM, McClain V, McNair JS, Michael T, Miller L, Monzani P, Moran B, Morris M, Mößmer G, Mountain J, Phuthe OM, Muñoz M, Nakken S, Wambui AN, Neunteufl B, Nikolić D, Oberoi DV, Obmode G, Ogar L, Ohara J, Rybine NO, Owen B, Owen KW, Parikh R, Pearce NJ, Pemmer B, Piper C, Prince I, Reid T, Rindermann H, Risch S, Robbins J, Roberts S, Romero A, Rothe MT, Ruiz S, Sacher J, Sackl W, Salletmaier M, Sanand J, Sauerzopf C, Schwarzgruber T, Scott D, Seegers L, Seppi D, Shields K, Siller-Matula J, Singh B, Sithole S, Six F, Skoyles JR, Slofstra J, Sole DA, Sommer WF, Sonko M, Starr-Casanova CJ, Steakley ME, Steinhauser W, Steinhoff K, Sterba JH, Steppan M, Stindl R, Stokely J, Stokely K, St-Pierre G, Stratford J, Streli C, Stryg C, Sullivan M, Summhammer J, Tadesse A, Tavares D, Thompson L, Tomlinson A, Tozer J, Trevisanato SI, Trimmel M, Turner N, Vahur P, van der Byl J, van der Maas T, Varela L, Vega CA, Vermaak S, Villasenor A, Vogel M, von Wintzigerode G, Wagner C, Weinberger M, Weinberger P, Wilson N, Wolfe JF, Woodley MA, Young I, Zuraw G, Zwiren N.AbstractPeer review is a widely accepted instrument for raising the quality of science. Peer review limits the enormous unstructured influx of information and the sheer amount of dubious data, which in its absence would plunge science into chaos. In particular, peer review offers the benefit of eliminating papers that suffer from poor craftsmanship or methodological shortcomings, especially in the experimental sciences. However, we believe that peer review is not always appropriate for the evaluation of controversial hypothetical science. We argue that the process of peer review can be prone to bias towards ideas that affirm the prior convictions of reviewers and against innovation and radical new ideas. Innovative hypotheses are thus highly vulnerable to being "filtered out" or made to accord with conventional wisdom by the peer review process. Consequently, having introduced peer review, the Elsevier journal Medical Hypotheses may be unable to continue its tradition as a radical journal allowing discussion of improbable or unconventional ideas. Hence we conclude by asking the publisher to consider re-introducing the system of editorial review to Medical Hypotheses.
Theoretical medicine and bioethics.Theor Med Bioeth.2012 Oct;33(5):359-76. doi: 10.1007/s11017-012-9233-1.
Peer review is a widely accepted instrument for raising the quality of science. Peer review limits the enormous unstructured influx of information and the sheer amount of dubious data, which in its absence would plunge science into chaos. In particular, peer review offers the benefit of eliminating
PMID 23054375

"What are nurse academics for?" Intellectual craftsmanship in an age of instrumentalism.

Goodman B.SourceKnowledge Spa, RCH Treliske, Truro, TR1 3HD, United Kingdom.
Nurse education today.Nurse Educ Today.2012 Sep 18. pii: S0260-6917(12)00278-X. doi: 10.1016/j.nedt.2012.08.015. [Epub ahead of print]
PMID 22999023

Reclaiming craftsmanship in nursing.

Meal AG, Timmons SJ.SourceDivision of Nursing, School of Nursing, Midwifery and Physiotherapy, University of Nottingham, Medical School, Queen's Medical Centre, Nottingham, United Kingdom. andy.meal@nottingham.ac.uk
Nurse education today.Nurse Educ Today.2012 Jul;32(5):479-81. doi: 10.1016/j.nedt.2012.03.006. Epub 2012 Apr 16.
PMID 22513157

Japanese Journal

今月の一冊 June 国立国会図書館の蔵書から懸賞募集緞帳図案集 : 実用・工芸・広告の三位一体

伊藤りさ
国立国会図書館月報 (650), 2-3, 2015-06
NAID 40020494705

自由貿易化に伴う地場産業衰退に関する事例分析 : 浅草地域の革製履物製造業の調査を踏まえて

宮寺良光
岩手県立大学社会福祉学部紀要 17, 35-42, 2015-03
本稿の目的は、浅草地域の革製履物製造業を例に地場産業の衰退について分析をすることである。同産業では、革製履物の国内生産量が年々減少してきているが、その背景には、関税の引き下げによって安価な製品が新興国から輸入されているからである。自由貿易の推進は、経済発展を促し、生活の質の向上に寄与するものと理解されている。これは、「比較優位」という説に由来するものである。しかし、自由貿易が進むと競争力の弱い産 …
NAID 110009911483

住宅設計演習における環境配慮的な提案の実態に関する研究:－森林環境教育が学生の意識と行動に与える影響の観点から－

戸田都生男,松原斎樹,松原小夜子 [他],福坂誠
日本建築学会環境系論文集 80(707), 79-89, 2015
… The purpose of this study is to discuss the effects of "Wooden Craftsmanship Activity" and environmental consideration in design exercise on the students majoring in architecture. …
NAID 130005063665

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