コーヒー

関: Coffea、Coffea arabica

WordNet

any of several small trees and shrubs native to the tropical Old World yielding coffee beans (同)coffee_tree
a beverage consisting of an infusion of ground coffee beans; "he ordered a cup of coffee" (同)java
coffee trees (同)genus Coffea
native to West Africa but grown in Java and elsewhere; resistant to coffee rust (同)Rio Nunez coffee, Coffea robusta, Coffea canephora
a drink made from pulverized coffee beans; usually sweetened

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〈U〉『コーヒー』[『飲料』];〈C〉《話》(1杯の)コーヒー / 〈U〉コーヒー豆,コーヒーの粉末 / 〈C〉=coffee tree / 〈U〉コーヒー色,濃褐色
コーヒー店,喫茶店(欧州や昔の英国で,コーヒーなどの飲物や軽食を出し内輪の会合などを開くことのできた店)
《米》(ホテルなどの)軽食堂(朝食などの軽い食事を出す店)
ミルクコーヒー

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出典(authority):フリー百科事典『ウィキペディア（Wikipedia）』「2015/08/05 14:11:21」(JST)

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「コーヒー」のその他の用法については「コーヒー (曖昧さ回避)」をご覧ください。

コーヒー

コーヒー（オランダ語: koffie^[1] /ˈkɔfi/ コフィ^{[ヘルプ/ファイル]}）は、コーヒー豆（コーヒーノキの種子）を焙煎し挽いた粉末から、湯または水で成分を抽出した飲料。歴史への登場は酒や茶には遅れるが、世界で最も多くの国で飲用されている嗜好飲料であり、家庭や飲食店、職場などで飲用され、また、コーヒーの専門ショップも多数存在する。また、抽出前の粉末や粉砕前の焙煎豆も、同じくコーヒーと呼ばれることもある。日本語では「珈琲」と当て字されている^[2]。

世界各国において、コーヒーを提供する場の喫茶店（コーヒー・ハウス、カフェ、カフェー）は近代、知識人や文学、美術などさまざまな分野の芸術家の集まる場として、文化的にも大きな役割を果たしてきた。さらに、石油に次いで貿易規模が大きい一次産品であるため、経済上も重要視されている。大体北回帰線と南回帰線の間（コーヒーベルト）の約70箇国で生産され、アメリカ、ヨーロッパ、日本など全世界に輸出されている。カフェインに代表される薬理活性成分を含むことから医学・薬学の面から研究の対象となっている。

1 歴史
2 語源
3 コーヒーノキ
- 3.1 品種
4 コーヒーができるまで
- 4.1 コーヒー豆の生産
- 4.2 代表的なコーヒー豆
- 4.3 精製
- 4.4 焙煎
- 4.5 ブレンド
- 4.6 粉砕
5 飲み物としてのコーヒー
- 5.1 レギュラーコーヒー
  - 5.1.1 濾過
  - 5.1.2 煮沸後濾過
  - 5.1.3 煮沸
  - 5.1.4 浸漬（しんせき、しんし）
- 5.2 さまざまな飲み方
  - 5.2.1 コーヒーのバリエーション
- 5.3 レギュラーコーヒー以外のコーヒー
  - 5.3.1 インスタントコーヒー
  - 5.3.2 缶コーヒー
  - 5.3.3 リキッドコーヒー
6 代用コーヒー
7 飲料以外の用途
8 成分
9 医薬的効果
10 文化
- 10.1 コーヒーにまつわる名言
- 10.2 コーヒーを題材にした作品
  - 10.2.1 音楽
  - 10.2.2 映画
- 10.3 コーヒーに関する風習など
11 脚注
12 参考文献
13 関連項目
14 外部リンク

歴史

詳細は「コーヒーの歴史」を参照

コーヒーがいつ頃から人間に利用されていたかは、はっきりしていない。果実の赤い果肉は甘く食べられるため、種子の効用を知る機会も多かったと考えれば、有史以前から野生種が利用されていても不思議ではない。実際、アラビカ種は原産地エチオピアで古くから利用されていたとする説があり、リベリカ種は西アフリカ沿岸でヨーロッパ人が「発見」する以前から栽培・利用されていた。栽培史概略はコーヒーノキ参照。

現在見られる「焙煎した豆から抽出したコーヒー」が登場したのは13世紀以降と見られる。

最初は一部の修道者だけが用いる宗教的な秘薬であり、生の葉や豆を煮出した汁が用いられていた。しかし、焙煎によって嗜好品としての特長を備えると一般民衆へも広がり、1454年には一般民衆の飲用が正式に認められ、中東・イスラム世界全域からエジプトまで拡大した。オスマン帝国からバルカン諸国、ヨーロッパには、16世紀に伝わり、1602年のローマ以降、17世紀中にヨーロッパ全土に伝播した。北米には、1668年ヨーロッパからの移民によって伝わった。

日本へは18世紀末にオランダ人が持ち込み、最初の記録は、1804年の大田南畝による『瓊浦又綴』（けいほゆうてつ）（随筆）（1804年） ^[3]。

抽出法も工夫され、挽いたコーヒー豆を煮出して上澄みを飲むトルココーヒー式の淹れ方から、まず布で濾す方法（1711年フランス）が開発され、布ドリップ（ネルドリップ）の原型となった。これに湯を注ぐ器具として、ドゥ・ベロワのポット（1800年頃フランス）が考案され、現在のドリップポットに至る。この他にも、パーコレータ（1827年フランス）、コーヒーサイフォン（1830年代ドイツ）、エスプレッソマシン（1901年イタリア）、ペーパードリップ（1908年ドイツ）などが開発され、多様な飲み方が可能となった。

イスラム世界では、長らくイスラム戒律との関わりから一般民衆の飲用を認めない主張が続き、1454年にファトワが出された後も、反対意見は根強く、16世紀頃から一般民衆への普及によって民衆の社交場においてコーヒーが供される風習が生じると、1511年、厳格なイスラム戒律主義者だったメッカ総督がコーヒーを「大衆を堕落させる毒」として飲用を禁じ、焼き捨てを命じたメッカ事件が起きている。
そのメッカから伝わったオスマン帝国では、17世紀初頭に世界初の近代的なコーヒーハウスが首都コンスタンティノープルで開業した。コーヒーハウスは中上流階級の社交場となり、コーヒーが伝わった先のヴェネツィアやローマでも同様なコーヒーハウスが開業してヨーロッパ中に広まった。
イギリスでは1650年にオックスフォードに最初のコーヒーハウスが開業した後、17世紀にはロンドンを中心にコーヒーハウスが社交や議論、情報交換の場として隆盛を極めた。ロイド保険組合の前身もコーヒーハウスである。このイギリスのコーヒーハウスの隆盛は紅茶の普及により廃れる18世紀半ばまで続いた。
フランスでは1669年には駐トルコ大使がルイ14世に献上したことがきっかけになって上流社会で流行し、さらに一般にも広まって多くのカフェが作られた。
ウィーンでは、1683年、オスマン帝国による第二次ウィーン包囲が失敗した際に、オスマン軍が塹壕に残していったコーヒー豆をコルシツキーが戦利品として拝領し、ウィーン初のコーヒーハウスを開業したのが始まりといわれている。
日本では江戸時代から長崎を通して貿易品として輸入されていたが、嗜好品と言うよりも薬としての効果を期待されたもので、水腫に効果があるとされていた。これはコーヒーに含まれるビタミンの効用と考えられる。1807年の樺太出兵では野菜が摂取できないことによる兵の水腫病が問題になり、幕府から貴重なコーヒー豆が支給されたという。1855年頃、やはり寒さなどで殉難が多かった弘前藩士の為に幕府が薬用としてコーヒーを用意したという記録も残っている^[4]。1888年（明治21年）4月13日、東京下谷に最初の喫茶店「可否茶館」が開店、明治時代末から大正時代にかけて（1911年 - ）カフェーと呼ばれる喫茶店が全国的に普及した。1889年には東京の氷砂糖問屋が珈琲挽茶入角砂糖を売り出し、湯または牛乳に溶かして飲ませた。

語源

「コーヒー」はアラビア語でコーヒーを意味するカフワ (アラビア語: قهوة‎ ; qahwa) が転訛したものである。元々ワインを意味していたカフワの語が、ワインに似た覚醒作用のあるコーヒーに充てられたのがその語源である。一説にはエチオピアにあったコーヒーの産地カッファ (Kaffa) がアラビア語に取り入れられたものともいわれている。

この語がコーヒーの伝播に伴って、トルコ（トルコ語: kahve）、イタリア（イタリア語: caffè）を経由し、ヨーロッパ（フランス語: café、ドイツ語: Kaffee、英語: coffee）から世界各地に広まった。日本語の「コーヒー」は、江戸時代にオランダからもたらされた際の、オランダ語: koffie （コーフィー）に由来する^[1]。

日本では漢字で「珈琲」のほか「可否」「架非」「加非」「咖啡」などの字もあてられてきた^[2]。

漢字による当て字である「珈琲」は、津山藩医で蘭学者宇田川榕菴（うだがわようあん）が考案し、蘭和対訳辞典で使用したのが、最初であると言われている。これ以外にも、「可否」（可否茶館）、「カウヒイ」（大田南畝『瓊浦又綴（けいほゆうてつ）』）、「哥非乙」（宇田川榕菴『哥非乙説』）^[5]などの表記も過去には用いられた。

なお、中国語においても、訳語に関して19世紀に試行錯誤があり、現在はこの宇田川榕菴の当て字を借用している^[6]。ただし、漢字は王偏を口偏に変え「咖啡」（kāfēi）と表記される。

コーヒーノキ

詳細はコーヒーノキを参照

コーヒーの原料となるコーヒー豆は、3 - 3.5mほどの常緑低木でジャスミンに似た香りの白い花を咲かせるコーヒーノキの果実から得られる。

コーヒーチェリーと呼ばれる果実は赤または紫、品種によっては黄色の硬い実で、成熟に9ヶ月ほどかかる。また、枝の先端に付く1粒だけ丸い種子は「ピーベリー」と呼ばれ、珍重される。 コーヒー豆となる種子だけでなく、果肉部分にも若干のカフェインが含まれており、食用にされる。

栽培されているコーヒーノキは、大きくエチオピア原産のティピカ種（Tipica）に由来するアラビカ種 (Coffea arabica) と、コンゴ原産のロブスタ種（カネフォーラ種、C. canephora）に分けられるが、生産量の7 - 8割はアラビカ種である。以前はリベリカ種(C. liberica)も合わせて「コーヒーの3原種」と呼ばれていたが、病害に弱く品質面でも劣るため、21世紀前半の現在では生産量もごく僅かとなっている。

品種

焙煎前のロブスタコーヒー豆

栽培品種はアラビカ種を中心に200種類以上が知られ、ブラジルとコロンビアでさかんに育種が行われている。その一方で、コーヒーの風味において従来品種を高く評価する人もあり、フェアトレード運動とも連動している。

アラビカ種: 病害虫や霜、少雨等に弱く栽培が困難だが、風味とコクに優れ、レギュラーコーヒー用を主体とし多様な品種がある。総生産量の約70%を占める^[7]。; 従来は、ブラジルのブルボンとコロンビアのティピカが、アラビカ種の2大品種と呼ばれ主力品種だった。その後、収量や耐病虫性に優れた品種への置換が進み、最近^[いつ?]ではブラジルのカトゥーラ、カトゥアイとムンド・ノーボ、コロンビアのカトゥーラとバリエダ・コロンビアが、それぞれ主力品種となっている。; このほか、スマトラ、モカ（銘柄とは別）、ブルー・マウンテン（ブランドとは別）、コナ、マラゴジッペ、アマレロ、ゲイシャなどがある。
ロブスタ種: アラビカ種に比べて耐病性が高く、少雨、高温多湿の土地でも栽培できる。また安定収穫できる様になるまでにかかる期間が3年と短い。栽培が容易なので収量も多く、生産量2位のベトナムで主力となっている^[7] 。; 抽出しやすく水出しも容易だが、カフェイン成分が多く苦みやクセ（ロブスタ臭）が強く、単独での風味はアラビカ種に及ばないとされる。インスタント用原料や、安いレギュラーコーヒーの増量用が主体となっている他、いわゆるベトナムコーヒーに用いられる。
リベリカ種: 高温多湿の気候に適応するが病害に弱く、品質もアラビカ種に及ばない。
交雑種: アラビカとロブスタを交配したもので、一般的なレギュラーコーヒーに用いられる。; ハイブリド・デ・ティモール、アラブスタ、カティモール、バリエダ・コロンビアなどの品種がある。

コーヒーができるまで

コーヒー豆の生産と加工の詳細はコーヒー豆を参照

コーヒーは北回帰線と南回帰線の間（コーヒーベルト）の約70カ国で生産されており、そのコーヒー農園でコーヒーノキの栽培と果実の収穫が行われる。さらに引き続いて、生豆（なままめ、きまめ、生のコーヒー豆のこと）を取り出すコーヒー豆の精製と呼ばれる加工作業までが、コーヒー農園で行われることが多い。精製された生豆は生産国で集積され、選別・等級付けされてから消費国に輸出される。生豆は消費地においてコーヒー独特の香味を生み出すために焙煎され、場合によっては複数の焙煎豆を混ぜてブレンドされる。その後粉砕により細かい粉状にされてから、水や湯で抽出されて、飲用に供されるコーヒーが出来上がる。

コーヒー豆の生産

全世界では、150億のコーヒーノキが1000万ヘクタールの土地で生育していると概算されている。主な生産地はブラジルやコロンビアなどの中南米や、ベトナム、インドネシアなどの東南アジア、エチオピアやタンザニア、ケニアなどのアフリカ諸国など。また有名銘柄の産地としてハワイ、イエメン。インドや中国などでも生産されている。日本でも小笠原諸島や沖縄諸島に移入されたことがあるが、大規模生産には成功していない。ただし九州や沖縄では個人規模農園で栽培している人もいる。近年^[いつ?]になってこれまでロブスタ種の栽培が主流であったタンザニア周辺地域のアフリカ諸国、（ザンビアやマラウィ等）で輸出用に高品質のアラビカ種の栽培が盛んになっていて一部国連主導による「国連グルメコーヒー開発プロジェクト」に加盟している国もある（ブルンジ、ウガンダ）。これらのアフリカ諸国のコーヒーも日本で漸く流通しはじめている。

世界のコーヒー生産地と豆の名称

コーヒー豆の種類は、主に生産地で分けられている。名前の付け方は、国名（コロンビア、ケニア、コスタリカ等）、山域（キリマンジャロ、ブルーマウンテン、エメラルドマウンテン等）、積出港（モカ、サントス等）、栽培地名（コナ、マンデリン、ジャワ等）などが多い。この他、種名や栽培品種の名を付加した名称（ジャワ・ロブスタ、ブルボン・サントス）や、選別時の等級を付加した名称（ブラジル No. 2、タンザニアAA）なども用いられている。また1990年代以降の動きとして、高品質であることを売り物に差別化を図るため、更に特定の農園の名前を冠したコーヒー豆も増えつつあり、近年^[いつ?]ではそのような特定の農園からの豆のみのものや通常よりも現地での選別を厳しくしたハイクラス品のことをスペシャルティー（スペシャリティー）コーヒーと称する差別化が普及しつつある。また生産国（特に中南米で盛んである）で行われている品評会に入賞した農園の豆をオークションなどを使用して購入し、スペシャルティーコーヒー以上のプレミア品として更に差別化している販売業者も見受けられる。

代表的なコーヒー豆

代表的なコーヒー豆の味や特徴を挙げる。産地国を名としないものは括弧書きで産地国を付記する。なおレギュラーコーヒーに使われるものはアラビカ種またはロブスタ種が主流の雑種である^[8]。

ブルーマウンテン（ジャマイカ）: 卓越した香気を持ち、調和の取れた味わい、軽い口当りと滑らかな咽越しが特徴。最高級の品質と呼ばれる。ジャマイカで生産されるコーヒーのうちごく一部の産地のものがブルーマウンテンとブランド付けられる。その中でもさらにランク付けがなされる^[9]。
コナ（ハワイ島）: 非常に強い酸味とコク・風味を持つ。ブレンドに用いると良質な酸味が与えられるといわれる。ブルーマウンテンに次ぐブランドで高価である。
キリマンジャロ（タンザニア）: タンザニア産のコーヒーの日本での呼称。強い酸味とコクが特長。「野性味あふれる」と評されることが多い。深い焙煎では上品な苦味主体で浅 - 中煎りとは違った風味が楽しめる。
モカ（イエメン、エチオピア）: 香気に優れ独特の酸味を持ち、甘みとコクが加わる。もっとも古い「ブランド」である。コーヒー原産地であり、イタリアなどではコーヒーのことをモカと呼ぶ。イエメン産の「マタリ」^[10]、エチオピア産の「ハラー」、「シダモ」等が有名。^[11]
グアテマラ: 酸味とコクに優れ、香気も良好で全体的に華やかさとキレのいい後味が特徴。
ブラジル: 香りの甘さが軽快で酸味・コク、苦みともに軽くバランスが良い。安価でありブレンドのベースとして多く使われる。
コロンビア: 酸味と甘味が重厚だが突出せずバランスが良い。安価でありブレンドのベースに使われることも多い。コーヒーの基本の味。
マンデリン（インドネシア）: スマトラ島産。苦味とコクを中心とした味わい、酸味はなく独特な後味がある。日本ではブルーマウンテンが現れるまでは世界一と評されていた。
トラジャ（インドネシア）: スラウェシ島産。苦みが中心の味で、非常に濃厚なコクを持つ。酸味は無い。カロシ・トラジャもしくは単にカロシという名称が使われることもある。
ジャワコーヒー（インドネシア）: ジャワ島産の主にアラビカ種コーヒーを指す。かつての大産地でモカとブレンドしたモカジャバは最初のブレンドといわれるが、葉さび病と経済恐慌で産地が大打撃を受けて以降は産出量が少なく目にすることはまれである。現在^[いつ?]手にはいるものは丸くマイルドな味。ジャワ島は専らアイスコーヒー・エスプレッソ・工業用に使用されるロブスタ種の主要な産地であるため、限定してアラビカ種を指す場合はジャワ・アラビカともいう。
ケニア: フルーツのような爽やかな風味が特徴。全体的に強い風味でバランスが良い。ドイツなどヨーロッパではタンザニア産とともに一般的な銘柄。深めの焙煎が多い。
サルバドル（エルサルバドル）: 強く主張する味は無く、全体に甘く上品で柔らかな印象の味わい。
コスタリカ: どちらかというと酸味系で苦味控えめの味わい、軽めでクリアな飲み口。
パプアニューギニア: 浅い焙煎では軽くてクセの少ない風味、深い焙煎ではキレの良い強い苦味とコクのある風味。良質な香気も特徴。最高級品質と言われるブルーマウンテンの苗木をそのまま移植して栽培した品種である。
キューバ: ブルーマウンテンに似た軽くてバランスの良い風味と上品な香気が特徴。ドミニカ共和国やハイチなどカリブ海地域の島国産のコーヒーは総じて似た傾向の風味を有する。
インド: インドのコーヒー栽培は400年以上の歴史があり、世界中のコーヒー産地の中でも有数の歴史と伝統を誇る。森の生態系を活かしながら有機的な農法で育てられ、5 - 6月に吹くモンスーンを利用した、約7週間を経てできる独特の香味は、欧米の多数の国で愛飲されている最高級品である。
ベトナムなどアジア地域: ベトナムやネパール、中国など近年になって輸出向けにアラビカ種を導入した地域では、人気のある中南米地域の品種の苗木を導入しているが気候や土壌、生産技術の違いからか同じ品種でも独特の風味を持っている、総じてやや導入もとの中南米地域産に比べて重めの風味になり、酸味は控えめで香気もやや弱くなる傾向がある。

精製

コーヒーの果実と種子（コーヒー豆）の構造

収穫されたコーヒーの果実からコーヒー豆を取り出す工程をコーヒーの精製と呼ぶ。コーヒーの精製には主に乾式（乾燥式・非水洗式）と湿式（水洗式）の二種類がある。単純作業のため、コーヒーの精製は生産地で行われる。精製をすませたコーヒー豆は生豆と呼ばれ、カビなどの発生を防ぐために水分含量が10 - 12%になるよう乾燥して保管され、消費地に輸出される。

乾式（乾燥式・非水洗式）: 収穫した果実を乾燥場に平らに広げて天日で干し、完全に乾燥した果肉を機械的に除く。モカ及びマンデリンの産地とブラジルで行われることが多い。
湿式（水洗式）: 外皮と果肉を機械的に取り除いた後で、水槽に1、2日つけて発酵させて種子（パーチメントコーヒー）を取り出す方法。コロンビアなど、ブラジル以外の産地で行われることが多い。

この他、乾式と湿式を組み合わせた半湿式（半水洗式）や、ジャコウネコなどの動物に食べさせて、その糞から取り出すもの（コピ・ルアク）などがある。

焙煎

精製された生のコーヒー豆は次に焙煎されて、初めて実際に我々が口にするコーヒーの香りと味を生み出す。多くの場合、この工程は消費国でなされ、ロースターと呼ばれる大手のコーヒー豆卸業者が行うほか、コーヒー豆小売りを行う販売店や喫茶店などで自家焙煎される。また家庭で生豆から焙煎することも可能であり、近年^[いつ?]は専門店等で生豆の小売も多く見られる。

日本の家庭ではフライパンや焙烙（ほうろく）、ギンナン煎りに用いる金属製の手網などで焙煎することがあるが、プロの多くは焙煎機（コーヒーロースター）と呼ばれる専用の機械で行われる。これらの焙煎方法は加熱原理と熱源の違いによって以下のように分類される。

直火焙煎
熱風焙煎
遠赤外線焙煎
マイクロ波焙煎
過熱水蒸気焙煎（日本独自のものである）

上記が同時に進行するような焙煎方法もある。

半直火焙煎…熱風焙煎と直火焙煎
炭火焙煎（日本独自）…熱風焙煎と遠赤外線焙煎
セラミック焙煎（日本独自）…直火焙煎と遠赤外線焙煎

コーヒーが焙煎されるとき豆の温度は約200℃程度まで到達する。一般的な焙煎方法ではおよそ10 - 20分程度の加熱時間を必要とする。

焙煎の度合いのことを焙煎度といい、焙煎度の低いものを浅煎り、高いものを深煎りと呼ぶ。浅煎りされたコーヒー豆は薄い褐色で、深煎りへと進行するにつれて黒褐色へと変化し表面に油がにじみ出てくる。浅煎りと深煎りの中間にあたるものを中煎りと呼ぶこともあるが、これらは相対的な呼び名であって明確に定められているものではなく、販売店舗などによっても異なる。また、日本では以下の8段階（浅煎り→深煎りの順）の焙煎度を用いる場合もある。

ライト (light)
シナモン (cinnamon)
ミディアム (medium)
ハイ (high)
シティ (city)
フルシティ (Full city)
フレンチ (French)
イタリアン (Italian)

一般に、浅煎りは香りや酸味に優れ深煎りは苦味に優れると言われているが、嗜好の問題であるため、総合的に見てどちらかが優れているということは特にない。通常使われる焙煎度は、ミディアムからイタリアンである。

ブレンド

コーヒー豆はその消費目的に応じて数種類混合されることがある。これをブレンドと呼ぶ。ブレンドされたコーヒーはブレンドコーヒーと呼ばれ、これに対して一種類の焙煎豆のみからなるコーヒーをストレートコーヒーと呼ぶ。

ブレンドは焙煎前に豆を混合するプレミックスと焙煎後に混合するアフターミックスがある。プレミックスは調和の取れた味になり大量生産にも向いている^[12]一方で、個々の豆の焙煎の加減を調整しづらい。それに対してアフターミックスは豆の焙煎状態を最良にしやすいが、別々に焙煎する分手間が掛かる^[13]。

ブレンドは複数の違った持ち味を持つコーヒーを混ぜることにより、ストレートコーヒー単品だけではなし得ない味を、提供者側の意図にあわせて作り上げるための工程である。しかしながらその法則には定まったものがあるわけではなく、各ロースターが独自に考案したブレンドのレシピに従って行われる。インスタントコーヒーなど工業的生産の場では、香味等の品質を保つため8つ以上のタイプの豆が混合される。

粉砕

手動ミル

焙煎されたコーヒー豆は、抽出される前に粉状に細かく挽かれる。この工程をコーヒーの粉砕（グラインド）という。粉砕にはコーヒーミルと呼ぶ器具あるいはグラインダーと呼ぶ機械を用いるが、場合によっては乳鉢や石臼などが用いられることもある。コーヒーは焙煎された豆のままで販売される場合と工場で粉砕された後で販売される場合があるが、粉砕されると表面積の増加から空気酸化による品質低下が早まると言われているため、家庭用のコーヒーミルで抽出直前に挽いている人も多い。

粉砕されたコーヒーは粉の大きさに応じて、細挽き、中挽き、粗挽きと呼ばれる。粉砕粒子度合いと抽出法については、アメリカ商務省の推奨規格やそれを規定した専門書（具体的数値はコーヒーミルを参照）などがある。しかし多くの場合はそれらに直接従うことは少なく、当事者の経験や大まかな伝聞によって粒子度合いを決めていると考えられる。これらの挽き具合は、そのコーヒーがどのように抽出されるか、またどのような味にすることを望むかによって調整される。例えばエスプレッソではほとんど微粉に近い粉状になるよう極細挽きにして用いられる。

飲み物としてのコーヒー

飲み物としてのコーヒーは、直前にコーヒー豆から抽出して飲むレギュラーコーヒーと、レギュラーコーヒーから工業的に作られるもの（インスタントコーヒーや缶コーヒーなど）に大別できる（「レギュラーコーヒー」はインスタントコーヒーや缶コーヒーに対するレトロニムである）。コーヒーの淹れ方や飲み方は地域によってさまざまであり、また個人の嗜好によっても大きく異なる。

レギュラーコーヒー

焙煎されて粉砕されたコーヒーの粉は、湯または水に接触させることで中の成分を抽出し、我々が口にする飲み物としてのコーヒーが出来上がる。このときの抽出方法、すなわちコーヒーの淹れ方には様々な方法が存在する。コーヒー専用の抽出器具が多く考案されており、それぞれの淹れ方は用いる器具の名前で呼ばれることが多い。

コーヒーの風味は、焙煎の度合いや挽き加減（細かく、粗く等）、淹れ方や用いる器具などにより異なるが、それぞれの持ち味があるのに加えて本人の嗜好の問題であるため、万人が最善の方法だというものは存在しない。

濾過

ドリップ

ウォータードリップ（水出し）: 専用の機材を用い水でコーヒーを抽出する方法。点滴のように少しずつ水を落として抽出するため、1杯辺り8時間程度を目安とする。抽出する器具もインテリアとして活用される。近年、安価な器具が登場し、一般の家庭でも楽しめるまでになっている。オランダ領時代のインドネシアで、ドリップ式では苦みが強く出てしまうロブスタ種のコーヒー豆を飲むために考案されたことからダッチコーヒーとも言う。現在ではアラビカ種の豆にも用いており、繊細な風味を活かすための方法である。
ペーパードリップ: 日本で最も普及していると思われる淹れ方。ドリッパー（一種の漏斗）にフィルタ（漉し紙）をセットし、粉を入れ適量の湯を注ぎ、30秒程度蒸らした後に抽出を開始する。ドリッパの湯が完全に切れる前に外すと雑味の無いコーヒーとなる。; 前述の手順さえ守れば誰でも一定水準のコーヒーが淹れられるのがこの方式の最大の利点である。; ペーパードリップの方法は、1908年にドイツ人女性メリタ・ベンツが考案した。; メリタ式（抽出穴1つ）とカリタ式（同3つ）が存在し、最適なメッシュ（挽き具合）が異なるとされている。一般的に、メリタの方が細挽きで抽出される。抽出法の違いは、メリタ式が杯数分の湯を全量フィルターに投入し滴下しきるのを待つのに対し、カリタ式は湯を投入し続け、フィルタの下のデカンタに杯数分滴下した段階でフィルタをはずし、フィルタ内の抽出中の湯（コーヒー）は廃棄する。従って、カリタの方が経験を要し、味のぶれる要素は大きいとも言える。; サイフォン社のコーノ式や、ハリオ社の製品等で「円錐ドリップ」と呼ばれるものが普及しつつある。これは、ペーパーフィルターに折った時にその形が円錐になるものを用い、それを円錐形のドリッパーにセットして使用する。ペーパーをセットした際に、円錐形のペーパーの先端がドリッパーの穴から少し飛び出すようになるのが特徴で、これにより抽出されたコーヒー液は、直接ペーパーの先端部分から容器に落ちる。別名「一点抽出法」、よりネルドリップに近い抽出様式になるように考案されたもので、同じ粗さのコーヒー粉を用いた場合、メリタ式やカリタ式よりも湯の透過速度が速い。; その他、ペーパーフィルターを用いた抽出法として松屋式やコーヒーバネット等のらせん状の金属の枠にペーパーをセットして抽出する方法や、一旦必要量の湯とコーヒー粉を容器で混合し、浮いてくる灰汁をすくって取り除いた後に数分置き、それをペーパーで濾して飲むという浸漬式との組み合わせのような方法、さらには一端にフィルターのセットされた外筒の中で湯とコーヒー粉を混合し、ゴムシールのついた内筒を押しこむことで空気圧をかけてろ過するという浸漬式との組み合わせのような方法（エアロプレス）も存在する。; コーヒーメーカーがもっとも多く採用している淹れ方でもある。
ネルドリップ: フィルタとして布（綿フランネル）を使用する抽出法。布と紙の材質の違いからペーパードリップよりもコーヒーに含まれる油分がより抽出されるのでペーパーでの抽出に比べてまろやかでボディ感のある味となる傾向があり、またペーパードリップのように紙の影響を受けない。味と香りは、抽出方法に大きく左右される。基本的にはドリッパーを使用しないためにドリッパーが温められることによりある程度抽出液の温度が保たれるペーパー式に比べ抽出時に抽出液の温度が下がりやすい。; ネルの取り扱いには注意を要する。使用後のネルはコーヒーの油膜の酸化を避けるため、直ちに洗浄し、冷水に浸けて保存する。臭いが移るのを避けるため、洗浄の際は洗剤の類を使用しない。新品のネルは抽出済みのコーヒー粉を入れた湯で煮沸し、洗浄後に使用する。
その他の濾過材: 濾過材に水分透過性のある岩石（溶岩など）や金属（金やステンレス鋼など）、セラミックスを用いた方法など、濾過材の種類よって様々なドリップ方法が考案されている。

エスプレッソマシン/マキネッタ

高温、高圧をもって一気に抽出するエスプレッソマシンと、飽和水蒸気を使用する直火式のマキネッタがある。詳細はエスプレッソ項を参照のこと。

煮沸後濾過

コーヒーサイフォン: サーバと漏斗から構成され、漏斗部にネルまたはペーパーフィルターをセットし、粉を入れる。サーバ部に水をいれ、加熱し、湯が漏斗部に上がったら頃合いを見計らって火から下ろす。; 最近^[いつ?]、アルコールランプやガスコンロ等を使用する直火式以外に電熱式も普及しつつある。
パーコレータ: コーヒー粉の入った籠状部分に湯を循環させ、抽出する。機材の構造が単純であるため、メンテナンスは非常に容易でキャンプ等で用いられるが、美味しく抽出するのには熟練を要する。

煮沸

トルココーヒー: ジェズヴェ（イブリック）という名の銅製または真鍮製のひしゃくのような形をした柄の深い小鍋に、深煎り細挽きの粉と水、砂糖を入れ直火にかける。かき混ぜながら煮沸し、煮立つ直前に火から離し落ち着いたら再度火にかける。これを2、3回繰り返し、表面の泡を消さないようにカップに注ぐ。; まず泡の味を楽しみ、粉の沈殿後に上澄みのみを飲用する。カップの底に粉が残ることから、この模様で運勢を占う「コーヒー占い」という習慣もある。; 概ね深入りの豆を、ターキッシュミルという専用のミルで微粉末状にしたものを使用する。砂糖以外にもカルダモンやクローブ、シナモン、コショウ等のスパイスを入れることもある。
ボイル: 単純な煮沸法。粉と水を鍋に入れて煮沸して抽出し、上澄みだけを飲む。北欧やギリシャで見られる淹れ方で、トルココーヒーに由来する淹れ方だと考えられる。

浸漬（しんせき、しんし）

フレンチ・プレス

コーヒープレス: 粉と湯をプランジャーポットと呼ばれる器具（他にもティーサーバー、カフェティエール、ボナポット、フレンチプレス、メリオールなど様々な呼称がある）に一緒に入れて抽出する。プランジャーと呼ばれる軸の先端には金属やナイロン製のフィルターが付いており、このプランジャーを押し下げて抽出済みのコーヒーかすを沈め、上澄み部分をカップに移す。イギリスではコーヒーを入れるのにペーパーフィルター式よりもこのプランジャーが普及している。スティーピングに近いものとなっている。
コーヒーバッグ: コーヒー粉を布製の袋に入れ、それを水や湯に付けて抽出する。
スティーピング: 単純な浸漬法。カップにコーヒーの粉と湯を加えてしばらく待ち、上澄みだけを飲む（コーヒーのテイスティング時にこの方法が用いられる）。

さまざまな飲み方

温度別

コーヒーは熱湯で抽出されることが多く、抽出されたそのままを、あるいは温め直されたものがホット・コーヒーとして飲まれる。夏場などには、専用に濃く抽出したコーヒーを冷やしてアイス・コーヒーとして飲まれることも多い。

ブラックコーヒー

抽出されたコーヒーに何も加えずそのまま飲むものをブラック・コーヒーあるいは単にブラックと呼ぶ。多くの場合は、これに砂糖とクリームなどの乳製品を別に添えて出される。この場合、砂糖（グラニュー糖、白砂糖など）やクリームは飲む人が自分の好みに応じて加える。「コーヒー通は専らブラックで飲む」という説を唱える人もいるが必ずしもそうとは言えず、むしろ本人の嗜好による。

英語でblackとは日本と同様、何も加えないことを指すこともあれば、砂糖の有無については問わずに乳製品を加えないコーヒーを指すこともある。また、日本国内で販売されている缶コーヒーで、いくつかの商品は「加糖ブラック」と表記されている。

バリエーション・コーヒー

また、上記した以外にも、牛乳やアルコール、香料などを加えて飲まれることがある。これらはバリエーション・コーヒー（アレンジ・コーヒー）と呼ばれる。エスプレッソやダッチ・コーヒーなど特殊な淹れ方をするコーヒーも、最も普及しているドリップ式のコーヒーと区別する目的でバリエーション・コーヒーに含めて述べられることが多い。

コーヒーのバリエーション

アイスコーヒー
カフェ・オ・レ

アイス・カフェ・オ・レ

エスプレッソ
カフェ・ラッテ
カプチーノ
ウィンナ・コーヒー
アイリッシュ・コーヒー
ダッチ・コーヒー
カフェ・ロワイヤル
アラビア・コーヒー: 浅煎りの豆を小鍋で煮出し、砂糖なしで飲む。
トルココーヒー: 細かく挽いた豆を（好みによって砂糖とともに）濃く煮出し、濾さずにカップに注いだものから上澄みだけを飲む。
ベトナムコーヒー: カップの底に練乳を入れた上にフレンチローストコーヒーを注いだもの。豆は深煎りしたロブスタ種を用いる。
コロンビア式コーヒー: ティントとも呼ばれる、黒砂糖を加えた沸騰した湯を用い、火を落してから粉を加え、数分静置して粉が沈んだところで上澄みだけ飲む。
インディアンコーヒー: 南インドで好まれるインド風カフェ・オ・レ。インド製のコーヒー・フィルターを使う。鍋にミルクを入れて温め、ミルクが沸騰直前に深煎で入れたコーヒーと、砂糖、塩少々を入れる。２つのカップを行き来させて、泡立てて飲む。
アメリカン・コーヒー: 湯で薄めたコーヒーとの認識が一般的であるためにバリエーション・コーヒーと言い難いが、本来は浅煎り豆から薄めに抽出したコーヒーのこと。アメリカで一時期コーヒー豆の高騰により少ない量でもおいしく飲めるように浅煎りを用いていたことが起源。

グリーンコーヒーはコーヒー豆の焙煎前の生豆をさすが、近年スマカフェなどのメーカーが独自の手法で成分を抽出し商品化した。

グリーン・コーヒー: 焙煎する前の生豆の状態から成分を抽出したコーヒーで、加熱で壊れやすいクロロゲン酸が効率的に摂取できることから、2011年のインドMallya HospitalのM.V.Nagendranらによる研究結果以降、アメリカを中心にブームが起こる。研究結果では血糖値減少効果、ダイエットと体脂肪の平均15.8%、BMI10.3％の大幅減少などが確認された。これに伴い生豆成分を手軽に飲めるように商品化もされており、植物抽出技術を持つスマカフェなどの会社による販売も行われている^[14]^[15]。

サルタナコーヒー: コーヒー豆ではなく、コーヒーの実を乾燥させたものを少し焙ってから煮出したもの。イエメンではギシルと呼ばれる。
コーヒーぜんざい: 小豆の餡を加えたコーヒー。生クリームやアイスクリームを同時に添えることも多い。餡コーヒー、あずきコーヒーとも。
鴛鴦茶（コーヒー紅茶）: 香港式で、別途淹れた紅茶と混ぜて、砂糖、練乳を加え、ホットまたはアイスで飲む。
レモンコーヒー: レモンティーの様にレモンスライスを浮かべ、アイスまたはホットで飲む。イタリア南部や中国香港で見られる。
フラッペ: ギリシャで飲まれているアイスコーヒーの一種で、グラスの中にインスタント・コーヒーの粉と水、練乳を加え、シェイカーでかき混ぜてから、氷を入れて飲む。かき混ぜる段階で泡がグラスの半分以上になるのが特徴。また練乳が入る為、かなり甘い。
塩コーヒー: 通常のコーヒーに少量の塩を加えたもの。コーヒーに塩味を付けるのではなく、苦みを抑えるのが目的のため、塩の量はひとつまみ程度にとどめる。
海軍風コーヒー: アメリカ海軍に伝わる塩コーヒーの一種。通常の1.5倍量のコーヒー粉に食塩少々を混ぜ、ドリップする。

レギュラーコーヒー以外のコーヒー

抽出の手間を掛けずに手軽にコーヒーを飲むためのものとして、インスタントコーヒー、缶コーヒー、リキッドコーヒーが工業的に生産されている。

日本における、缶コーヒー製品などの「コーヒー」表示は、「コーヒー飲料などの表示に関する公正競争規約」に基づく区分により、製品内容量100グラム中の生豆使用量によって、次の3種類に区分される。

コーヒー: 5グラム以上
コーヒー飲料: 2.5グラム以上5グラム未満
コーヒー入り清涼飲料: 1グラム以上2.5グラム未満

製品に乳固形分を3%以上を含むものは「乳及び乳製品の成分規格等に関する省令（乳等省令）」に基づき「乳飲料」となる。（カフェ・オ・レ、カフェ・ラッテ、コーヒー牛乳など）

インスタントコーヒー

詳細は「インスタントコーヒー」を参照

お湯で溶かして飲むタイプのコーヒー。公正競争規約上は中にコーヒー豆を含まず、コーヒー抽出液のみを原料とする製品に限られる（中にコーヒー豆を含むと「レギュラーコーヒー」扱いになる）。このため、2010年代に入り中にコーヒー豆を含む製品を含んだ総称として（特にネスレが他社との差別化のため、2013年9月出荷分から）「ソリュブルコーヒー」という呼称も使われるようになった。「ソリュブル」とは“溶け易い”の意。

缶コーヒー

詳細は「缶コーヒー」を参照

抽出・調味されたコーヒーを缶に充填したタイプのコーヒー。

リキッドコーヒー

ペットボトルや紙パックなどの容器に充填したタイプのコーヒー。ボトル入りのものはボトルコーヒーともいう。コーヒーを一杯分ずつ小分けにしたものとしてポーションコーヒーがある。

代用コーヒー

「たんぽぽコーヒー」および「どんぐりコーヒー」も参照

代用コーヒーとは、コーヒー豆以外の原料を使って造られたコーヒーを模した飲料である。

代用コーヒーについての最古の記録はフリードリヒ2世統治下のプロイセンで見られ、コーヒー豆の輸入超過を抑制し、国内ビール産業の保護を目的とした1777年のビール・コーヒー条例によってコーヒーに高い関税が掛けられることになった結果、その代用として庶民が代用品を飲む様になったと記されている。また、南北戦争中の米国や、第一次・第二次世界大戦の時にコーヒー豆の輸入が滞った地域（日本など）や、冷戦時の東欧諸国でも代用コーヒーが飲まれた。

代用コーヒーの原料としてはタンポポの根、ゴボウ、ジャガイモ、サツマイモ、百合根、サクラの根、カボチャの種、ブドウの種、ピーナッツ、大豆、ドングリ、アーモンド、オオムギ、トウモロコシ、チコリ、玄米、根セロリ、パンの耳、綿の種子、オクラの種子など。これらはたいてい煎ったものを粉末にし、お湯を注いで飲んだ。

代用コーヒーはあくまで代用品として考案されたものなので、コーヒーの安定供給が続いている地域・時代ではその消費量は少ない。しかし、代用コーヒーのほとんどはカフェインを含んでいないため、カフェインの摂取を避けている人がコーヒーの代わりに飲む場合がある。また大豆コーヒーなどは大豆の栄養価が評価され、健康食品として販売されている。価格については代用食品ではあるものの、本物のコーヒーよりもかなり高額な場合が多い。

飲料以外の用途

コーヒーには飲む以外に様々な用途がある。

食品原料

コーヒー豆から抽出したエキスを香り付けや味付けのために用いたもの
- ういろうなどの和菓子
- ビスケット、パン、ケーキなどの焼き菓子
- ガム、チョコレートなどの洋菓子
- コーヒーゼリーなどのチルドデザート類
- コーヒー牛乳などの清涼飲料・乳飲料
カルーア - コーヒー豆を使ったリキュール

ハイカロ炭

その他

染料
脱臭剤 - コーヒー豆の出し殻を使う。出し殻は応用範囲が広い。
成形木炭 - コーヒー豆の出し殻を木炭化し成形したもの。ハイカロ炭などの商品名で流通している。
コーヒー風呂: 焙煎した豆を荒挽きにして酵素を用いて自然発熱させた砂風呂形式の風呂、または抽出した飲用コーヒーをそのまま用いる風呂。家庭用にコーヒー粉末をティーバッグ状にして浴槽に入れる製品がある。
カタツムリ・ナメクジよけ - これらの種にはカフェイン成分が微量でも毒性として働く^[16]ため、コーヒーならびにコーヒー殻は有効である。

成分

コーヒーの成分

コーヒーの生豆には多糖を中心とする糖類、アミノ酸やタンパク質、脂質の他、コーヒーに含まれるポリフェノールであるクロロゲン酸、アルカロイドであるカフェイン（豆重量の1%程度）やトリゴネリン、ジテルペンであるカフェストールやカーウェオールなど、特徴的な成分が含まれている。

これらの成分は焙煎されることによって化学変化を起こし、その結果数百種類にのぼる成分が焙煎豆に含まれる。焙煎の初期にまず生豆中の水分が蒸発し、その後一連の焙焦反応と呼ばれる反応が起きる。多糖やタンパク質はこの過程で加熱分解され、それぞれ低分子の糖類やアミノ酸を生じ、さまざまなコーヒーの味と香りを生み出す。クロロゲン酸がこれらの分子と共に加熱されることで褐色色素が生じ、コーヒーの色を生み出す。この他、糖類のみの加熱により生じるカラメルや、糖類とアミノ酸によるメイラード反応なども色素の生成に関与する。これらの色素はコーヒーメラノイジンと総称される。コーヒーの揮発性成分としては約900種類の化合物が同定されている。中でもコーヒーの香りに大きな寄与をしている成分としては以下のものが知られている。甘い蜜様の香りを持つβ-ダマセノン、コーヒーの特徴的な香りを持つ2-フリルメタンチオール、トロピカルフルーツ的な香りを持つギ酸3-スルファニル-3-メチルブチル、カラメル様の香気を持つフラネオール、ホモフラネオール、ソトロン、ホモソトロン、木クレオソート様の香りを持つグアイアコール、4-ビニルグアイアコール、4-エチルグアイアコール、醤油様の香りを持つメチオナール、ナッツ様のロースト香を持つ2-エチル-3,5-ジメチルピラジン、2,3-ジエチル-5-メチルピラジン、バニラ様の香りを持つバニリンなどである。ダマセノンはカロチノイドの分解により、グアイアコール類とバニリンはリグニンの分解により、カラメル様の香りの化合物は糖類の分解により、ピラジンなどその他の化合物は糖類とアミノ酸からメイラード反応で生じるとされている。これらの分子はすべて、苦味や酸味、甘味などのコーヒーの味を決定する上でも重要である。

最終的に飲み物であるコーヒーの抽出液には、これらのうち水溶性の比較的高い成分が溶出される。抽出されたコーヒーは0.04%程度のカフェインを含むが、それ以外の多くの成分についてはほとんど解明が進んでいないのが現状である。

これらの成分はコーヒーの複雑な味と香りを生み出すだけでなく、覚醒作用に代表されるようなコーヒーのさまざまな作用の原因にもなる。

医薬的効果

コーヒーは発見当初から眠気防止や疲労回復などの作用を持つことに注目されてきた薬用植物である。しかしその一方、コーヒーが過度の刺激剤や興奮剤として働く可能性を指摘し、敬遠する人も存在している。一方で近年になってコーヒーの制癌作用や抗酸化作用が注目され始め、多くの検証データが発表された。このことからコーヒーが人体に及ぼす作用は医学・薬学的な関心を集め、さまざまな知見が得られている。2015年5月7日には国立がん研究センターなどの研究チームがコーヒーおよび緑茶を日常的に摂取する人が、そうでない人に比較し病気などで死亡するリスクが大幅に低減するとする調査結果をまとめた^[17]。

医学的・薬学的研究の結果から、コーヒーの作用としてほぼ合意が得られている作用には以下のようなものが挙げられる。

習慣性

コーヒーには軽度の習慣性があるとされる。これはカフェインによる作用だと言われている。カフェインには軽い依存症を引き起こす働きがある。また一日に300mg以上（コーヒー3杯に相当）のカフェインを常用する人には、カフェイン禁断頭痛と呼ばれる一種の禁断症状が現れることがある。これは最後のカフェイン摂取から24時間以上経過すると偏頭痛様の症状が現れるものである。このカフェイン禁断頭痛は症状が現れてから、カフェインを摂取することで30分以内に消失するが、カフェインを摂取しない場合は2日程度継続する。ただし、これらの症状は麻薬類やニコチン、アルコールと比較して、きわめて軽微なものだと考えられており、規制や年齢制限などは必要ないと考えられている。

急性作用

コーヒーを摂取後、数分から数時間に出てくる代表的な作用として次のものが挙げられる。これらの急性作用は遅くとも一日以内には消失するものであり、健常時には特に健康上の問題を引き起こすことはないと考えられている。しかしながら過度に摂取した場合やそのときの体調によっては、一過性に問題を起こすことがある。また、特に消化器疾患、高血圧、パニック障害などの疾患がある場合など、特定の患者や病態によっては、これらの通常は無害な作用が有害に働くことがあるため、注意が必要である。

中枢神経興奮作用（精神の高揚・眠気防止/不安・不眠）
骨格筋運動亢進作用（筋肉の疲労を取る/ふるえ）
血圧上昇
利尿作用
胃液分泌促進（消化促進/胃炎を悪化させる）
血中コレステロール(LDL, TC)増加
大腸ぜん動運動の亢進（緩下作用/下痢）

慢性作用

コーヒーを長期間に亘って飲用した場合についても、多くの疫学的研究が古くから数多く行われてきた。1980年までには「コーヒーが体に悪い」という視点からの報告が多かったが、それらの研究の多くは1990年代に、より精度を高めた追試によって否定されている。一方、1990年代からは「コーヒーが体に良い」という視点からの研究もなされている^[18]。

発症リスク低下（ほぼ確証）:パーキンソン病・大腸がん・直腸がん・2型糖尿病
リスク低下の報告あるが論争中 :アルツハイマー病・肝細胞がん・胆石
リスク上昇の報告あったが後に否定された:高脂血症・膵臓がん・心不全・十二指腸潰瘍
リスク上昇の報告あるが論争中:関節リウマチ・高血圧・死産リスク・骨粗鬆症・膀胱がん
発症リスク上昇（ほぼ確証）:（今のところ特になし）

コーヒーに含まれるクロロゲン酸にマルトースをグルコースに分解する酵素であるα-グルコシダーゼの阻害活性が認められ、ラットで食後の血糖上昇の抑制作用が認められた。カフェインにはα-グルコシダーゼ阻害活性は認められなかった^[19]。コーヒーをよく飲む人たちでは糖尿病発症のリスクが低くなる傾向が見られた^[20]。

制癌作用

国立がんセンターがん予防・検診研究センター予防研究部（津金昌一郎、田島和雄ら）の調査により、肺ガン抑制効果が確認された。これは約10年間にわたる40 - 60歳代の男女約9万人に対する追跡調査で、計334人が肝細胞がんと診断され、コーヒーの摂取と肝細胞がんになるリスクの関係を統計的に分析した。日常的にコーヒーを飲む人が肝臓がんになる率は10万人当たり約214人で、ほとんど飲まない人の場合は約547人。1日に1〜2杯の人よりも、3〜4杯の人の方がリスクが減ったとされ、研究チームはコーヒーに含まれる抗酸化作用をもつ成分の影響かとしている^[21]。ただし、津金昌一郎研究部長は2008年、「いずれにせよまだ研究途上」と語っている^[22]。

2009年、同研究部が実施したコーヒー摂取と肝がんとの関連に関する調査(対象者18815人、13年の追跡調査）では、「コーヒーをほとんど飲まない」人が肝がんを発生する割合を1とした場合、「1日1杯未満」の集団では0.67、「1日1〜2杯飲む」集団は0.49、「1日3杯以上」は0.54となり、癌になる割合がおよそ半減するというデータが得られた。クロロゲン酸やカフェインなどの成分が肝機能酵素活性を改善したり、肝細胞炎症を軽減させたりしたのではないか、という考えが示されている^[23]。

東京農工大学の研究グループは、試験管内の実験にてコーヒーに含まれるクロロゲンにガン細胞の転移を抑制する働きがあることを発見した。
スウェーデンのカロリンスカ（Karolinska）研究所が、複数の研究成果のメタ解析で、毎日2杯のコーヒーの摂取により、肝がんの発症リスクを約4割減少させることができることを明らかにした。この予防効果は、肝臓関連の既往症がある場合でも同等であった^[24]。
和歌山県立医科大学化学教室（当時）の岩橋秀夫教授らは実験により、コーヒーに含まれるクロロゲン酸がフリーラジカルの生成を阻害する仕組みを解明した。これはフリーラジカルの生成の阻害および、酸化の予防という二重の防御壁により、ガンを防ぐものと考えられている。
コーヒーは女性の浸潤結腸がんのリスクを低下させる^[25]。

ヒトに対する発癌性が疑われる

IARCは、コーヒー酸とコーヒー（膀胱癌のみ）をグループ2B：発がん性があるかもしれないもの、としている^[26]^[27]。

抗酸化作用: 2015年5月7日、日本の国立がん研究センターなどの研究チームがコーヒーおよび緑茶を日常的に摂取する人が、そうでない人に比較し病気などで死亡するリスクが大幅に低減するとする調査結果をまとめた。調査は19年間にわたる追跡で日本全国の40-69歳の男女約9万人に対し行われ、他の生活習慣などと合わせ質問し、コーヒーおよび緑茶を1日にどれだけ摂取するか、というものであったが、その結果コーヒーを1日に3 - 4杯飲む者はほとんど飲まない者に対し、死亡リスクが24%低かった（緑茶=1日1杯未満の者に対し、1日5杯以上飲む男性で13％、女性で17％低減。死亡リスクにかかわる年齢及び運動習慣などは影響を与えないよう統計学的に調整済み）。19年間では約13,0000人が死亡していた。同チームは、調査結果の原因をコーヒーに含まれるポリフェノール、緑茶に含まれるカテキンによる血圧降下作用、両方に含有されるカフェインが血管や呼吸器の働きを高めている可能性を指摘した。^[17]。

その他の健康情報

この他にも、経験的に言われている効用、さらには風説の類いまで含め、多くのコーヒーの作用が語られている。これらの中には、研究結果を誤解したもの、商用の宣伝目的と考えられるものなども含まれているため、他の健康ブームに乗った情報と同様、活用にあたっては注意が必要である。

麻薬中毒者やタバコをやめたい人などが、コーヒーを飲用することにより禁断症状がやや緩和されるという。
近年の研究では低血圧症、高血圧症の場合、血圧値を正常値に戻す働きがある事が指摘されている。また、善玉コレステロールを増やすなど心筋梗塞の予防にも役立つとの指摘もある。
コーヒーは「アルカリ性飲料」だとする主張。これは日本のコーヒーの業界団体である全日本コーヒー協会が昭和63年頃から行っていたキャンペーンの影響だと思われる。当時はコーヒーは健康に悪いと考える風潮があり、それに対抗するために喫茶店経営者などに配布した「コーヒー&ヘルス」という小冊子にこの記述があった。コーヒーはアルカリ性ではなく酸性（pH 5 - 6）を示す（梅干しは酸性を示すがアルカリ性食品であると表現するのと同様の理由と思われる）。
「酸化したコーヒーは体に悪い」という主張をする人がいる。コーヒー豆を保存するとき成分の酸化（特に脂質の酸敗）による品質低下が問題になること、抽出したコーヒーを保温しつづけると色素の酸化重合や過酸化水素などのフリーラジカルの生成がおきることが知られているが、健康との関係についての研究報告はまだ行われていない。^[28]
コーヒーにはポリフェノールの一種であるクロロゲン酸類を始め、豊富な抗酸化物質が含まれており、肌の張りをよくし老化を防止する効果があるといわれている。

文化

コーヒーにまつわる名言

「よいコーヒーとは、悪魔のように黒く、地獄のように熱く、天使のように純粋で、愛のように甘い。」―フランスの政治家、タレーラン＝ペリゴール
「コーヒーは地獄のように黒く、死のように濃く、恋のように甘くなければならない。」―トルコの諺
「数学者はコーヒーを定理に変える機械だ。」―ハンガリーの数学者、アルフレッド・レニー（英語版）^[29]
「私は自分の人生をコーヒースプーンで計り尽くした。」―詩人、T・S・エリオット『J.アルフレッド・プルーフロックの恋歌』

コーヒーを題材にした作品

音楽

コーヒーは歌曲の中で取り上げられることも多く、コーヒーそのものを題名に入れた曲も少なくない。

コーヒー・カンタータ（作曲：ヨハン・ゼバスティアン・バッハ BWV211 「そっと黙って、おしゃべりめさるな」 1732年）: バッハの世俗カンタータの一つで、コーヒー・マニアの娘と反コーヒー主義者の父親の争いを歌うコミカルな作品。バッハはコーヒー愛飲家であった。
一杯のコーヒーから（歌：霧島昇+ミス・コロムビア、作詞：藤浦洸、作曲：服部良一 1939年）: 日本の懐メロの曲。戦前から日本に喫茶店文化が根付いていたことを物語る曲でもある。
ブラック・コーヒー（Black coffee, 作詞：ポール・フランシス・ウェブスター作曲：ソニー・バーク 1948年）: コーヒーと煙草に浸る失恋の倦怠と絶望を歌ったブルージーなジャズ・スタンダード。1949年にサラ・ヴォーンが初録音してヒットした。日本では1954年デッカ録音のペギー・リー版が名唱として知られる。
コーヒールンバ（Moliendo Café, 作詞・作曲：Jose Manzo Perroni 日本語詞作詞：中沢清二）: ベネズエラのアルパ奏者ウーゴ・ブランコが録音し世界的にヒット、日本でもエキゾチックさが好まれて何度もリバイバルしている。曲のリズムは実際にはルンバではない。歌：西田佐知子（1961年）、国実百合（1991年國實唯理名義)、荻野目洋子（1992年）、井上陽水（2001年）、工藤静香（2002年）
コーヒーはいかが（ドイツ民謡、作詞：花岡恵）: 教育芸術社の音楽の教科書に掲載された。

映画

ドキュメンタリー映画「おいしいコーヒーの真実」ではエチオピアのコーヒー農家の実情を描いている。

コーヒーに関する風習など

エチオピアにはコーヒー・セレモニー（カリオモン）と呼ばれる風習がある。主催者が客に対してその場で焙煎・粉砕・抽出したコーヒーを振る舞い、みんなで回し飲みをするなど、日本の茶道と共通した部分も多い。
トルコやドイツでは、コーヒーを飲んだ後の残滓がカップの底に作る模様で運勢を占う、コーヒー占いを行うことがある。
会議などの合間にとる5分から15分程度の小休止をコーヒーブレイクと呼ぶ。会議の参加者らがコーヒーなどのソフトドリンクを飲みながら談笑することで気分転換を図る習慣から生まれた呼び名である。
「一緒に夜明けのコーヒー（あるいはモーニングコーヒー）を飲む」という言葉は、男女が深い関係になることの暗喩として用いられることがある。
モルモン教ではコーヒーは禁止されている。
十六進数のC0FFEEはCOFFEE（コーヒー）に見えることから、プログラミングにおけるプレイスホルダとして使われることがある。

脚注

^ ^a ^b 伊藤博『コーヒー事典』保育社、1994年、ISBN 978-4-586-50869-3
^ ^a ^b フリーランス雑学ライダーズ編『あて字のおもしろ雑学』 p.125 1988年永岡書店
^ 蜀山人として知られる。「本業は幕府の実直な役人…大阪の銅座や長崎奉行所にも転勤した。長崎には…外国船が近海に現れ始めたころで、ロシアの特使レザノフと会見している。オランダ船でコーヒーを飲み、日本初の体験記を残した。ただ、感想は「焦げ臭くして味ふるに堪ず」と素っ気なかった（「春秋」日本経済新聞2014年9月8日）。
^ 「弘前はコーヒーの街」宣言
^ 奥山儀八郎「かうひい異名熟字一覧（木版画）」『珈琲遍歴』四季社、1957年
^ http://www.lingviko.net/feng/loanword-zwfeng.pdf
^ ^a ^b 広瀬幸雄・圓尾修三・星田宏司『コーヒー学入門』人間の科学社、2007年、p.30-33
^ 説明として示した味に関する評価は、焙煎や抽出の状態や、生産地における栽培品種のトレンドの変化により大きく変わる。
^ コーヒー豆の銘柄としての「ブルーマウンテン」はコーヒーの品種としての「ブルーマウンテン」とは意味合いが異なる。
^ シンガーソングライター・井上陽水の著名な持ち歌で『コーヒールンバ』があるが、歌詞に出てくる「モカマタリ」はこれに該当。
^ コーヒー豆の銘柄としての「モカ」はコーヒーの品種としての「モカ」とは意味合いが異なる。
^ ドトールコーヒーの品質へのこだわり
^ エキストラコーヒーが守りつづけるこだわり
^ 日経メディカル2011/12/7 グリーンコーヒーのエキスに血糖コントロール改善の可能性
^ Summa cafe（日本語）
^ J. W. Armstrong and Earl Campbell, "Caffeine as a repellent for slugs and snails R.G.Hollingsworth" ネイチャー 2002年6月27日号 915ページ
^ ^a ^b Yahoo!ニュース（朝日新聞デジタル 5月7日(木)11時31分）コーヒーや緑茶、1日数杯で長寿効果 19年間追跡調査
^ 野田-光彦「コーヒーの医学 (からだの科学primary選書1) 」日本評論社 (2010)
^ ラットにおける食後の血糖値に及ぼすコーヒー豆の熱水抽出物の影響、立石絵美ほか、栄養学雑誌 Vol.62 (2004) No.6
^ 精神的要因、コーヒーと糖尿病との関連について、独立行政法人国立がん研究センター　がん予防・検診研究センター予防研究部
^ 米国がん専門誌JNCI16日号、2005年。朝日新聞平成17年2月17日記事。[1]
^ 市民公開講座質疑応答集がんの予防
^ 「肝がん」に罹るリスク　コーヒー飲むと減る(J-CASTニュース) - 国内 - livedoor ニュース 2009年08月06日19時26分
^ Gastroenterology誌2007年5月号
^ コーヒー摂取と大腸がんとの関連について | 現在までの成果 | 多目的コホート研究 | 独立行政法人国立がん研究センター　がん予防・検診研究センター予防研究部
^ CAFFEIC ACID (Group 2B) International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) - Summaries & Evaluations Last updated 08/21/1997
^ Agents Classified by the IARC Monographs, Volumes 1–106
^ なお、コーヒーの酸化と「コーヒーはアルカリ性飲料」とを結びつけて「新しいコーヒー＝アルカリ性で体にいい」「古いコーヒー＝酸化＝『酸』化＝体に悪い」という図式から健康との関係を説明しようとする人もいる。
^ 同じくハンガリーの数学者であるポール・エルデシュがこの言葉を気に入り、多用していた。そのため、エルデシュがこの言葉を"考えた"との誤解が根強い。

参考文献

田口護『プロが教えるこだわりの珈琲』NHK出版 ISBN4-14-187790-5
アントニー・ワイルド『コーヒーの真実』三角和代訳、白揚社、2009年。ISBN 978-4-8269-9041-7。

外部リンク

全日本コーヒー協会
International Coffee Organization（英語）

wiki en

[Wiki en表示]

Coffee is a brewed drink prepared from roasted coffee beans, which are the seeds of "berries" from the Coffea plant. Coffee plants are cultivated in over 70 countries, primarily in the equatorial regions of the Americas, Southeast Asia, India and Africa. The two most commonly grown are the highly regarded arabica, and the less sophisticated but stronger and more hardy robusta. The latter is resistant to the coffee leaf rust, Hemileia vastatrix, but has a more bitter taste. Once ripe, coffee beans are picked, processed, and dried. Green (unroasted) coffee beans are one of the most traded agricultural commodities in the world. Once traded, the beans are roasted to varying degrees, depending on the desired flavor, before being ground and brewed to create coffee.

Coffee is slightly acidic (pH 5.0–5.1^[1]) and can have a stimulating effect on humans because of its caffeine content. Coffee is one of the most popular drinks in the world.^[2] It can be prepared and presented in a variety of ways (e.g., espresso, cappucino, cafe latte, etc.). It is usually served hot, although iced coffee is also served. The effect of coffee on human health has been a subject of many studies; however, results have varied in terms of coffee's relative benefit.^[3] The majority of recent research suggests that moderate coffee consumption is benign or mildly beneficial in healthy adults. However, the diterpenes in coffee may increase the risk of heart disease.^[4]

Coffee cultivation first took place in Southern Arabia.^[5] The earliest credible evidence of coffee-drinking appears in the middle of the 15th century in the Sufi shrines of Yemen.^[5] In the Horn of Africa and Yemen, coffee was used in local religious ceremonies. As these ceremonies conflicted with the beliefs of the Christian church, the Ethiopian Church banned the secular consumption of coffee until the reign of Emperor Menelik II.^[6] The beverage was also banned in Ottoman Turkey during the 17th century for political reasons,^[7] and was associated with rebellious political activities in Europe.

Coffee is a major export commodity: it was the top agricultural export for twelve countries in 2004,^[8] the world's seventh-largest legal agricultural export by value in 2005,^[9] and "the second most valuable commodity exported by developing countries," from 1970 to circa 2000.^[10]^[11] This last fact is frequently misstated; see commodity market, below. Further, green (unroasted) coffee is one of the most traded agricultural commodities in the world.^[12] Some controversy is associated with coffee cultivation and its impact on the environment. Consequently, fair trade and organic coffee are an expanding market.

1 Etymology
2 History
- 2.1 Legendary accounts
- 2.2 Historical transmission
3 Biology
4 Cultivation
- 4.1 World production
- 4.2 Ecological effects
5 Nutrition
6 Production
- 6.1 Processing
- 6.2 Roasting
  - 6.2.1 Grading the roasted beans
  - 6.2.2 Roast characteristics
  - 6.2.3 Decaffeination
  - 6.2.4 Storage
- 6.3 Brewing
- 6.4 Serving
- 6.5 Instant coffee
7 Sale and distribution
- 7.1 Commodity market
8 Health and pharmacology
- 8.1 Method of action
- 8.2 General health
- 8.3 Health effects
  - 8.3.1 Potential benefits
  - 8.3.2 Potential risks
- 8.4 Caffeine and headaches
- 8.5 Withdrawal effects
- 8.6 Caffeine content
9 Coffeehouses
10 Social and culture
- 10.1 Prohibition
- 10.2 Fair trade
- 10.3 Folklore and culture
- 10.4 Economic impacts
- 10.5 Competition
- 10.6 Other uses
11 See also
12 References
- 12.1 Footnotes
- 12.2 Citations
- 12.3 Further reading
13 External links

Etymology

The first reference to coffee in the English language is in the form chaona, dated to 1598 and understood to be a misprint of chaoua^[14] (equivalent, in the orthography of the time, to chaova). This term and "coffee" both derive from the Ottoman Turkish kahve, possibly by way of the Italian caffè. In turn this derives from the Arabic qahwah (قهوة).^[15] This is traditionally held to have originally referred to a type of wine, whose etymology is given by Arab lexicographers as deriving from the verb qahā (قها, "to lack hunger") in reference to the drink's reputation as an appetite suppressant.^[15]^[16] It is sometimes alternatively traced to the Arabic quwwa ("power, energy") or to Kaffa, a medieval kingdom in Ethiopia whence the plant was exported to Arabia.^[15] Others with "equally little authority" even hold that the region was named after the drink.^[17] The connection to "Kaffa" has been disputed, however. The name qahwah is not used for the berry or plant (the products of the region), which are known in Arabic as bunn and Shoa as būn. Semitic had a root qhh "dark color", which, since "coffee" is dark in color, became a natural designation for the beverage. According to this analysis, the feminine form qahwah (also meaning "dark in color, dull(ing), dry, sour") was likely chosen to parallel the feminine khamr (خمر, "wine"), and originally meant "the dark one".^[18]

History

Over the door of a Leipzig coffeeshop is a sculptural representation of a man in Turkish dress, receiving a cup of coffee from a boy

Legendary accounts

According to legend, ancestors of today's Oromo people were believed to have been the first to recognize the energizing effect of the coffee plant,^[5] though no direct evidence has been found indicating where in Africa coffee grew or who among the native populations might have used it as a stimulant or even known about it, earlier than the 17th century.^[5] The story of Kaldi, the 9th-century Ethiopian goatherd who discovered coffee when he noticed how excited his goats became after eating the beans from a coffee plant, did not appear in writing until 1671 and is probably apocryphal.^[5] The original domesticated coffee plant is said to have been from Harar^[19] in Ethiopia.

Other accounts attribute the discovery of coffee to Sheikh Omar. According to the ancient chronicle (preserved in the Abd-Al-Kadir manuscript), Omar, who was known for his ability to cure the sick through prayer, was once exiled from Mocha, Yemen to a desert cave near Ousab. Starving, Omar chewed berries from nearby shrubbery, but found them to be bitter. He tried roasting the seeds to improve the flavor, but they became hard. He then tried boiling them to soften the seed, which resulted in a fragrant brown liquid. Upon drinking the liquid Omar was revitalized and sustained for days. As stories of this "miracle drug" reached Mocha, Omar was asked to return and was made a saint.^[20] From Ethiopia, the coffee plant was introduced into the Arab World through Egypt and Yemen.^[21]

Historical transmission

The earliest credible evidence of either coffee drinking or knowledge of the coffee tree appears in the middle of the 15th century, in the Sufi Muslim monasteries around Mocha in Yemen.^[5] It was here in Arabia that coffee seeds were first roasted and brewed, in a similar way to how it is now prepared. By the 16th century, it had reached the rest of the Middle East, Persia, Turkey, and northern Africa. Coffee seeds were first exported from Ethiopia to Yemen. Yemeni traders took coffee back to their homeland and began to cultivate the seed. The first coffee smuggled out of the Middle East was by Sufi Baba Budan from Yemen to India in 1670. Before then, all exported coffee was boiled or otherwise sterilised. Portraits of Baba Budan depict him as having smuggled seven coffee seeds by strapping them to his chest. The first plants grown from these smuggled seeds were planted in Mysore.^[22] Coffee then spread to Italy, and to the rest of Europe, to Indonesia, and to the Americas.^[23]

A coffee can from the first half of the 20th century. From the Museo del Objeto del Objeto collection.

In 1583, Leonhard Rauwolf, a German physician, gave this description of coffee after returning from a ten-year trip to the Near East:

A beverage as black as ink, useful against numerous illnesses, particularly those of the stomach. Its consumers take it in the morning, quite frankly, in a porcelain cup that is passed around and from which each one drinks a cupful. It is composed of water and the fruit from a bush called bunnu.

—Léonard Rauwolf, Reise in die Morgenländer (in German)

From the Middle East, coffee spread to Italy. The thriving trade between Venice and North Africa, Egypt, and the Middle East brought many goods, including coffee, to the Venetian port. From Venice, it was introduced to the rest of Europe. Coffee became more widely accepted after it was deemed a Christian beverage by Pope Clement VIII in 1600, despite appeals to ban the "Muslim drink." The first European coffee house opened in Rome in 1645.^[23]

A 1919 advertisement for Washington's Coffee. The first instant coffee was invented by inventor George Washington in 1909.

The Dutch East India Company was the first to import coffee on a large scale.^[24] The Dutch later grew the crop in Java and Ceylon.^[25] The first exports of Indonesian coffee from Java to the Netherlands occurred in 1711.^[26]

Through the efforts of the British East India Company, coffee became popular in England as well. Oxford's Queen's Lane Coffee House, established in 1654, is still in existence today. Coffee was introduced in France in 1657, and in Austria and Poland after the 1683 Battle of Vienna, when coffee was captured from supplies of the defeated Turks.^[27]

When coffee reached North America during the Colonial period, it was initially not as successful as it had been in Europe as alcoholic beverages remained more popular. During the Revolutionary War, the demand for coffee increased so much that dealers had to hoard their scarce supplies and raise prices dramatically; this was also due to the reduced availability of tea from British merchants,^[28] and a general resolution among many Americans to avoid drinking tea following the 1773 Boston Tea Party.^[29]

After the War of 1812, during which Britain temporarily cut off access to tea imports, the Americans' taste for coffee grew. Coffee consumption declined in England, giving way to tea during the 18th century. The latter beverage was simpler to make, and had become cheaper with the British conquest of India and the tea industry there.^[30] During the Age of Sail, seamen aboard ships of the British Royal Navy made substitute coffee by dissolving burnt bread in hot water.^[31]

The Frenchman Gabriel de Clieu took a coffee plant to the French territory of Martinique in the Caribbean, from which much of the world's cultivated arabica coffee is descended. Coffee thrived in the climate and was conveyed across the Americas.^[32] The territory of Santo Domingo (now the Dominican Republic) saw coffee cultivated from 1734, and by 1788 it supplied half the world's coffee.^[33] The conditions that the slaves worked in on coffee plantations were a factor in the soon to follow Haitian Revolution. The coffee industry never fully recovered there.^[34] It made a brief come-back in 1949 when Haiti was the world's 3rd largest coffee exporter, but fell quickly into rapid decline.^[35]

Meanwhile, coffee had been introduced to Brazil in 1727, although its cultivation did not gather momentum until independence in 1822.^[36] After this time massive tracts of rainforest were cleared for coffee plantations, first in the vicinity of Rio de Janeiro and later São Paulo.^[37] Cultivation was taken up by many countries in Central America in the latter half of the 19th century, and almost all involved the large-scale displacement and exploitation of the indigenous people. Harsh conditions led to many uprisings, coups and bloody suppression of peasants.^[38] The notable exception was Costa Rica, where lack of ready labor prevented the formation of large farms. Smaller farms and more egalitarian conditions ameliorated unrest over the 19th and 20th centuries.^[39]

Coffee has become a vital cash crop for many developing countries. Over one hundred million people in developing countries have become dependent on coffee as their primary source of income. It has become the primary export and backbone for African countries like Uganda, Burundi, Rwanda, and Ethiopia,^[40] as well as many Central American countries.

Biology

Illustration of Coffea arabica plant and seeds

Several species of shrub of the genus Coffea produce the berries from which coffee is extracted. The two main species commercially cultivated are Coffea canephora (predominantly a form known as 'robusta') and C. arabica.^[41] C. arabica, the most highly regarded species, is native to the southwestern highlands of Ethiopia and the Boma Plateau in southeastern Sudan and possibly Mount Marsabit in northern Kenya.^[42] C. canephora is native to western and central Subsaharan Africa, from Guinea to the Uganda and southern Sudan.^[43] Less popular species are C. liberica, C. stenophylla, C. mauritiana, and C. racemosa.

All coffee plants are classified in the large family Rubiaceae. They are evergreen shrubs or trees that may grow 5 m (15 ft) tall when unpruned. The leaves are dark green and glossy, usually 10–15 cm (4–6 in) long and 6 cm (2.4 in) wide, simple, entire, and opposite. Petioles of opposite leaves fuse at base to form interpetiolar stipules, characteristic of Rubiaceae. The flowers are axillary, and clusters of fragrant white flowers bloom simultaneously. Gynoecium consists of inferior ovary, also characteristic of Rubiaceae. The flowers are followed by oval berries of about 1.5 cm (0.6 in).^[44] When immature they are green, and they ripen to yellow, then crimson, before turning black on drying. Each berry usually contains two seeds, but 5–10% of the berries^[45] have only one; these are called peaberries.^[46] Arabica berries ripen in six to eight months, while robusta take nine to eleven months.^[47]

Coffea arabica is predominantly self-pollinating, and as a result the seedlings are generally uniform and vary little from their parents. In contrast, Coffea canephora, and C. liberica are self-incompatible and require outcrossing. This means that useful forms and hybrids must be propagated vegetatively.^[48] Cuttings, grafting, and budding are the usual methods of vegetative propagation.^[49] On the other hand, there is great scope for experimentation in search of potential new strains.^[48]

Cultivation

Coffee Plantation at Sakleshpur, Karnataka

Map showing areas of coffee cultivation:
r:Coffea canephora
m:Coffea canephora and Coffea arabica

a:Coffea arabica

The traditional method of planting coffee is to place 20 seeds in each hole at the beginning of the rainy season. This method loses about 50% of the seeds' potential, as about half fail to sprout. A more effective method of growing coffee, used in Brazil, is to raise seedlings in nurseries that are then planted outside at six to twelve months. Coffee is often intercropped with food crops, such as corn, beans, or rice during the first few years of cultivation as farmers become familiar with its requirements.^[44]

Of the two main species grown, arabica coffee (from C. arabica) is generally more highly regarded than robusta coffee (from C. canephora); robusta tends to be bitter and have less flavor but better body than arabica. For these reasons, about three-quarters of coffee cultivated worldwide is C. arabica.^[41] Robusta strains also contain about 40–50% more caffeine than arabica.^[50] Consequently, this species is used as an inexpensive substitute for arabica in many commercial coffee blends. Good quality robusta beans are used in traditional Italian espresso blends to provide a full-bodied taste and a better foam head (known as crema).^[51]

However, Coffea canephora is less susceptible to disease than C. arabica and can be cultivated in lower altitudes and warmer climates where C. arabica will not thrive.^[52] The robusta strain was first collected in 1890 from the Lomani River, a tributary of the Congo River, and was conveyed from Zaire (now the Democratic Republic of Congo) to Brussels to Java around 1900. From Java, further breeding resulted in the establishment of robusta plantations in many countries.^[53] In particular, the spread of the devastating coffee leaf rust (Hemileia vastatrix), to which C. arabica is vulnerable, hastened the uptake of the resistant robusta. Coffee leaf rust is found in virtually all countries that produce coffee.^[54]

Over 900 species of insect have been recorded as pests of coffee crops worldwide. Of these, over a third are beetles, and over a quarter are bugs. Some 20 species of nematodes, 9 species of mites, several snails and slugs also attack the crop. Birds and rodents sometimes eat coffee berries but their impact is minor compared to invertebrates.^[55] In general, arabica is the more sensitive species to invertebrate predation overall. Each part of the coffee plant is assailed by different animals. Nematodes attack the roots, and borer beetles burrow into stems and woody material,^[56] the foliage is attacked by over 100 species of larvae (caterpillars) of butterflies and moths.^[57]

Mass spraying of insecticides has often proven disastrous, as predators of the pests are more sensitive than the pests themselves.^[58] Instead, integrated pest management has developed, using techniques such as targeted treatment of pest outbreaks, and managing crop environment away from conditions favouring pests. Branches infested with scale are often cut and left on the ground, which promotes scale parasites to not only attack the scale on the fallen branches but in the plant as well.^[59]

The 2-mm-long coffee berry borer beetle (Hypothenemus hampei) is the most damaging insect pest to the world’s coffee industry, destroying up to 50 percent or more of the coffee berries on plantations in most coffee-producing countries. The adult female beetle nibbles a single tiny hole in a coffee berry and lays 35 to 50 eggs. Inside, the offspring grow, mate, and then emerge from the commercially ruined berry to disperse, repeating the cycle. Pesticides are mostly ineffective because the beetle juveniles are protected inside the berry nurseries, but they are vulnerable to predation by birds when they emerge. When groves of trees are nearby, the American yellow warbler, rufous-capped warbler and other insectivorous birds have been shown to reduce by 50 percent the number of coffee berry borer beetles in Costa Rica coffee plantations.^[60]

World production

2011 Top twenty green coffee producers
Rank	Country	Tonnes^[61]	Bags x1000^[62]	Market share
1	Brazil	2,609,040	43,484	33.1%
2	Vietnam	1,200,000	20,000	15.2%
3	Indonesia^{[note 1]}	495,000	8,250	6.3%
4	Colombia	468,000	7,800	5.9%
5	Ethiopia^{[note 1]}	390,000	6,500	5.0%
	Top 5 producers	5,162,040	86,034	65.6%
6	Peru	326,580	5,443	4.1%
7	India	319,980	5,333	4.1%
8	Honduras	270,000	4,500	3.4%
9	Mexico^{[note 1]}	258,000	4,300	3.3%
10	Guatemala^{[note 2]}	225,000	3,750	2.9%
11	Uganda^{[note 1]}	192,720	3,212	2.4%
12	Nicaragua	126,000	2,100	1.6%
13	Costa Rica	107,940	1,799	1.4%
14	Ivory Coast^{[note 1]}	96,000	1,600	1.2%
15	Papua New Guinea^{[note 2]}	84,900	1,415	1.1%
16	El Salvador	70,500	1,175	0.90%
17	Cambodia	64,980	1,083	0.83%
18	Ecuador^{[note 2]}	64,500	1,075	0.82%
19	Democratic Republic of the Congo	63,360	1,056	0.80%
20	Venezuela^{[note 2]}	60,000	1,000	0.76%
Total	World^{[note 3]}	7,875,180	131,253

Unripe coffee pods in Araku Valley, India

In 2011 Brazil was the world leader in production of green coffee, followed by Vietnam, Indonesia and Colombia.^[63] Arabica coffee seeds are cultivated in Latin America, eastern Africa, Arabia, or Asia. Robusta coffee seeds are grown in western and central Africa, throughout southeast Asia, and to some extent in Brazil.^[41]

Seeds from different countries or regions can usually be distinguished by differences in flavor, aroma, body, and acidity.^[64] These taste characteristics are dependent not only on the coffee's growing region, but also on genetic subspecies (varietals) and processing.^[65] Varietals are generally known by the region in which they are grown, such as Colombian, Java and Kona.

Ecological effects

A flowering Coffea arabica tree in a Brazilian plantation

A coffee farmer in rural Brazil

Coffee farmer, Yemen

Originally, coffee farming was done in the shade of trees that provided a habitat for many animals and insects.^[66] Remnant forest trees were used for this purpose, but many species have been planted as well. These include leguminous trees of the genera Acacia, Albizia, Cassia, Erythrina, Gliricidia, Inga, and Leucaena, as well as the nitrogen-fixing non-legume sheoaks of the genus Casuarina, and the silky oak Grevillea robusta.^[67]

This method is commonly referred to as the traditional shaded method, or "shade-grown". Starting in the 1970s, many farmers switched their production method to sun cultivation, in which coffee is grown in rows under full sun with little or no forest canopy. This causes berries to ripen more rapidly and bushes to produce higher yields, but requires the clearing of trees and increased use of fertilizer and pesticides, which damage the environment and cause health problems.^[68]

Unshaded coffee plants grown with fertilizer yield the most coffee, although unfertilized shaded crops generally yield more than unfertilized unshaded crops: the response to fertilizer is much greater in full sun.^[69] While traditional coffee production causes berries to ripen more slowly and produce lower yields, the quality of the coffee is allegedly superior.^[70] In addition, the traditional shaded method provides living space for many wildlife species. Proponents of shade cultivation say environmental problems such as deforestation, pesticide pollution, habitat destruction, and soil and water degradation are the side effects of the practices employed in sun cultivation.^[66]^[71]

The American Birding Association, Smithsonian Migratory Bird Center,^[72] National Arbor Day Foundation,^[73] and the Rainforest Alliance have led a campaign for 'shade-grown' and organic coffees, which can be sustainably harvested.^{[citation needed]} Shaded coffee cultivation systems show greater biodiversity than full-sun systems, and those more distant from continuous forest compare rather poorly to undisturbed native forest in terms of habitat value for some bird species.^[74]^[75]

Another issue concerning coffee is its use of water. According to New Scientist, using industrial farming practices, it takes about 140 liters (37 U.S. gal) of water to grow the coffee seeds needed to produce one cup of coffee, and the coffee is often grown in countries where there is a water shortage, such as Ethiopia.^[76]

Used coffee grounds may be used for composting or as a mulch. They are especially appreciated by worms and acid-loving plants such as blueberries.^[77] Some commercial coffee shops run initiatives to make better use of these grounds, including Starbucks' "Grounds for your Garden" project,^[78] and community sponsored initiatives such as "Ground to Ground".^[79]

Starbucks sustainability chief Jim Hanna has warned that climate change may significantly impact coffee yields within a few decades.^[80] A study by Kew Royal Botanic Gardens concluded that global warming threatens the genetic diversity of Arabica plants found in Ethiopia and surrounding countries.^[81]

Nutrition

Brewed coffee from grounds prepared with tap water contains 40 mg caffeine per 100 gram and no essential nutrients in significant content (table).^[82]

Coffee, brewed from grounds, prepared with tap water
Nutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz)
Energy	2 kJ (0.48 kcal)

Carbohydrates	0
Sugars	0
Dietary fiber	0

Fat	0.02

Protein	0.12

Vitamins
Thiamine (B1)	(1%) 0.014 mg
Riboflavin (B2)	(6%) 0.076 mg
Niacin (B3)	(1%) 0.191 mg
Vitamin B6	(0%) 0.001 mg
Folate (B9)	(1%) 2 μg
Vitamin C	(0%) 0 mg
Vitamin E	(0%) 0.01 mg
Vitamin K	(0%) 0.1 μg

Trace minerals
Calcium	(0%) 2 mg
Iron	(0%) 0.01 mg
Magnesium	(1%) 3 mg
Phosphorus	(0%) 3 mg
Potassium	(1%) 49 mg
Sodium	(0%) 2 mg
Zinc	(0%) 0.02 mg

Other constituents
Water	99.39 g
Caffeine	40 mg
Link to USDA Database entry
Units μg = micrograms • mg = milligrams IU = International units
Percentages are roughly approximated using US recommendations for adults. Source: USDA Nutrient Database

Production

Processing

Coffee berries and their seeds undergo several processes before they become the familiar roasted coffee. Berries have been traditionally selectively picked by hand; a labor-intensive method, it involves the selection of only the berries at the peak of ripeness. More commonly, crops are strip picked, where all berries are harvested simultaneously regardless of ripeness by person or machine. After picking, green coffee is processed by one of two methods—the dry process method, simpler and less labor-intensive as the berries can be strip picked, and the wet process method, which incorporates fermentation into the process and yields a mild coffee.^[83]

Then they are sorted by ripeness and color and most often the flesh of the berry is removed, usually by machine, and the seeds are fermented to remove the slimy layer of mucilage still present on the seed. When the fermentation is finished, the seeds are washed with large quantities of fresh water to remove the fermentation residue, which generates massive amounts of coffee wastewater. Finally, the seeds are dried.^[84]

The best (but least used) method of drying coffee is using drying tables. In this method, the pulped and fermented coffee is spread thinly on raised beds, which allows the air to pass on all sides of the coffee, and then the coffee is mixed by hand. In this method the drying that takes place is more uniform, and fermentation is less likely. Most African coffee is dried in this manner and certain coffee farms around the world are starting to use this traditional method.^[84]

Next, the coffee is sorted, and labeled as green coffee. Another way to let the coffee seeds dry is to let them sit on a concrete patio and rake over them in the sunlight. Some companies use cylinders to pump in heated air to dry the coffee seeds, though this is generally in places where the humidity is very high.^[84]

Some coffee undergoes a peculiar process, such as kopi luwak. It is made from the seeds of coffee berries which have been eaten by the Asian Palm Civet and other related civets, passing through its digestive tract. This process resulted in coffee seeds with much less bitterness,^[85] widely noted as the most expensive coffee in the world with prices reaching $160 per pound.^[86]

Roasting

The next step in the process is the roasting of the green coffee. Coffee is usually sold in a roasted state, and with rare exceptions all coffee is roasted before it is consumed. It can be sold roasted by the supplier, or it can be home roasted.^[87] The roasting process influences the taste of the beverage by changing the coffee bean both physically and chemically. The bean decreases in weight as moisture is lost and increases in volume, causing it to become less dense. The density of the bean also influences the strength of the coffee and requirements for packaging.

The actual roasting begins when the temperature inside the bean reaches approximately 200 °C (392 °F), though different varieties of seeds differ in moisture and density and therefore roast at different rates.^[88] During roasting, caramelization occurs as intense heat breaks down starches, changing them to simple sugars that begin to brown, which alters the color of the bean.^[89]

Sucrose is rapidly lost during the roasting process and may disappear entirely in darker roasts. During roasting, aromatic oils and acids weaken, changing the flavor; at 205 °C (401 °F), other oils start to develop.^[88] One of these oils, caffeol, is created at about 200 °C (392 °F), which is largely responsible for coffee's aroma and flavor.^[25]

Grading the roasted beans

Coffee "cuppers", or professional tasters, grade the coffee.

Depending on the color of the roasted beans as perceived by the human eye, they will be labeled as light, medium light, medium, medium dark, dark, or very dark. A more accurate method of discerning the degree of roast involves measuring the reflected light from roasted seeds illuminated with a light source in the near-infrared spectrum. This elaborate light meter uses a process known as spectroscopy to return a number that consistently indicates the roasted coffee's relative degree of roast or flavor development.

Roast characteristics

The degree of roast has an effect upon coffee flavor and body. Darker roasts are generally bolder because they have less fiber content and a more sugary flavor. Lighter roasts have a more complex and therefore perceived stronger flavor from aromatic oils and acids otherwise destroyed by longer roasting times.^[90] Roasting does not alter the amount of caffeine in the bean, but does give less caffeine when the beans are measured by volume because the beans expand during roasting.^[91]

A small amount of chaff is produced during roasting from the skin left on the seed after processing.^[92] Chaff is usually removed from the seeds by air movement, though a small amount is added to dark roast coffees to soak up oils on the seeds.^[88]

Decaffeination

Decaffeination may also be part of the processing that coffee seeds undergo. Seeds are decaffeinated when they are still green. Many methods can remove caffeine from coffee, but all involve either soaking the green seeds in hot water (often called the "Swiss water process")^[93] or steaming them, then using a solvent to dissolve caffeine-containing oils.^[25] Decaffeination is often done by processing companies, and the extracted caffeine is usually sold to the pharmaceutical industry.^[25]

Storage

Coffee is best stored in an airtight container made of ceramic, glass, or non-reactive metal.^[94] Higher quality prepackaged coffee usually has a one-way valve which prevents air from entering while allowing the coffee to release gases.^[95] Coffee freshness and flavor is preserved when it is stored away from moisture, heat, and light.^[94] The ability of coffee to absorb strong smells from food means that it should be kept away from such smells.^[94] Storage of coffee in the refrigerator is not recommended due to the presence of moisture which can cause deterioration.^[94] Exterior walls of buildings which face the sun may heat the interior of a home, and this heat may damage coffee stored near such a wall.^[94] Heat from nearby ovens also harms stored coffee.^[94]

In 1931, a method of packing coffee in a sealed vacuum in cans was introduced. The roasted coffee was packed and then 99% of the air was removed, allowing the coffee to be stored indefinitely until the can was opened. Today this method is in mass use for coffee in a large part of the world.^[96]

Brewing

Coffee beans must be ground and brewed to create a beverage. The criteria for choosing a method include flavor and economy. Almost all methods of preparing coffee require that the beans be ground and then mixed with hot water long enough to allow the flavor to emerge but not so long as to draw out bitter compounds. The liquid can be consumed after the spent grounds are removed. Brewing considerations include the fineness of grind, the way in which the water is to extract the flavor, the ratio of coffee grounds to water (the brew ratio), additional flavorings such as sugar, milk, and spices, and the technique to be used to separate spent grounds. Ideal holding temperatures range from 85–88 °C (185–190 °F) to as high as 93 °C (199 °F) and the ideal serving temperature is 68 to 79 °C (154 to 174 °F).^[97] The recommended brew ratio for non-espresso coffee is around 55 to 60 grams of grounds per litre of water, or two level tablespoons for a 5- or 6-ounce cup.^[98]

The roasted coffee beans may be ground at a roastery, in a grocery store, or in the home. Most coffee is roasted and ground at a roastery and sold in packaged form, though roasted coffee beans can be ground at home immediately before consumption. It is also possible, though uncommon, to roast raw beans at home.

The choice of brewing method depends to some extent on the degree to which the coffee beans have been roasted. Lighter roasted coffee tends to be used for filter coffee as the combination of method and roast style results in higher acidity, complexity, and clearer nuances^{[clarification needed]}. Darker roasted coffee is used for espresso because the machine naturally extracts more dissolved solids, causing lighter coffee to become too acidic.

Coffee beans may be ground in several ways. A burr grinder uses revolving elements to shear the seed; a blade grinder cuts the seeds with blades moving at high speed; and a mortar and pestle crushes the seeds. For most brewing methods a burr grinder is deemed superior because the grind is more even and the grind size can be adjusted.

The type of grind is often named after the brewing method for which it is generally used. Turkish grind is the finest grind, while coffee percolator or French press are the coarsest grinds. The most common grinds are between these two extremes: a medium grind is used in most home coffee-brewing machines.^[99]

Coffee may be brewed by several methods. It may be boiled, steeped, or pressurized. Brewing coffee by boiling was the earliest method, and Turkish coffee is an example of this method.^[100] It is prepared by grinding or pounding the seeds to a fine powder, then adding it to water and bringing it to the boil for no more than an instant in a pot called a cezve or, in Greek, a bríki. This produces a strong coffee with a layer of foam on the surface and sediment (which is not meant for drinking) settling at the bottom of the cup.^[100]

Coffee percolators and automatic coffeemakers brew coffee using gravity. In an automatic coffeemaker, hot water drips onto coffee grounds that are held in a paper, plastic, or perforated metal coffee filter, allowing the water to seep through the ground coffee while extracting its oils and essences. The liquid drips through the coffee and the filter into a carafe or pot, and the spent grounds are retained in the filter.^[101]

In a percolator, boiling water is forced into a chamber above a filter by steam pressure created by boiling. The water then seeps through the grounds, and the process is repeated until terminated by removing from the heat, by an internal timer,^[101] or by a thermostat that turns off the heater when the entire pot reaches a certain temperature.

Coffee may be brewed by steeping in a device such as a French press (also known as a cafetière, coffee press or coffee plunger).^[102] Ground coffee and hot water are combined in a cylindrical vessel and left to brew for a few minutes. A circular filter which fits tightly in the cylinder fixed to a plunger is then pushed down from the top to force the grounds to the bottom. The filter retains the grounds at the bottom as the coffee is poured from the container. Because the coffee grounds are in direct contact with the water, all the coffee oils remain in the liquid, making it a stronger beverage. This method of brewing leaves more sediment than in coffee made by an automatic coffee machine.^[102] Supporters of the French press method point out that the sediment issue can be minimized by using the right type of grinder: they claim that a rotary blade grinder cuts the coffee bean into a wide range of sizes, including a fine coffee dust that remains as sludge at the bottom of the cup, while a burr grinder uniformly grinds the beans into consistently-sized grinds, allowing the coffee to settle uniformly and be trapped by the press.^[103] Within the first minute of brewing 95% of the caffeine is released from the coffee bean.^{[citation needed]}

The espresso method forces hot pressurized and vaporized water through ground coffee. As a result of brewing under high pressure (ideally between 9–10 atm), the espresso beverage is more concentrated (as much as 10 to 15 times the quantity of coffee to water as gravity-brewing methods can produce) and has a more complex physical and chemical constitution.^[104] A well-prepared espresso has a reddish-brown foam called crema that floats on the surface.^[99] Other pressurized water methods include the moka pot and vacuum coffee maker.

Cold brew coffee is made by steeping coarsely ground seeds in cold water for several hours, then filtering them.^[105] This results in a brew lower in acidity than most hot-brewing methods.

Serving

Once brewed, coffee may be served in a variety of ways. Drip-brewed, percolated, or French-pressed/cafetière coffee may be served as white coffee with a dairy product such as milk or cream, or dairy substitute, or as black coffee with no such addition. It may be sweetened with sugar or artificial sweetener. When served cold, it is called iced coffee.

Espresso-based coffee has a variety of possible presentations. In its most basic form, an espresso is served alone as a shot or short black, or with hot water added, and is known as Caffè Americano. A long black is made by pouring a double espresso into an equal portion of water, retaining the crema, unlike Caffè Americano.^[106] Milk is added in various forms to an espresso: steamed milk makes a caffè latte,^[107] equal parts steamed milk and milk froth make a cappuccino,^[106] and a dollop of hot foamed milk on top creates a caffè macchiato.^[108] A flat white is prepared by adding steamed hot milk (microfoam) to a shot or two of espresso so that the flavour is brought out and the texture is unusually velvety.^[109]^[110] It has less milk than a latte but both are varieties of coffee to which the milk can be added in such a way as to create a decorative surface pattern. Such effects are known as latte art.

Coffee can also be incorporated with alcohol to produce a variety of beverages: it is combined with whiskey in Irish coffee, and it forms the base of alcoholic coffee liqueurs such as Kahlúa and Tia Maria. Coffee is also sometimes used in the brewing process of darker beers, such as a stout or porter.^{[citation needed]}

Instant coffee

A number of products are sold for the convenience of consumers who do not want to prepare their own coffee. Instant coffee is dried into soluble powder or freeze-dried into granules that can be quickly dissolved in hot water.^[111] Originally invented in 1907,^[112]^[113] it rapidly gained in popularity in many countries in the post-war period, with Nescafé being the most popular product.^[114] Many consumers determined that the convenience in preparing a cup of instant coffee more than made up for a perceived inferior taste.^[115] Paralleling (and complementing) the rapid rise of instant coffee was the coffee vending machine, invented in 1947 and multiplying rapidly through the 1950s.^[116]

Canned coffee has been popular in Asian countries for many years, particularly in China, Japan, South Korea, and Taiwan. Vending machines typically sell varieties of flavored canned coffee, much like brewed or percolated coffee, available both hot and cold. Japanese convenience stores and groceries also have a wide availability of bottled coffee drinks, which are typically lightly sweetened and pre-blended with milk. Bottled coffee drinks are also consumed in the United States.^[117]

Liquid coffee concentrates are sometimes used in large institutional situations where coffee needs to be produced for thousands of people at the same time. It is described as having a flavor about as good as low-grade robusta coffee, and costs about 10¢ a cup to produce. The machines can process up to 500 cups an hour, or 1,000 if the water is preheated.^[118]

Sale and distribution

Brazilian coffee sacks

Coffee ingestion on average is about a third of that of tap water in North America and Europe.^[2] Worldwide, 6.7 million metric tons of coffee were produced annually in 1998–2000, and the forecast is a rise to seven million metric tons annually by 2010.^[119]

Brazil remains the largest coffee exporting nation, however Vietnam tripled its exports between 1995 and 1999 and became a major producer of robusta seeds.^[120] Indonesia is the third-largest coffee exporter overall and the largest producer of washed arabica coffee. Organic Honduran coffee is a rapidly growing emerging commodity owing to the Honduran climate and rich soil.

In 2013 The Seattle Times reported that global coffee prices have dropped more than 50 percent year-over-year.^[121] In Thailand Black Ivory coffee beans are fed to elephants, whose digestive enzymes remove much of the beans bitter taste. After being collected from their dung, these beans can sell for as much as $1,100 a kilogram making it the most expensive blend in the world. Another blend, Kopi Luwak is made through a similar process after being digested by the Asian Palm Civet; but it is sold for somewhat less at $100–$600 a pound.^[122]

Commodity market

Coffee is bought and sold as green coffee beans by roasters, investors, and price speculators as a tradable commodity in commodity markets and exchange-traded funds. Coffee futures contracts for Grade 3 washed arabicas are traded on the New York Mercantile Exchange under ticker symbol KC, with contract deliveries occurring every year in March, May, July, September, and December.^[123] Coffee is an example of a product that has been susceptible to significant commodity futures price variations.^[124]^[125] Higher and lower grade arabica coffees are sold through other channels. Futures contracts for robusta coffee are traded on the London International Financial Futures and Options Exchange and, since 2007, on the New York Intercontinental Exchange.

Dating to the 1970s, coffee has been incorrectly described by many, including historian Mark Pendergrast, as the world's "second most legally traded commodity".^[11]^[126] Instead, "coffee was the second most valuable commodity exported by developing countries," from 1970 to circa 2000.^[10] This fact was derived from the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development Commodity Yearbooks which show "Third World" commodity exports by value in the period 1970–1998 as being in order of crude oil in first place, coffee in second, followed by sugar, cotton, and others. Coffee continues to be an important commodity export for developing countries, but more recent figures are not readily available due to the shifting and politicized nature of the category "developing country".^[11]

International Coffee Day, which is claimed to have originated in Japan in 1983 with an event organised by the All Japan Coffee Association, takes place on September 29 in several countries.^[127]^[128]^[129]

Health and pharmacology

Method of action

Skeletal structure of a caffeine molecule

The primary psychoactive chemical in coffee is caffeine, an adenosine antagonist that is known for its stimulant effects. Coffee also contains the monoamine oxidase inhibitors β-carboline and harmane, which may contribute to its psychoactivity.^[130]

In a healthy liver, caffeine is mostly broken down by the hepatic microsomal enzymatic system. The excreted metabolites are mostly paraxanthines—theobromine and theophylline—and a small amount of unchanged caffeine. Therefore, the metabolism of caffeine depends on the state of this enzymatic system of the liver.^[131]

General health

Extensive scientific research has been conducted to examine the relationship between coffee consumption and an array of medical conditions. The consensus in the medical community is that moderate regular coffee drinking in healthy individuals is either essentially benign or mildly beneficial. In 2012, the National Institutes of Health–AARP Diet and Health Study analysed the relationship between coffee drinking and mortality. They found that the amount of coffee consumed correlated negatively with risk of death, and that those who drank any coffee lived longer than those who did not.^[132] However the authors noted, "whether this was a causal or associational finding cannot be determined from our data." A similar study with similar results was published in the New England Journal of Medicine in 2012.^[132] Researchers involved in an ongoing 22-year study by the Harvard School of Public Health stated that "Coffee may have potential health benefits, but more research needs to be done."^[133] A 2014 meta-analyis found that coffee consumption (4 cups/day) was inversely associated with all-cause mortality (a 16% lower risk), as well as cardiovascular disease mortality specifically (a 21% lower risk from drinking 3 cups/day), but not with cancer mortality.^[134]

Findings have also been contradictory as to whether coffee has any specific health benefits, and results are similarly conflicting regarding the potentially harmful effects of coffee consumption.^[3] Furthermore, results and generalizations are complicated by differences in age, gender, health status, and serving size.

Health effects

Potential benefits

Coffee is no longer thought to be a risk factor for coronary heart disease.^[135] A 2012 meta-analysis concluded that people who drank moderate amounts of coffee had a lower rate of heart failure, with the biggest effect found for those who drank more than four cups a day.^[136] Moreover, in one study, habitual coffee consumption was associated with improved vascular function.^[137]^[138]

In a ten-year study among 50,739 US women (mean age, 63 years) free of depressive symptoms at baseline (in 1996), coffee consumption was negatively correlated with risk of developing clinical depression.^[139] A review published in 2004 indicated a negative correlation between suicide rates and coffee consumption.^[140] It was suggested that the action of caffeine in blocking the inhibitory effects of adenosine on dopamine nerves in the brain reduced feelings of depression.^[140]

Polyphenols in coffee have been shown to affect free radicals in vitro,^[141] but there is no evidence that this effect occurs in humans. Polyphenol levels vary depending on how beans are roasted as well as for how long. As interpreted by the Linus Pauling Institute and the European Food Safety Authority, dietary polyphenols, such as those ingested by consuming coffee, have little or no direct antioxidant value following ingestion.^[142]^[143]^[144]

Potential risks

Coffee's adverse effects are more common when taken in excess, with potential health risks due mainly to its caffeine content and can therefore be avoided by drinking less coffee or using decaffeinated coffee.

Oily components called diterpenes are present in unfiltered coffee and coffee brewed using metal filters, but not in coffee brewed using paper filters.^[4]

Moderate amounts of coffee (50–100 mg of caffeine or 5–10 g of coffee powder a day) are well tolerated by most elderly people.^[131] Long-term studies of both risk and potential benefit of coffee consumption by elderly people, including assessment on symptoms of Alzheimer's disease and cognitive impairment, are not conclusive, according to one 2015 review.^[145]

Coffee consumption can lead to iron deficiency anemia by interfering with iron absorption, especially in mothers and infants.^[146]^[147]

Although some chemicals in coffee are carcinogens in rodents at very high doses, research suggests that they are not dangerous at the levels consumed by humans.^[148] Instant coffee has a much greater amount of acrylamide than brewed coffee.^[149] Coffee caffeine may aggravate pre-existing conditions such as migraines, arrhythmias, and cause sleep disturbances. It was once thought that coffee aggravates gastroesophageal reflux disease but recent research suggests no link.^[150]

Caffeine can cause anxiety, especially in high doses and in those with pre-existing anxiety disorders.^[151]^[152]

Some research suggests that a minority of moderate regular caffeine consumers experience some amount of clinical depression, anxiety, low vigor, or fatigue when discontinuing their caffeine use.^[153] However, the methodology of the these studies has been criticized.^[151] Withdrawal effects are more common and better documented in heavy caffeine users.^[154]

About 15% of the U.S. general population reports having stopped drinking coffee altogether, citing concerns about their health and the unpleasant side effects of caffeine.^[155]

Caffeine and headaches

Caffeine alleviates headaches acutely and is used medically for this purpose, and is generally used in combination with a painkiller such as ibuprofen. However, chronic caffeine use and withdrawal can cause headaches. Research has consistently linked caffeine withdrawal to headaches, even in those who drink coffee in moderation.^[156] Additionally, studies have suggested that those that drink four or more cups of coffee a day experience headaches more often than controls, even without discontinuing their coffee consumption.^[157]^[158]

Withdrawal effects

Caffeine withdrawal causes consistent effects typical of physical dependence,^[159] including headaches, mood changes and the possibility of reduced cerebral blood flow.^[159]^[160]

Caffeine content

Coffee, brewed, espresso, restaurant-prepared
Nutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz)
Energy	8.4 kJ (2.0 kcal)

Carbohydrates	0.

Fat	0.2

Protein	0.1

Vitamins
Riboflavin (B2)	(17%) 0.2 mg
Niacin (B3)	(35%) 5.2 mg

Trace minerals
Magnesium	(23%) 80 mg

Other constituents
Water	97.8 g
Theobromine	0 mg
Caffeine	212 mg
Units μg = micrograms • mg = milligrams IU = International units
Percentages are roughly approximated using US recommendations for adults.

Depending on the type of coffee and method of preparation, the caffeine content of a single serving can vary greatly.^[161]^[162]^[163]^[164] The caffeine content of a cup of coffee varies depending mainly on the brewing method, and also on the variety of seed.^[165] According to the USDA National Nutrient Database, an 8-ounce (237 ml) cup of "coffee brewed from grounds" contains 95 mg caffeine, whereas an espresso (25 ml) contains 53 mg.^[166]

According to an article in the Journal of the American Dietetic Association, coffee has the following caffeine content, depending on how it is prepared:^[162]

	Serving size	Caffeine content
Brewed	7 oz, 207 ml	80–135 mg
Drip	7 oz, 207 ml	115–175 mg
Espresso	1.5–2 oz, 45–60 ml	100 mg

While the percent of caffeine content in coffee seeds themselves diminishes with increased roast level, the opposite is true for coffee brewed from different grinds and brewing methods using the same proportion of coffee to water volume. The coffee sack (similar to the French press and other steeping methods) extracts more caffeine from dark roasted seeds; the percolator and espresso methods extract more caffeine from light roasted seeds:^[167]^{[clarification needed What are the units?]}

	Light roast	Medium roast	Dark roast
Coffee sack – coarse grind	0.046	0.045	0.054
Percolator – coarse grind	0.068	0.065	0.060
Espresso – fine grind	0.069	0.062	0.061

^[168]

Coffea arabica normally contains about half the caffeine of Coffea robusta. A Coffea arabica bean containing very little caffeine was discovered in Ethiopia in 2004.^[168]

See Low caffeine coffee.

Coffeehouses

Coffeehouse in Palestine (c.1900)

Widely known as coffeehouses or cafés, establishments serving prepared coffee or other hot beverages have existed for over five hundred years. Various legends involving the introduction of coffee to Istanbul at a "Kiva Han" in the late 15th century circulate in culinary tradition, but with no documentation.^[169]

Coffeehouses in Mecca became a concern as places for political gatherings to the imams who banned them, and the drink, for Muslims between 1512 and 1524. In 1530 the first coffeehouse was opened in Damascus.^[170] First coffeehouses in Constantinople was opened in 1475^[171] by traders arriving from Damascus and Aleppo. Soon after, coffeehouses became part of the Ottoman Culture, spreading rapidly to all regions of the Ottoman Empire.

First patent for the espresso machine, Angelo Moriondo (1884)

Barista at work, Finland (2005)

In the 17th century, coffee appeared for the first time in Europe outside the Ottoman Empire, and coffeehouses were established and quickly became popular. The first coffeehouses in Western Europe appeared in Venice, as a result of the traffic between La Serenissima and the Ottomans; the very first one is recorded in 1645. The first coffeehouse in England was set up in Oxford in 1650 by a Jewish man named Jacob in the building now known as "The Grand Cafe". A plaque on the wall still commemorates this and the Cafe is now a trendy cocktail bar.^[172] By 1675, there were more than 3,000 coffeehouses in England.^[173]

After the second Turkish siege of Vienna in 1683, the Viennese discovered many bags of coffee in the abandoned Ottoman encampment. Using this captured stock, a Polish soldier named Kulczycki opened the first coffeehouse in Vienna.^[174]

In 1672 an Armenian named Pascal established a coffee stall in Paris that was ultimately unsuccessful and the city had to wait until 1689 for its first coffeehouse when Procopio Cutò opened the Café Procope. This coffeehouse still exists today and was a major meeting place of the French Enlightenment; Voltaire, Rousseau, and Denis Diderot frequented it, and it is arguably the birthplace of the Encyclopédie, the first modern encyclopedia.^[175] America had its first coffeehouse in Boston, in 1676.^[176] Coffee, tea and beer were often served together in establishments which functioned both as coffeehouses and taverns; one such was the Green Dragon in Boston, where John Adams, James Otis and Paul Revere planned rebellion.^[30]

The modern espresso machine was invented in Milan in 1945 by Achille Gaggia,^[177] and from there spread across coffeehouses and restaurants across Italy and the rest of Europe and North America in the early 1950s. An Italian named Pino Riservato opened the first espresso bar, the Moka Bar, in Soho in 1952, and there were 400 such bars in London alone by 1956. Cappucino was particularly popular among English drinkers.^[178] Similarly in the United States, the espresso craze spread. North Beach in San Francisco saw the opening of the Caffe Trieste in 1957, which saw Beat Generation poets such as Allen Ginsberg and Bob Kaufman alongside bemused Italian immigrants.^[178] Similar such cafes existed in Greenwich Village and elsewhere.^[178]

The first Peet's Coffee & Tea store opened in 1966 in Berkeley, California by Dutch native Alfred Peet. He chose to focus on roasting batches with fresher, higher quality seeds than was the norm at the time. He was a trainer and supplier to the founders of Starbuck’s.^[179]

The international coffeehouse chain Starbucks began as a modest business roasting and selling quality coffee beans in 1971, by three college students Jerry Baldwin, Gordon Bowker and Zev Siegl. The first store opened on March 30, 1971 at the Pike Place Market in Seattle, followed by a second and third over the next two years.^[180] Entrepreneur Howard Schultz joined the company in 1982 as Director of Retail Operations and Marketing, and pushed to sell premade espresso coffee. The others were reluctant, but Schultz opened Il Giornale in Seattle in April 1986.^[181] He bought the other owners out in March 1987 and pushed on with plans to expand—from 1987 to the end of 1991, the chain (rebranded from Il Giornale to Starbucks) expanded to over 100 outlets.^[182] The company has 16,600 stores in over 40 countries worldwide.^[183]

South Korea experienced almost 900 percent growth in the number of coffee shops in the country between 2006 and 2011. The capital city Seoul now has the highest concentration of coffee shops in the world, with more than 10,000 cafes and coffeehouses.^[184]

A contemporary term for a person who makes coffee beverages, often a coffeehouse employee, is a barista. The Specialty Coffee Association of Europe and the Specialty Coffee Association of America have been influential in setting standards and providing training.^[185]

Social and culture

A coffee-house in Constantinople (modern day Istanbul), 1826

Coffee is often consumed alongside (or instead of) breakfast by many at home. It is often served at the end of a meal, normally with a dessert, and at times with an after-dinner mint especially when consumed at a restaurant or dinner party.

Prohibition

The Coffee Bearer, Orientalist painting by John Frederick Lewis (1857)

Coffee was initially used for spiritual reasons. At least 1,100 years ago, traders brought coffee across the Red Sea into Arabia (modern-day Yemen), where Muslim dervishes began cultivating the shrub in their gardens. At first, the Arabians made wine from the pulp of the fermented coffee berries. This beverage was known as qishr (kisher in modern usage) and was used during religious ceremonies.^[186]

Coffee drinking was prohibited by jurists and scholars (ulema) meeting in Mecca in 1511 as haraam, but the subject of whether it was intoxicating was hotly debated over the next 30 years until the ban was finally overturned in the mid-16th century.^[187] Use in religious rites among the Sufi branch of Islam led to coffee's being put on trial in Mecca: it was accused of being a heretical substance, and its production and consumption were briefly repressed. It was later prohibited in Ottoman Turkey under an edict by the Sultan Murad IV.^[7]

Coffee, regarded as a Muslim drink, was prohibited by Ethiopian Orthodox Christians until as late as 1889; it is now considered a national drink of Ethiopia for people of all faiths. Its early association in Europe with rebellious political activities led to Charles II outlawing coffeehouses from January 1676 (although the uproar created forced the monarch to back down two days before the ban was due to come into force).^[30] Frederick the Great banned it in Prussia in 1777 for nationalistic and economic reasons; concerned about the price of import, he sought to force the public back to consuming beer.^[188] Lacking coffee-producing colonies, Prussia had to import all its coffee at a great cost.^[189]

A contemporary example of religious prohibition of coffee can be found in The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints.^[190] The organization holds that it is both physically and spiritually unhealthy to consume coffee.^[191] This comes from the Mormon doctrine of health, given in 1833 by founder Joseph Smith in a revelation called the Word of Wisdom. It does not identify coffee by name, but includes the statement that "hot drinks are not for the belly," which has been interpreted to forbid both coffee and tea.^[191]

Quite a number of members of the Seventh-day Adventist Church also avoid caffeinated drinks. In its teachings, the Church encourages members to avoid tea and coffee and other stimulants. Abstinence from coffee, tobacco and alcohol by many Adventists has afforded a near unique opportunity for studies to be conducted within that population group on the health effects of coffee drinking, free from confounding factors. One study was able to show a weak but statistically significant association between coffee consumption and mortality from ischemic heart disease, other cardiovascular disease, all cardiovascular diseases combined, and all causes of death.^[192]

For a time, there had been controversy in the Jewish community over whether the coffee seed was a legume and therefore prohibited for Passover. Upon petition from coffeemaker Maxwell House, the coffee seed was classified in 1923 as a berry rather than a seed by orthodox Jewish rabbi Hersch Kohn, and therefore kosher for Passover.^[193]

Fair trade

Small-sized bag of coffee beans

The concept of fair trade labeling, which guarantees coffee growers a negotiated preharvest price, began with the Max Havelaar Foundation's labeling program in the Netherlands. In 2004, 24,222 metric tons (of 7,050,000 produced worldwide) were fair trade; in 2005, 33,991 metric tons out of 6,685,000 were fair trade, an increase from 0.34% to 0.51%.^[194]^[195] A number of fair trade impact studies have shown that fair trade coffee produces a mixed impact on the communities that grow it. Many studies are skeptical about fair trade, reporting that it often worsens the bargaining power of those who are not part of it. Coffee was incorporated into the fair-trade movement in 1988, when the Max Havelaar mark was introduced in the Netherlands. The very first fair-trade coffee was an effort to import a Guatemalan coffee into Europe as "Indio Solidarity Coffee".^[196]

Since the founding of organisations such as the European Fair Trade Association (1987), the production and consumption of fair trade coffee has grown as some local and national coffee chains started to offer fair trade alternatives.^[197]^[198] For example, in April 2000, after a year-long campaign by the human rights organization Global Exchange, Starbucks decided to carry fair-trade coffee in its stores.^[199] Since September 2009 all Starbucks Espresso beverages in UK and Ireland are made with Fairtrade and Shared Planet certified coffee.^[200]

A 2005 study done in Belgium concluded that consumers' buying behavior is not consistent with their positive attitude toward ethical products. On average 46% of European consumers claimed to be willing to pay substantially more for ethical products, including fair-trade products such as coffee.^[199] The study found that the majority of respondents were unwilling to pay the actual price premium of 27% for fair trade coffee.^[199]

Folklore and culture

The Oromo people would customarily plant a coffee tree on the graves of powerful sorcerers. They believed that the first coffee bush sprang up from the tears that the god of heaven shed over the corpse of a dead sorcerer.^[201]

Johann Sebastian Bach was inspired to compose the Coffee Cantata, about dependence on the beverage.^[202]

Economic impacts

Map of coffee areas in Brazil

Market volatility, and thus increased returns, during 1830 encouraged Brazilian entrepreneurs to shift their attention from gold to coffee, a crop hitherto reserved for local consumption. Concurrent with this shift was the commissioning of vital infrastructures, including approximately 7,000 km of railroads between 1860 and 1885. The creation of these railways enabled the importation of workers, in order to meet the enormous need for labor. This development primarily affected the State of Rio de Janeiro, as well as the Southern States of Brazil, most notably São Paulo, due to its favourable climate, soils, and terrain.^[203]

Coffee production attracted immigrants in search of better economic opportunities in the early 1900s. Mainly, these were Portuguese, Italian, Spanish, German, and Japanese nationals. For instance, São Paulo received approximately 733,000 immigrants in the decade preceding 1900, whilst only receiving approximately 201,000 immigrants in the six years to 1890. The production yield of coffee increases. In 1880, São Paulo produced 1.2 million bags (25% of total production), in 1888 2.6 million (40%), in 1902 8 million bags (60%).^[204] Coffee is then 63% of the country's exports. The gains made by this trade allow sustained economic growth in the country.

The four years between planting a coffee and the first harvest extends seasonal variations in the price of coffee. The Brazilian Government is thus forced, to some extent, to keep strong price subsidies during production periods.

Competition

Coffee competitions take place across the globe with people at the regional competing to achieve national titles and then compete on the international stage. World Coffee Events holds the largest of such events moving the location of the final competition each year. The competition includes the following events: Barista Championship, Brewers Cup, Latte Art and Cup Tasters. A World Brewer's Cup Championship takes place in Melbourne, Australia, every year that houses contestants from around the world^[205] to crown the World's Coffee King.^[206]^[207]

Other uses

While coffee is most well known as a beverage, it is also used as an ingredient in cooking. Recipes with coffee as a main or essential ingredient include North American pumpernickel, red-eye gravy, and tiramisu, among others. Coffee sauce is a culinary sauce that includes coffee in its preparation.

References

Footnotes

^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e Unofficial figure
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d FAO estimate
^ Aggregate (may include official, semiofficial, or estimates)

Citations

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^ ^a ^b Freedman, N. D.; Park, Y.; Abnet, C. C.; Hollenbeck, A. R.; Sinha, R. (2012). "Association of Coffee Drinking with Total and Cause-Specific Mortality". New England Journal of Medicine 366 (20): 1891–1904. doi:10.1056/NEJMoa1112010. PMC 3439152. PMID 22591295. edit
^ van Dam, Rob (September 18, 2012). "Ask the Expert: Coffee and Health". Harvard School of Public Health. Retrieved April 21, 2013.
^ Crippa, A; Discacciati, A; Larsson, SC; Wolk, A; Orsini, N (15 October 2014). "Coffee consumption and mortality from all causes, cardiovascular disease, and cancer: a dose-response meta-analysis.". American Journal of Epidemiology 180 (8): 763–75. doi:10.1093/aje/kwu194. PMID 25156996.
^ Wu, Jiang-nan; Ho, Suzanne C; Zhou, Chun; Ling, Wen-hua; Chen, Wei-qing; Wang, Cui-ling; Chen, Yu-ming (2009). "Coffee consumption and risk of coronary heart diseases: A meta-analysis of 21 prospective cohort studies". International Journal of Cardiology 137 (3): 216–225. doi:10.1016/j.ijcard.2008.06.051. PMID 18707777.
^ Mostofsky, E.; Rice, M. S.; Levitan, E. B.; Mittleman, M. A. (2012). "Habitual Coffee Consumption and Risk of Heart Failure: A Dose-Response Meta-Analysis". Circulation: Heart Failure 5 (4): 401–405. doi:10.1161/CIRCHEARTFAILURE.112.967299. PMID 22740040.
^ Siasos, Gerasimos; Tousoulis, Dimitris; Stefanadis, Christodoulos (2013). "Effects of Habitual Coffee Consumption on Vascular Function". Journal of the American College of Cardiology 63 (6): 606–607. doi:10.1016/j.jacc.2013.08.1642. PMID 24184234.
^ Siasos, G.; Oikonomou, E.; Chrysohoou, C.; Tousoulis, D.; Panagiotakos, D.; Zaromitidou, M.; Zisimos, K.; Kokkou, E.; Marinos, G.; Papavassiliou, A. G.; Pitsavos, C.; Stefanadis, C. (2013). "Consumption of a boiled Greek type of coffee is associated with improved endothelial function: The Ikaria Study". Vascular Medicine 18 (2): 55–62. doi:10.1177/1358863X13480258. PMID 23509088.
^ Lucas M et al. (September 2011). "Coffee, caffeine, and risk of depression among women". Archives of internal medicine 171 (17): 1571–1578. doi:10.1001/archinternmed.2011.393. PMC 3296361. PMID 21949167.
^ ^a ^b de Paulis, Tomas; Martin, Peter R (April 27, 2004). "Cerebral effects of noncaffeine constituents in roasted coffee". In Nehlig, Astrid. Coffee, Tea, Chocolate, and the Brain. London: Taylor & Francis. pp. 187–196. ISBN 0-415-30691-4.
^ Bakalar, Nicholas (August 15, 2006). "Coffee as a Health Drink? Studies Find Some Benefits". The New York Times. Retrieved January 26, 2010.
^ Williams, Robert J; Spencer, Jeremy P.E; Rice-Evans, Catherine (2004). "Flavonoids: Antioxidants or signalling molecules?". Free Radical Biology and Medicine 36 (7): 838–849. doi:10.1016/j.freeradbiomed.2004.01.001. PMID 15019969.
^ "Studies force new view on biology of flavonoids", by David Stauth, EurekAlert!. Adapted from a news release issued by Oregon State University
^ EFSA Panel on Dietetic Products, Nutrition and Allergies (2011). "Scientific Opinion on the substantiation of a health claim related to coffee C21 and reduction of spontaneous DNA strand breaks pursuant to Article 13(5) of Regulation (EC) No 1924/20061" (PDF). EFSA Journal 9 (12): 2465. doi:10.2903/j.efsa.2011.2465.
^ Panza F et al. (2015). "Coffee, tea, and caffeine consumption and prevention of late-life cognitive decline and dementia: a systematic review". J Nutr Health Aging 19 (3): 313–28. doi:10.1007/s12603-014-0563-8. PMID 25732217.
^ Dewey, Kathryn G; Romero-Abal, Maria Eugenia; Quan De Serrano, Julieta; Bulux, Jesus; Peerson, Janet M; Eagle, Patrice; Solomons, Noel W (1997). "Effects of discontinuing coffee intake on iron status of iron-deficient Guatemalan toddlers: a randomized intervention study". American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 66 (1): 168–176. PMID 9209186.
^ Muñoz, Leda M; Lönnerdal, Bo; Keen, Carl L; Dewey, Kathryn G (1988). "Coffee consumption as a factor in iron deficiency anemia among pregnant women and their infants in Costa Rica". American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 48 (3): 645–651. PMID 3414579.
^ Ames, Bruce N; Gold, Lois Swirsky (1998). "The causes and prevention of cancer: the role of environment". Biotherapy 11 (2–3): 205–220. doi:10.1023/A:1007971204469. PMID 9677052.
^ "Survey Data on Acrylamide in Food: Individual Food Products". Food and Drug Administration. July 2006 [December 2002]. Retrieved May 27, 2014.
^ Kim, J.; Oh, S.-W.; Myung, S.-K.; Kwon, H.; Lee, C.; Yun, J. M.; Lee, H. K. (2013). "Association between coffee intake and gastroesophageal reflux disease: A meta-analysis". Diseases of the Esophagus 27: 311–317. doi:10.1111/dote.12099. PMID 23795898.
^ ^a ^b Smith, A (2002). "Effects of caffeine on human behavior". Food and Chemical Toxicology 40 (9): 1243–1255 (1245, 1249). doi:10.1016/S0278-6915(02)00096-0. PMID 12204388. Retrieved February 12, 2010.
^ Broderick P, Benjamin AB (December 2004). "Caffeine and psychiatric symptoms: a review". The Journal of the Oklahoma State Medical Association 97 (12): 538–542. PMID 15732884.
^ Silverman, K; Evans, SM; Strain, EC; Griffiths, RR (October 15, 1992). "Withdrawal syndrome after the double-blind cessation of caffeine consumption". New England Journal of Medicine (Massachusetts Medical Society) 327 (16): 1109–1114. doi:10.1056/NEJM199210153271601. PMID 1528206. Retrieved February 12, 2010.
^ Butt, M.S.; Sultan, M.T. (2011). "Coffee and its consumption: benefits and risks". Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition 51 (4): 363–373. doi:10.1080/10408390903586412. PMID 21432699.
^ "Use and Common Sources of Caffeine". Information about Caffeine Dependence. Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine. 2003. Retrieved February 12, 2010.
^ "Caffeine Withdrawal". Information about Caffeine Dependence. Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine. 2003. Retrieved February 12, 2010.
^ "Bad News For Coffee Drinkers Who Get Headaches". August 14, 2009. Retrieved May 27, 2014.
^ Rosenthal, Elisabeth (October 15, 1992). "Headache? You Skipped Your Coffee". The New York Times. Retrieved May 27, 2014.
^ ^a ^b Juliano LM, Griffiths RR (2004). "A critical review of caffeine withdrawal: empirical validation of symptoms and signs, incidence, severity, and associated features". Psychopharmacology (Berl.) 176 (1): 1–29. doi:10.1007/s00213-004-2000-x. PMID 15448977. Archived from the original (PDF) on 29 January 2012.
^ Mathew RJ, Wilson WH (1985). "Caffeine Consumption, Withdrawal and Cerebral Blood Flow". Headache 25 (6): 305–9. doi:10.1111/j.1526-4610.1985.hed2506305.x.
^ Coffee and Caffeine's Frequently Asked Questions from the alt.drugs.caffeine, alt.coffee, rec.food.drink.coffee Newsgroups, January 7, 1998
^ ^a ^b Bunker, ML; McWilliams, M (1979). "Caffeine content of common beverages". Journal of the American Dietetic Association 74 (1): 28–32. PMID 762339.
^ Mayo Clinic Staff (October 3, 2009). "Caffeine content of common beverages". Mayo Clinic. Retrieved July 22, 2007.
^ "Caffeine content of various drinks". Celestialseasonings. Retrieved January 6, 2010.
^ See for example the following websites: "Coffee and Caffeine's Frequently Asked Questions". faqs.org. Retrieved 8 December 2010. , "How Much Caffeine In A Cup Of Coffee, Tea, Cola or Chocolate Bar?". talkaboutcoffee.com. Retrieved 8 December 2010. , "How much caffeine is there in (drink/food/pill?)". 2006-01-15.
^ Coffee, brewed, espresso, restaurant-prepared and Coffee, brewed from grounds, prepared with tap water, in the USDA nutrient database
^ Verlengia F, Rigitano A, Nery JP, Tosello A. Variations of the caffeine content in coffee beverages. ASIC, 2nd Int Sci Colloq Green and Roasted Coffee Chem. 1965, 106–114:
^ ^a ^b Blackstock, Colin (June 24, 2004). "Scientists discover decaf coffee bean". London: Guardian Unlimited. Retrieved 10 October 2010.
^ Huneidi, Sahar (May 9, 2004). "Your Fortune In A Cup:". PS-Magazine.com. Retrieved February 13, 2010.
^ Standage, Tom (June 14, 2007). A History of the World in Six Glasses. Atlantic Books. ISBN 978-1-84354-595-8. Retrieved February 13, 2010.
^ La Dolce Vita. 1999. Coffee. London, UK: New Holland Books
^ Cowan, Brian (October 2006). "Rosee, Pasqua (fl. 1651–1656)". Oxford Dictionary of National Biography. doi:10.1093/ref:odnb/92862. Subscription required.
^ "History of Coffee". Nestlé Professional. Nestlé. 2010. Retrieved February 13, 2010.
^ Millar, Simon. Vienna 1683, p. 93. Osprey Publishing, 2008. ISBN 1-84603-231-8.
^ Weinberg & Bealer 2001, pp. 71–72
^ Danko, C (2009). "America's First Coffeehouse". Massachusetts Travel Journal. Masstraveljournal.com. Retrieved February 13, 2010.
^ Pendergrast 2001, p. 218
^ ^a ^b ^c Pendergrast 2001, p. 219
^ Marshall, Carolyn (September 3, 2007). "Alfred H. Peet, 87, Dies; Leader of a Coffee Revolution". New York Times.
^ Pendergrast 2001, pp. 252–253
^ Pendergrast 2001, p. 301
^ Pendergrast 2001, p. 302
^ "Starbucks Corporation". Company profile from Hoover's. Hoover's. 2010. Retrieved February 13, 2010.
^ "Coffee Expo Seoul 2013 to Provide Hub for Korea's Booming Coffee Market". Asia Today. 5 February 2013. Retrieved June 24, 2013.
^ "Barista Training Standards - A Global Perspective". Cafe Culture. 29 November 2012. Retrieved 10 June 2015.
^ Pendergrast 2001, p. 5
^ Brown, Daniel W (2004). A new introduction to Islam. Chichester, West Sussex: Wiley-Blackwell. pp. 149–151. ISBN 1-4051-5807-7.
^ Pendergrast 2001, p. 11
^ Bersten 1999, p. 53
^ "Coffee facts, coffee trivia & coffee information!". Coffee Facts. Retrieved February 13, 2010.
^ ^a ^b "Who Are the Mormons?". Beliefnet. Retrieved February 13, 2010.
^ "Coffee consumption and mortality in Seventh-Day Adventists". Nutrition Research Newsletter (Frost & Sullivan). September 1992. Retrieved February 13, 2010.
^ "A few new Passover haggadahs, and a facelift for an old favorite". JTA.
^ "Total Production of Exporting Countries, 2003 to 2008". International Coffee Organization. Retrieved January 13, 2010.
^ "Coffee". Fairtrade Labelling Organizations International. Retrieved January 13, 2010.
^ Rice, Robert A (March 2001). "Noble Goals and Challenging Terrain: Organic and Fair Trade Coffee Movements" (PDF). Journal of Agricultural and Environmental Ethics (Springer Netherlands) 14 (1): 39–66. doi:10.1023/A:1011367008474. Retrieved January 13, 2010.
^ "European Fair Trade Association". EFTA. 2009. Retrieved January 18, 2010.
^ Balch-Gonzalez, Margaret (2003). "Good Coffee, Better World, The Ethics and Economics of Fair Trade Coffee". Retrieved January 13, 2010.
^ ^a ^b ^c De Pelsmacker, Patrick; Driesen, Liesbeth; Rayp, Glenn (2005). "Do Consumers Care about Ethics? Willingness to Pay for Fair-Trade Coffee". Journal of Consumer Affairs 39 (2): 363–385. doi:10.1111/j.1745-6606.2005.00019.x.
^ "Starbucks Serves up its First Fairtrade Lattes and Cappuccinos Across the UK and Ireland". London: Fairtrade Foundation. September 2, 2009. Retrieved January 22, 2010.
^ Allen 1999, p. 27
^ Pendergrast 2001, p. 10
^ Mattoon, Jr., Robert H. (2 May 1977). "Railroads, Coffee, and the Growth of Big Business in São Paulo, Brazil". The Hispanic American Historical Review 57 (2): 273–295. JSTOR 2513775.
^ "Economía del café en Brasil de 1840 a 1930".
^ Smith, Teresa (2013-04-22). "Canadian coffee king crowned in Ottawa". Ottawacitizen.com. Retrieved May 3, 2013.
^ "World Brewers Cup". World Brewers Cup. Retrieved May 3, 2013.
^ "World Coffee Events". Retrieved April 26, 2013.

External links

Bhanoo, Sindya N. (2013-03-25). "The Secret May Be in the Coffee". New York Times. Retrieved December 4, 2013.
Osterweil, Neil. "Coffee and Your Health". WebMD. Retrieved November 24, 2010.
Benjamin Joffe-Walt and Oliver Burkeman, The Guardian, September 16, 2005, "Coffee trail"—from the Ethiopian village of Choche to a London coffee shop.

UpToDate Contents

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1. カフェインおよびカフェイン含有飲料の利益とリスク benefits and risks of caffeine and caffeinated beverages
2. カフェインの心血管系への影響 cardiovascular effects of caffeine
3. 2型糖尿病の危険因子 risk factors for type 2 diabetes mellitus
4. 前立腺癌の危険因子 risk factors for prostate cancer
5. 女性の生殖能力におよぼすカフェインの影響 the effects of caffeine on reproductive outcomes in women

English Journal

Chemometrics optimization of carbohydrate separations in six food matrices by micellar electrokinetic chromatography with anionic surfactant.

Meinhart AD, Ballus CA, Bruns RE, Pallone JA, Godoy HT.SourceFaculty of Food Engineering, University of Campinas (UNICAMP), P.O. Box 6121, 13083-862 Campinas, SP, Brazil.
Talanta.Talanta.2011 Jul 15;85(1):237-44. Epub 2011 Apr 6.
Multivariate statistical design modeling and the Derringer-Suich desirability function analysis were applied to micellar electrokinetic chromatography (MEKC) results with anionic surfactant to separate carbohydrates (CHOs) in different food matrices. This strategy has been studied with success to an
PMID 21645694

Coffee consumption and mortality in women with cardiovasculardisease.

Lopez-Garcia E, Rodriguez-Artalejo F, Li TY, Mukamal KJ, Hu FB, van Dam RM.SourceDepartments of Nutrition and Epidemiology, Harvard School of Public Health, Boston, MA.
The American journal of clinical nutrition.Am J Clin Nutr.2011 Jul;94(1):218-24. Epub 2011 May 11.
Background: Coffee is commonly consumed among populations of all ages and conditions. The few studies that have examined the association between coffee consumption and mortality in patients with cardiovascular disease (CVD) have obtained conflicting results.OBJECTIVE: The objective was to assess the
PMID 21562090

Significant changes in dietary intake and supplement use after breast cancer diagnosis in a UK multicentre study.

Velentzis LS, Keshtgar MR, Woodside JV, Leathem AJ, Titcomb A, Perkins KA, Mazurowska M, Anderson V, Wardell K, Cantwell MM.SourceCancer Epidemiology Research Unit, Cancer Council NSW, PO Box 572, KINGS CROSS, NSW 1340, Australia, louizav@nswcc.org.au.
Breast cancer research and treatment.Breast Cancer Res Treat.2011 Jul;128(2):473-82. Epub 2011 Jan 11.
The diagnosis of cancer can motivate survivors to alter their lifestyle habits. Healthcare providers need to be aware of what changes patients are likely to make in order to derive more pertinent recommendations; however, few studies have reported pre- and post-diagnostic lifestyle behaviours. Semi-
PMID 21221774

Japanese Journal

Inhibitory effects of chlorogenic acids from green coffee beans and cinnamate derivatives on the activity of porcine pancreas α-amylase isozyme I

Narita Yusaku,Inouye Kuniyo
Food Chemistry 127(4), 1532-1539, 2011-08
… Nine kinds of chlorogenic acids (CGAs) account for 80% of the total CGA content in green coffee beans. …
NAID 120003018107

貧困層のリスクプーリングと社会的ネットワークおよびArisanの役割 : 中部ジャワ農村における事例

福井清一,高篠仁奈,ムルヨジャンクンハンドヨ
生物資源経済研究 16, 75-93, 2011-03-25
… of harvesting" and the “security of food consumption" provided by maize and “femaleproducts"( bananas，milk，and beans) have so far been pursued through thefarming of food products at the Lukani Village situated on the westem slope of the Mt.Kilimanjaro in TanzaniaIn addition to the traditional security system of farm household economy in regard tofood consumption，t he villagers have recently started to try to gain the security system inregard to income through diversification of commercial products (“ male products" suchas coffee and …
NAID 120002924326

キリマンジャロにおける牛の飼養・販売の特質 : 農家経済経営リスクと家計安全保障

辻村英之
生物資源経済研究 16, 95-113, 2011-03-25
… of harvesting" and the “security of food consumption" provided by maize and “femaleproducts"　(bananas，milk，and beans) have so far been pursued through thefarming of food products at the Lukani Village situated on the westem slope of the Mt.Kilimanjaro in TanzaniaIn addition to the traditional security system of farm household economy in regard tofood consumption，t he villagers have recently started to try to gain the security system inregard to income through diversification of commercial products (“ male products" suchas coffee and …
NAID 120002924325

Related Pictures

★リンクテーブル★

リンク元	「Coffea」「コーヒー」「Coffea arabica」

「Coffea」

Coffee
	A cup of black coffee
Type	Hot or cold (usually hot)
Country of origin	Yemen (earliest credible evidence of coffee drinking)
Introduced	Approx. 15th century
Color	Dark brown, beige, light brown, black

コーヒー（instant, regular, powder）
100 gあたりの栄養価
エネルギー	1,008 kJ (241 kcal)
炭水化物	41.1 g
糖分	0 g
食物繊維	0 g
脂肪	0.5 g
飽和脂肪酸	0.197 g
一価不飽和脂肪酸	0.041 g
多価不飽和脂肪酸	0.196 g
タンパク質	12.2 g
トリプトファン	0.03 g
トレオニン	0.142 g
イソロイシン	0.172 g
ロイシン	0.478 g
リシン	0.096 g
メチオニン	0.023 g
シスチン	0.202 g
フェニルアラニン	0.262 g
チロシン	0.165 g
バリン	0.276 g
アルギニン	0.053 g
ヒスチジン	0.165 g
アラニン	0.335 g
アスパラギン酸	0.478 g
グルタミン酸	2.03 g
グリシン	0.441 g
プロリン	0.351 g
セリン	0.126 g
ビタミン
ビタミンA相当量 β-カロテンルテインと; ゼアキサンチン	(0%) 0 μg (0%) 0 μg 0 μg
チアミン (B1)	(1%) 0.008 mg
リボフラビン (B2)	(6%) 0.074 mg
ナイアシン (B3)	(188%) 28.173 mg
パントテン酸 (B5)	(2%) 0.097 mg
ビタミンB6	(2%) 0.029 mg
葉酸 (B9)	(0%) 0 μg
ビタミンB12	(0%) 0 μg
コリン	(21%) 101.9 mg
ビタミンC	(0%) 0 mg
ビタミンD	(0%) 0 IU
ビタミンE	(0%) 0 mg
ビタミンK	(2%) 1.9 μg
ミネラル
カルシウム	(14%) 141 mg
鉄分	(34%) 4.41 mg
マグネシウム	(92%) 327 mg
マンガン	(82%) 1.712 mg
セレン	(18%) 12.6 μg
リン	(43%) 303 mg
カリウム	(75%) 3535 mg
ナトリウム	(2%) 37 mg
亜鉛	(4%) 0.35 mg
他の成分
水分	3.1 g
カフェイン	3142 mg
テオブロミン	0 mg
	単位; μg = マイクログラム • mg = ミリグラム; IU = 国際単位;
	%はアメリカ合衆国における; 成人栄養摂取目標 (RDI) の割合。; 出典: USDA栄養データベース（英語）

　　[★]

コーヒー属、コフィア属、Coffea属

関: Coffea arabica、coffee

「コーヒー」

　　[★]

英: coffee
関: コーヒー属、コーヒーノキ

「Coffea arabica」

　　[★]

コーヒーノキ

関: Coffea、coffee

[itohiroshi-1] 伊藤博『コーヒー事典』保育社、1994年、ISBN 978-4-586-50869-3

[atejinoomoshirozatsugaku_p125-2] フリーランス雑学ライダーズ編『あて字のおもしろ雑学』 p.125 1988年永岡書店

[3] 蜀山人として知られる。「本業は幕府の実直な役人…大阪の銅座や長崎奉行所にも転勤した。長崎には…外国船が近海に現れ始めたころで、ロシアの特使レザノフと会見している。オランダ船でコーヒーを飲み、日本初の体験記を残した。ただ、感想は「焦げ臭くして味ふるに堪ず」と素っ気なかった（「春秋」日本経済新聞2014年9月8日）。

[4] 「弘前はコーヒーの街」宣言

[5] 奥山儀八郎「かうひい異名熟字一覧（木版画）」『珈琲遍歴』四季社、1957年

[6] ttp://www.lingviko.net/feng/loanword-zwfeng.pdf

[coffeegaku-7] 広瀬幸雄・圓尾修三・星田宏司『コーヒー学入門』人間の科学社、2007年、p.30-33

[8] 説明として示した味に関する評価は、焙煎や抽出の状態や、生産地における栽培品種のトレンドの変化により大きく変わる。

[9] コーヒー豆の銘柄としての「ブルーマウンテン」はコーヒーの品種としての「ブルーマウンテン」とは意味合いが異なる。

[10] シンガーソングライター・井上陽水の著名な持ち歌で『コーヒールンバ』があるが、歌詞に出てくる「モカマタリ」はこれに該当。

[11] コーヒー豆の銘柄としての「モカ」はコーヒーの品種としての「モカ」とは意味合いが異なる。

[12] ドトールコーヒーの品質へのこだわり

[13] エキストラコーヒーが守りつづけるこだわり

[medical-14] 日経メディカル2011/12/7 グリーンコーヒーのエキスに血糖コントロール改善の可能性

[Summa-15] Summa cafe（日本語）

[16] J. W. Armstrong and Earl Campbell, "Caffeine as a repellent for slugs and snails R.G.Hollingsworth" ネイチャー 2002年6月27日号 915ページ

[yahoo20150507-17] Yahoo!ニュース（朝日新聞デジタル 5月7日(木)11時31分）コーヒーや緑茶、1日数杯で長寿効果 19年間追跡調査

[18] 野田-光彦「コーヒーの医学 (からだの科学primary選書1) 」日本評論社 (2010)

[19] ラットにおける食後の血糖値に及ぼすコーヒー豆の熱水抽出物の影響、立石絵美ほか、栄養学雑誌 Vol.62 (2004) No.6

[20] 精神的要因、コーヒーと糖尿病との関連について、独立行政法人国立がん研究センター　がん予防・検診研究センター予防研究部

[21] 米国がん専門誌JNCI16日号、2005年。朝日新聞平成17年2月17日記事。[1]

[22] 市民公開講座質疑応答集がんの予防

[23] 「肝がん」に罹るリスク　コーヒー飲むと減る(J-CASTニュース) - 国内 - livedoor ニュース 2009年08月06日19時26分

[24] Gastroenterology誌2007年5月号

[25] コーヒー摂取と大腸がんとの関連について | 現在までの成果 | 多目的コホート研究 | 独立行政法人国立がん研究センター　がん予防・検診研究センター予防研究部

[26] CAFFEIC ACID (Group 2B) International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) - Summaries & Evaluations Last updated 08/21/1997

[27] Agents Classified by the IARC Monographs, Volumes 1–106

[28] なお、コーヒーの酸化と「コーヒーはアルカリ性飲料」とを結びつけて「新しいコーヒー＝アルカリ性で体にいい」「古いコーヒー＝酸化＝『酸』化＝体に悪い」という図式から健康との関係を説明しようとする人もいる。

[29] 同じくハンガリーの数学者であるポール・エルデシュがこの言葉を気に入り、多用していた。そのため、エルデシュがこの言葉を"考えた"との誤解が根強い。

[unoff-63] Unofficial figure

[FAO-64] FAO estimate

[65] Aggregate (may include official, semiofficial, or estimates)

[1] Coffee and Health. Thecoffeefaq.com (2005-02-16). Retrieved January 22, 2013.

[Villanueva-2] Villanueva, Cristina M.; Cantor, Kenneth P.; King, Will D.; Jaakkola, Jouni J.K.; Cordier, Sylvaine; Lynch, Charles F.; Porru, Stefano; Kogevinas, Manolis (2006). "Total and specific fluid consumption as determinants of bladder cancer risk". International Journal of Cancer 118 (8): 2040–2047. doi:10.1002/ijc.21587. PMID 16284957.

[kummer2003p160-3] Kummer 2003, pp. 160–165

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[167] "Caffeine content of various drinks". Celestialseasonings. Retrieved January 6, 2010.

[168] See for example the following websites: "Coffee and Caffeine's Frequently Asked Questions". faqs.org. Retrieved 8 December 2010. , "How Much Caffeine In A Cup Of Coffee, Tea, Cola or Chocolate Bar?". talkaboutcoffee.com. Retrieved 8 December 2010. , "How much caffeine is there in (drink/food/pill?)". 2006-01-15.

[169] Coffee, brewed, espresso, restaurant-prepared and Coffee, brewed from grounds, prepared with tap water, in the USDA nutrient database

[170] Verlengia F, Rigitano A, Nery JP, Tosello A. Variations of the caffeine content in coffee beverages. ASIC, 2nd Int Sci Colloq Green and Roasted Coffee Chem. 1965, 106–114:

[guardian_decaf_bean-171] Blackstock, Colin (June 24, 2004). "Scientists discover decaf coffee bean". London: Guardian Unlimited. Retrieved 10 October 2010.

[172] Huneidi, Sahar (May 9, 2004). "Your Fortune In A Cup:". PS-Magazine.com. Retrieved February 13, 2010.

[173] Standage, Tom (June 14, 2007). A History of the World in Six Glasses. Atlantic Books. ISBN 978-1-84354-595-8. Retrieved February 13, 2010.

[174] La Dolce Vita. 1999. Coffee. London, UK: New Holland Books

[175] Cowan, Brian (October 2006). "Rosee, Pasqua (fl. 1651–1656)". Oxford Dictionary of National Biography. doi:10.1093/ref:odnb/92862. Subscription required.

[176] "History of Coffee". Nestlé Professional. Nestlé. 2010. Retrieved February 13, 2010.

[177] Millar, Simon. Vienna 1683, p. 93. Osprey Publishing, 2008. ISBN 1-84603-231-8.

[178] Weinberg & Bealer 2001, pp. 71–72

[179] Danko, C (2009). "America's First Coffeehouse". Massachusetts Travel Journal. Masstraveljournal.com. Retrieved February 13, 2010.

[Pendergrast218-180] Pendergrast 2001, p. 218

[Pendergrast219-181] Pendergrast 2001, p. 219

[NYTMarshall2007-182] Marshall, Carolyn (September 3, 2007). "Alfred H. Peet, 87, Dies; Leader of a Coffee Revolution". New York Times.

[Pendergrast2523-183] Pendergrast 2001, pp. 252–253

[Pendergrast301-184] Pendergrast 2001, p. 301

[Pendergrast302-185] Pendergrast 2001, p. 302

[186] "Starbucks Corporation". Company profile from Hoover's. Hoover's. 2010. Retrieved February 13, 2010.

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[Pendergrast5-189] Pendergrast 2001, p. 5

[190] Brown, Daniel W (2004). A new introduction to Islam. Chichester, West Sussex: Wiley-Blackwell. pp. 149–151. ISBN 1-4051-5807-7.

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[192] Bersten 1999, p. 53

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[201] Balch-Gonzalez, Margaret (2003). "Good Coffee, Better World, The Ethics and Economics of Fair Trade Coffee". Retrieved January 13, 2010.

[pelsmacker2005-202] De Pelsmacker, Patrick; Driesen, Liesbeth; Rayp, Glenn (2005). "Do Consumers Care about Ethics? Willingness to Pay for Fair-Trade Coffee". Journal of Consumer Affairs 39 (2): 363–385. doi:10.1111/j.1745-6606.2005.00019.x.

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100 gあたりの栄養価
エネルギー	1,008 kJ (241 kcal)

炭水化物	41.1 g
糖分	0 g
食物繊維	0 g

脂肪	0.5 g
飽和脂肪酸	0.197 g
一価不飽和脂肪酸	0.041 g
多価不飽和脂肪酸	0.196 g

タンパク質	12.2 g
トリプトファン	0.03 g
トレオニン	0.142 g
イソロイシン	0.172 g
ロイシン	0.478 g
リシン	0.096 g
メチオニン	0.023 g
シスチン	0.202 g
フェニルアラニン	0.262 g
チロシン	0.165 g
バリン	0.276 g
アルギニン	0.053 g
ヒスチジン	0.165 g
アラニン	0.335 g
アスパラギン酸	0.478 g
グルタミン酸	2.03 g
グリシン	0.441 g
プロリン	0.351 g
セリン	0.126 g

ビタミン
ビタミンA相当量 β-カロテンルテインとゼアキサンチン	(0%) 0 μg (0%) 0 μg 0 μg
チアミン (B1)	(1%) 0.008 mg
リボフラビン (B2)	(6%) 0.074 mg
ナイアシン (B3)	(188%) 28.173 mg
パントテン酸 (B5)	(2%) 0.097 mg
ビタミンB6	(2%) 0.029 mg
葉酸 (B9)	(0%) 0 μg
ビタミンB12	(0%) 0 μg
コリン	(21%) 101.9 mg
ビタミンC	(0%) 0 mg
ビタミンD	(0%) 0 IU
ビタミンE	(0%) 0 mg
ビタミンK	(2%) 1.9 μg

ミネラル
カルシウム	(14%) 141 mg
鉄分	(34%) 4.41 mg
マグネシウム	(92%) 327 mg
マンガン	(82%) 1.712 mg
セレン	(18%) 12.6 μg
リン	(43%) 303 mg
カリウム	(75%) 3535 mg
ナトリウム	(2%) 37 mg
亜鉛	(4%) 0.35 mg

他の成分
水分	3.1 g
カフェイン	3142 mg
テオブロミン	0 mg
単位 μg = マイクログラム • mg = ミリグラム IU = 国際単位
%はアメリカ合衆国における成人栄養摂取目標 (RDI) の割合。出典: USDA栄養データベース（英語）

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