citadel

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防備の最後の拠点となる市街を見おろす強力な城 / (一般に)とりで,要塞(ようさい)

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出典(authority):フリー百科事典『ウィキペディア（Wikipedia）』「2015/06/04 21:14:46」(JST)

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In this seventeenth-century plan of the fortified city of Casale Monferrato the citadel is the large star-shaped structure on the left.

Vauban's citadel of Neuf Brisach (France)

The Citadel of Aleppo, Syria.

The Citadel of Gondershe, Somalia was an important city in the Medieval Ajuran Empire.

A view of Samuil's Fortress, over the old town in Ohrid, Macedonia.

A panoramic view of Moscow Kremlin in 1908

A citadel is the core fortified area of a town or city. It may be a fortress, castle, or fortified center.^[1] The term is a diminutive of "city" and thus means "little city" so called because it is a smaller part of the city of which it is the defensive core.^[2]

In a fortification with bastions, the citadel is the strongest part of the system, sometimes well inside the outer walls and bastions, but often forming part of the outer wall for the sake of economy. It is positioned to be the last line of defense, should the enemy breach the other components of the fortification system. A citadel is also a term of the third part of a medieval castle, with higher walls than the rest. It was to be the last line of defence before the keep itself.

In various countries, the citadels gained a specific name such as "Kremlin" in Russia or "Alcázar" in the Iberian Peninsula. In European cities, the term "Citadel" and "City Castle" are often used interchangeably. The term "tower" is also used in some cases such as the Tower of London and Jerusalem's Tower of David. However, the Haitian citadel, which is the largest citadel in the Western Hemisphere, is called Citadelle Laferrière or simply the "Citadel" in English.

History

8000 BC–600 AD

In Ancient Greece, the Acropolis (literally: "peak of the city"), placed on a commanding eminence, was important in the life of the people, serving as a refuge and stronghold in peril and containing military and food supplies, the shrine of the god and a royal palace. The most well-known is the Acropolis of Athens, but nearly every Greek city-state had one – the Acrocorinth famed as a particularly strong fortress. In a much later period, when Greece was ruled by the Latin Empire, the same strongpoints were used by the new feudal rulers for much the same purpose.

167–160 BC

Rebels who took power in the city but with the citadel still held by the former rulers could by no means regard their tenure of power as secure. One such incident played an important part in the history of the Maccabean Revolt against the Seleucid Empire. The Hellenistic garrison of Jerusalem and local supporters of the Seleucids held out for many years in the Acra citadel, making Maccabean rule in the rest of Jerusalem precarious. When finally gaining possession of the place, the Maccabeans pointedly destroyed and razed the Acra, though they constructed another citadel for their own use in a different part of Jerusalem.

3300–1300 BC

Some of the oldest known structures which have served as citadels were built by the Indus Valley Civilization, where the citadel represented a centralised authority. The main citadel in Indus Valley was almost 12 meters tall.^[3] The purpose of these structures, however, remains debated. Though the structures found in the ruins of Mohenjo-daro were walled, it is far from clear that these structures were defensive against enemy attacks. Rather, they may have been built to divert flood waters.

500–1500 AD

At various periods, and particularly during the Middle Ages, the citadel – having its own fortifications, independent of the city walls – was the last defence of a besieged army, often held after the town had been conquered. A city where the citadel held out against an invading army was not considered conquered. For example, in the 1543 Siege of Nice the Ottoman forces led by Barbarossa conquered and pillaged the town itself and took many captives – but the city castle held out, due to which the townspeople were accounted the victors.

1600–1860 AD

As late as the 19th century, a similar situation developed at Antwerp, where a Dutch garrison under General David Hendrik Chassé held out in the city's citadel between 1830 and 1832, while the city itself had already become part of the independent Belgium.

In time of war the citadel in many cases afforded retreat to the people living in the areas around the town. However, Citadels were often used also to protect a garrison or political power from the inhabitants of the town where it was located, being designed to ensure loyalty from the town that they defended.

For example Barcelona had a great citadel built in 1714 to intimidate the Catalans against repeating their mid-17th- and early-18th-century rebellions against the Spanish central government. In the 19th century, when the political climate had liberalised enough to permit it, the people of Barcelona had the citadel torn down, and replaced it with the city's main central park, the Parc de la Ciutadella. A similar example is the Citadella in Budapest, Hungary.

The attack on the Bastille in the French Revolution – though afterwards remembered mainly for the release of the handful of prisoners incarcerated there – was to considerable degree motivated by the structure being a Royal citadel in the midst of revolutionary Paris.

Similarly, after Garibaldi's overthrow of Bourbon rule in Palermo, during the 1860 Unification of Italy, Palermo's Castellamare Citadel – symbol of the hated and oppressive former rule – was ceremoniously demolished.

The Siege of the Alcázar in the Spanish Civil War, in which the Nationalists held out against a much larger Republican force for two months until relieved, shows that in some cases a citadel can be effective even in modern warfare; a similar case is the Battle of Huế during the Vietnam war, where a North Vietnamese Army division held the citadel of Huế for 26 days against roughly their own numbers of much better-equipped US and South Vietnamese troops.

1820–present AD

The Citadelle of Québec, Québec City (Canada)

The Citadelle of Québec (construction started 1673, completed 1820) still survives as the largest citadel still in official military operation in North America. It is home to the Royal 22nd Regiment of Canada;^[4] and forms part of the fortified walls of Vieux-Québec dating back to 1608.^[5]

Modern usage

Citadels since the mid 20th century, are commonly military command and control centres built to resist attack commonly aerial or nuclear bombardment. The Military citadels under London such as the massive underground complex beneath the Ministry of Defence called Pindar is one such example, as is the Cheyenne Mountain nuclear bunker in the US.

Naval term

On armored warships, the heavily armored section of the ship that protects the ammunition and machinery spaces is called the citadel.

The safe room on a ship is also called a citadel.

References

^ Sidney Toy (1985). Castles: Their Construction and History. Courier Dover. ISBN 0-486-24898-4.
^ "Citadel". Retrieved 4 April 2013.
^ Thapar, B. K. (1975). "Kalibangan: A Harappan Metropolis Beyond the Indus Valley". Expedition 17 (2): 19–32.
^ "Musée Royal 22e Régiment - La Citadelle". Retrieved 28 Feb 2014.
^ "Canada's Historic Places - HistoricPlaces.ca". Retrieved 28 Feb 2014.

External links

English Journal

Scaling laws of ambush predator 'waiting' behaviour are tuned to a common ecology.

Wearmouth VJ1, McHugh MJ, Humphries NE, Naegelen A, Ahmed MZ, Southall EJ, Reynolds AM, Sims DW.Author information 1Marine Biological Association of the United Kingdom, The Laboratory, , Citadel Hill, Plymouth PL1 2PB, UK, European Institute of Marine Studies (IUEM), University of Western Britanny, , Place Nicolas Copernic 29280, Plouzané, France, School of Computing and Mathematics, University of Plymouth, , Drake Circus, Plymouth PL4 8AA, UK, Rothamsted Research, , Harpenden AL5 2JQ, UK, Ocean and Earth Science, National Oceanography Centre Southampton, University of Southampton, , Waterfront Campus, Southampton SO14 3ZH, UK, Centre for Biological Sciences, University of Southampton, , Building 85, Highfield Campus, Southampton SO17 1BJ, UK.AbstractThe decisions animals make about how long to wait between activities can determine the success of diverse behaviours such as foraging, group formation or risk avoidance. Remarkably, for diverse animal species, including humans, spontaneous patterns of waiting times show random 'burstiness' that appears scale-invariant across a broad set of scales. However, a general theory linking this phenomenon across the animal kingdom currently lacks an ecological basis. Here, we demonstrate from tracking the activities of 15 sympatric predator species (cephalopods, sharks, skates and teleosts) under natural and controlled conditions that bursty waiting times are an intrinsic spontaneous behaviour well approximated by heavy-tailed (power-law) models over data ranges up to four orders of magnitude. Scaling exponents quantifying ratios of frequent short to rare very long waits are species-specific, being determined by traits such as foraging mode (active versus ambush predation), body size and prey preference. A stochastic-deterministic decision model reproduced the empirical waiting time scaling and species-specific exponents, indicating that apparently complex scaling can emerge from simple decisions. Results indicate temporal power-law scaling is a behavioural 'rule of thumb' that is tuned to species' ecological traits, implying a common pattern may have naturally evolved that optimizes move-wait decisions in less predictable natural environments.
Proceedings. Biological sciences / The Royal Society.Proc Biol Sci.2014 Mar 11;281(1782):20132997. doi: 10.1098/rspb.2013.2997. Print 2014.
The decisions animals make about how long to wait between activities can determine the success of diverse behaviours such as foraging, group formation or risk avoidance. Remarkably, for diverse animal species, including humans, spontaneous patterns of waiting times show random 'burstiness' that appe
PMID 24619440

Surrogate safety measure for evaluating rear-end collision risk related to kinematic waves near freeway recurrent bottlenecks.

Li Z1, Ahn S2, Chung K3, Ragland DR4, Wang W5, Yu JW6.Author information 1School of Transportation, Southeast University, 2 Si Pai Lou, Nanjing 210096, China. Electronic address: lizhibin@seu.edu.cn.2Department of Transportation Engineering, Ajou University, San 5, Woncheon-dong, Yeongtong-gu, Suwon 443-749, South Korea. Electronic address: citadel@ajou.ac.kr.3School of Civil, Environmental and Architectural Engineering, Korea University, Anam-Dong, Seongbuk-Gu, Seoul 136-713, South Korea. Electronic address: koohong_chung@dot.ca.gov.4Safe Transportation Research & Education Center, University of California, Berkeley, 2614 Dwight Way #7374, Berkeley, CA 94720-7374, United States. Electronic address: davidr@berkeley.edu.5School of Transportation, Southeast University, 2 Si Pai Lou, Nanjing 210096, China. Electronic address: wangwei@seu.edu.cn.6Department of Transportation Engineering, Ajou University, San 5, Woncheon-dong, Yeongtong-gu, Suwon 443-749, South Korea. Electronic address: jeongwhon@ajou.ac.kr.AbstractThis study presents a surrogate safety measure for evaluating the rear-end collision risk related to kinematic waves near freeway recurrent bottlenecks using aggregated traffic data from ordinary loop detectors. The attributes of kinematic waves that accompany rear-end collisions and the traffic conditions at detector stations spanning the collision locations were examined to develop the rear-end collision risk index (RCRI). Together with RCRI, standard deviations in occupancy were used to develop a logistic regression model for estimating rear-end collision likelihood near freeway recurrent bottlenecks in real-time. The parameters in the logistic regression models were calibrated using collision data gathered from the 6-mile study site between 2006 and 2007. Findings indicated that an additional unit increase in RCRI results in increasing the odds of rear-end collision by 21.1%, a unit increase in standard deviation of upstream occupancy increases the odds by 19.5%, and a unit increase in standard deviation of downstream occupancy increases the odds by 18.7%. The likelihood of rear-end collisions is highest when the traffic approaching from upstream is near capacity state while downstream traffic is highly congested. The paper also reports on the findings from comparing the predicted number of rear-end collisions at the study site using the proposed model with the observed traffic collision data from 2008. The proposed model's true positive rates were higher than those of existing real-time crash prediction models.
Accident; analysis and prevention.Accid Anal Prev.2014 Mar;64:52-61. doi: 10.1016/j.aap.2013.11.003. Epub 2013 Nov 15.
This study presents a surrogate safety measure for evaluating the rear-end collision risk related to kinematic waves near freeway recurrent bottlenecks using aggregated traffic data from ordinary loop detectors. The attributes of kinematic waves that accompany rear-end collisions and the traffic con
PMID 24316507

No effect of seed source on multiple aspects of ecosystem functioning during ecological restoration: cultivars compared to local ecotypes of dominant grasses.

Baer SG1, Gibson DJ1, Gustafson DJ2, Benscoter AM1, Reed LK1, Campbell RE1, Klopf RP1, Willand JE1, Wodika BR1.Author information 1Department of Plant Biology and Center for Ecology, Southern Illinois University Carbondale, IL, USA.2Department of Biology, The Citadel Charleston, SC, USA.AbstractGenetic principles underlie recommendations to use local seed, but a paucity of information exists on the genetic distinction and ecological consequences of using different seed sources in restorations. We established a field experiment to test whether cultivars and local ecotypes of dominant prairie grasses were genetically distinct and differentially influenced ecosystem functioning. Whole plots were assigned to cultivar and local ecotype grass sources. Three subplots within each whole plot were seeded to unique pools of subordinate species. The cultivar of the increasingly dominant grass, Sorghastrum nutans, was genetically different than the local ecotype, but genetic diversity was similar between the two sources. There were no differences in aboveground net primary production, soil carbon accrual, and net nitrogen mineralization rate in soil between the grass sources. Comparable productivity of the grass sources among the species pools for four years shows functional equivalence in terms of biomass production. Subordinate species comprised over half the aboveground productivity, which may have diluted the potential for documented trait differences between the grass sources to influence ecosystem processes. Regionally developed cultivars may be a suitable alternative to local ecotypes for restoration in fragmented landscapes with limited gene flow between natural and restored prairie and negligible recruitment by seed.
Evolutionary applications.Evol Appl.2014 Feb;7(2):323-35. doi: 10.1111/eva.12124. Epub 2013 Nov 12.
Genetic principles underlie recommendations to use local seed, but a paucity of information exists on the genetic distinction and ecological consequences of using different seed sources in restorations. We established a field experiment to test whether cultivars and local ecotypes of dominant prairi
PMID 24567751

Japanese Journal

Shannon's Wayにおける恋と結婚の障害

學苑 906, 81-102, 2016-04-01
NAID 110010031620

東北大学埋蔵文化財調査室調査報告5

2016-03-31
NAID 120005742127

ティブルシオ・スパノッキィ(1541-1606)がスペインの4都市において作成した都市型城塞の計画案に関して

日本建築学会計画系論文集 81(719), 225-235, 2016
NAID 130005122511

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