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an abundant nonmetallic tetravalent element occurring in three allotropic forms: amorphous carbon and graphite and diamond; occurs in all organic compounds (同)C, atomic number 6
a copy made with carbon paper (同)carbon_copy
an oxide containing just one atom of oxygen in the molecule

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『炭素』(化学記号は『C』) / 〈C〉炭素棒 / 〈C〉《時に〈U〉》=carbon paper
一酸化物

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出典(authority):フリー百科事典『ウィキペディア（Wikipedia）』「2015/08/21 00:39:42」(JST)

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Carbon monoxide (CO) is a colorless, odorless, and tasteless gas that is slightly less dense than air. It is toxic to humans when encountered in concentrations above about 35 ppm, although it is also produced in normal animal metabolism in low quantities, and is thought to have some normal biological functions. In the atmosphere, it is spatially variable and short lived, having a role in the formation of ground-level ozone.

Carbon monoxide consists of one carbon atom and one oxygen atom, connected by a triple bond that consists of two covalent bonds as well as one dative covalent bond. It is the simplest oxocarbon and is isoelectronic with the cyanide anion, the nitrosonium cation and molecular nitrogen. In coordination complexes the carbon monoxide ligand is called carbonyl.

Carbon monoxide is produced from the partial oxidation of carbon-containing compounds; it forms when there is not enough oxygen to produce carbon dioxide (CO₂), such as when operating a stove or an internal combustion engine in an enclosed space. In the presence of oxygen, including atmospheric concentrations, carbon monoxide burns with a blue flame, producing carbon dioxide.^[4] Coal gas, which was widely used before the 1960s for domestic lighting, cooking, and heating, had carbon monoxide as a significant fuel constituent. Some processes in modern technology, such as iron smelting, still produce carbon monoxide as a byproduct.^[5]

Worldwide, the largest source of carbon monoxide is natural in origin, due to photochemical reactions in the troposphere that generate about 5×10¹² kilograms per year.^[6] Other natural sources of CO include volcanoes, forest fires, and other forms of combustion.

In biology, carbon monoxide is naturally produced by the action of heme oxygenase 1 and 2 on the heme from hemoglobin breakdown. This process produces a certain amount of carboxyhemoglobin in normal persons, even if they do not breathe any carbon monoxide. Following the first report that carbon monoxide is a normal neurotransmitter in 1993,^[7]^[8] as well as one of three gases that naturally modulate inflammatory responses in the body (the other two being nitric oxide and hydrogen sulfide), carbon monoxide has received a great deal of clinical attention as a biological regulator. In many tissues, all three gases are known to act as anti-inflammatories, vasodilators, and promoters of neovascular growth.^[9] Clinical trials of small amounts of carbon monoxide as a drug are ongoing.^[10]

1 History
2 Molecular properties
- 2.1 Bonding and dipole moment
- 2.2 Bond polarity and oxidation state
3 Biological and physiological properties
- 3.1 Toxicity
- 3.2 Normal human physiology
- 3.3 Microbiology
4 Occurrence
- 4.1 Atmospheric presence
- 4.2 Urban pollution
  - 4.2.1 Role in ground-level ozone formation
- 4.3 Indoor pollution
- 4.4 Presence in Blood
- 4.5 Astrophysics
5 Production
- 5.1 Industrial production
- 5.2 Laboratory preparation
6 Coordination chemistry
7 Organic and main group chemistry
8 Uses
- 8.1 Chemical industry
- 8.2 Meat coloring
- 8.3 Medicine
- 8.4 Lasers
- 8.5 Niche uses
9 See also
10 References
11 External links

History

Aristotle (384–322 BC) first recorded that burning coals produced toxic fumes. An ancient method of execution was to shut the criminal in a bathing room with smouldering coals. What was not known was the mechanism of death. Greek physician Galen (129–199 AD) speculated that there was a change in the composition of the air that caused harm when inhaled.^[11] In 1776, the French chemist de Lassone produced CO by heating zinc oxide with coke, but mistakenly concluded that the gaseous product was hydrogen, as it burned with a blue flame. The gas was identified as a compound containing carbon and oxygen by the Scottish chemist William Cumberland Cruikshank in the year 1800.^[12]^[13] Its toxic properties on dogs were thoroughly investigated by Claude Bernard around 1846.^[14]

During World War II, a gas mixture including carbon monoxide was used to keep motor vehicles running in parts of the world where gasoline and diesel fuel were scarce. External (with a few exceptions) charcoal or wood gas generators were fitted, and the mixture of atmospheric nitrogen, carbon monoxide, and small amounts of other gases produced by gasification was piped to a gas mixer. The gas mixture produced by this process is known as wood gas. Carbon monoxide was also used on a large scale during the Holocaust at some Nazi extermination camps, the most notable by gas vans in Chelmno, and in the Action T4 "euthanasia" program.^[15]

Molecular properties

Carbon monoxide has a molar mass of 28.0, which makes it slightly lighter than air, whose average molar mass is 28.8. According to the ideal gas law, CO is therefore less dense than air.

The bond length between the carbon atom and the oxygen atom is 112.8 pm.^[16]^[17] This bond length is consistent with a triple bond, as in molecular nitrogen (N₂), which has a similar bond length and nearly the same molecular mass. Carbon–oxygen double bonds are significantly longer, 120.8 pm in formaldehyde, for example.^[18] The boiling point (82 K) and melting point (68 K) are very similar to those of N₂ (77 K and 63 K, respectively). The bond dissociation energy of 1072 kJ/mol is stronger than that of N₂ (942 kJ/mol) and represents the strongest chemical bond known.^[19]

The ground electronic state of carbon monoxide is a singlet state^[20] since there are no unpaired electrons.

Bonding and dipole moment

Carbon and oxygen together have a total of 10 valence electrons in carbon monoxide. To satisfy the octet rule for the carbon, the two atoms form a triple bond, with six shared electrons in three bonding molecular orbitals, rather than the usual double bond found in organic carbonyl compounds. Since four of the shared electrons come from the oxygen atom and only two from carbon, one bonding orbital is occupied by two electrons from oxygen, forming a dative or dipolar bond. This causes a C ← O polarization of the molecule, with a small negative charge on carbon and a small positive charge on oxygen. The other two bonding orbitals are each occupied by one electron from carbon and one from oxygen, forming (polar) covalent bonds with a reverse C → O polarization, since oxygen is more electronegative than carbon. In the free carbon monoxide, a net negative charge δ- remains at the carbon end and the molecule has a small dipole moment of 0.122 D.^[21]

The molecule is therefore asymmetric: oxygen has more electron density than carbon, and is also slightly positively charged compared to carbon being negative. By contrast, the isoelectronic dinitrogen molecule has no dipole moment.

If carbon monoxide acts as a ligand, the polarity of the dipole may reverse with a net negative charge on the oxygen end, depending on the structure of the coordination complex.^[22] See also the section "Coordination chemistry" below.

Bond polarity and oxidation state

Theoretical and experimental studies show that, despite the greater electronegativity of oxygen, the dipole moment points from the more-negative carbon end to the more-positive oxygen end.^[23]^[24] The three bonds are in fact polar covalent bonds that are strongly polarized. The calculated polarization toward the oxygen atom is 71% for the σ-bond and 77% for both π-bonds.^[25]

The oxidation state of carbon in carbon monoxide is +2 in each of these structures. It is calculated by counting all the bonding electrons as belonging to the more electronegative oxygen. Only the two non-bonding electrons on carbon are assigned to carbon. In this count, carbon then has only two valence electrons in the molecule compared to four in the free atom.

Biological and physiological properties

Toxicity

Carbon monoxide poisoning is the most common type of fatal air poisoning in many countries.^[26] Carbon monoxide is colorless, odorless, and tasteless, but highly toxic. It combines with hemoglobin to produce carboxyhemoglobin, which usurps the space in hemoglobin that normally carries oxygen, but is ineffective for delivering oxygen to bodily tissues. Concentrations as low as 667 ppm may cause up to 50% of the body's hemoglobin to convert to carboxyhemoglobin.^[27] A level of 50% carboxyhemoglobin may result in seizure, coma, and fatality. In the United States, the OSHA limits long-term workplace exposure levels above 50 ppm.^[28] Within short time scales, carbon monoxide absorption is cumulative, since the half-life is about 5 hours in fresh air.

The most common symptoms of carbon monoxide poisoning may resemble other types of poisonings and infections, including symptoms such as headache, nausea, vomiting, dizziness, fatigue, and a feeling of weakness. Affected families often believe they are victims of food poisoning. Infants may be irritable and feed poorly. Neurological signs include confusion, disorientation, visual disturbance, syncope (fainting), and seizures.^[29]

Some descriptions of carbon monoxide poisoning include retinal hemorrhages, and an abnormal cherry-red blood hue.^[30] In most clinical diagnoses these signs are seldom noticed.^[29] One difficulty with the usefulness of this cherry-red effect is that it corrects, or masks, what would otherwise be an unhealthy appearance, since the chief effect of removing deoxygenated hemoglobin is to make an asphyxiated person appear more normal, or a dead person appear more lifelike, similar to the effect of red colorants in embalming fluid. The "false" or unphysiologic red-coloring effect in anoxic CO-poisoned tissue is related to the meat-coloring commercial use of carbon monoxide, discussed below.

Carbon monoxide also binds to other molecules such as myoglobin and mitochondrial cytochrome oxidase. Exposures to carbon monoxide may cause significant damage to the heart and central nervous system, especially to the globus pallidus,^[31] often with long-term chronic pathological conditions. Carbon monoxide may have severe adverse effects on the fetus of a pregnant woman.^[32]

Normal human physiology

Carbon monoxide is produced naturally by the human body as a signaling molecule. Thus, carbon monoxide may have a physiological role in the body, such as a neurotransmitter or a blood vessel relaxant.^[33] Because of carbon monoxide's role in the body, abnormalities in its metabolism have been linked to a variety of diseases, including neurodegenerations, hypertension, heart failure, and inflammation.^[33]

Functional Summary^[34]

CO functions as an endogenous signaling molecule.
CO modulates functions of the cardiovascular system.
CO inhibits blood platelet aggregation and adhesion.
CO may play a role as potential therapeutic agent.

Microbiology

Carbon monoxide is a nutrient for methanogenic archaea,^[35] a building-block for acetylcoenzyme A. This is the theme for the emerging field of bioorganometallic chemistry. Extremophile micro-organisms can, thus, metabolise carbon monoxide in such locations as the thermal vents of volcanoes.^[36]

In bacteria, carbon monoxide is produced via the reduction of carbon dioxide by the enzyme carbon monoxide dehydrogenase, an Fe-Ni-S-containing protein.^[37]

CooA is a carbon monoxide sensor protein.^[38] The scope of its biological role is still unknown; it may be part of a signaling pathway in bacteria and archaea. Its occurrence in mammals is not established.

Occurrence

Play media

Monthly averages of global concentrations of tropospheric carbon monoxide at an altitude of about 12,000 feet. Data were collected by the MOPITT (Measurements Of Pollution In The Troposphere) sensor on NASA’s Terra satellite.^[39]

Carbon monoxide occurs in various natural and artificial environments. Typical concentrations in parts per million are as follows:

**Composition of dry atmosphere, by volume**^[40]
Concentration	Source
ppmv: parts per million by volume (note: volume fraction is equal to mole fraction for ideal gas only, see volume (thermodynamics))
0.1 ppmv	Natural atmosphere level (MOPITT)^[41]
0.5–5 ppmv	Average level in homes^[42]
5–15 ppmv	Near-properly adjusted gas stoves in homes, modern vehicle exhaust emissions^[43]
17 ppmv	Atmosphere of Venus
100–200 ppmv	Exhaust from automobiles in the Mexico City central area in 1975^[44]
700 ppmv	Atmosphere of Mars
5,000 ppmv	Exhaust from a home wood fire^[45]
7,000 ppmv	Undiluted warm car exhaust without a catalytic converter^[43]

Atmospheric presence

Play media

The streak of red, orange, and yellow across South America, Africa, and the Atlantic Ocean in this animation points to high levels of carbon monoxide on September 30, 2005.

Carbon Monoxide concentrations in Northern Hemisphere spring as measured with the MOPITT instrument.

Carbon monoxide is present in small amounts in the atmosphere, chiefly as a product of volcanic activity but also from natural and man-made fires (such as forest and bushfires, burning of crop residues, and sugarcane fire-cleaning). The burning of fossil fuels also contributes to carbon monoxide production. Carbon monoxide occurs dissolved in molten volcanic rock at high pressures in the Earth's mantle.^[46] Because natural sources of carbon monoxide are so variable from year to year, it is extremely difficult to accurately measure natural emissions of the gas.

Carbon monoxide is a short-lived greenhouse gas and also has an indirect radiative forcing effect by elevating concentrations of methane and tropospheric ozone through chemical reactions with other atmospheric constituents (e.g., the hydroxyl radical, OH^.) that would otherwise destroy them.^[47] Through natural processes in the atmosphere, it is eventually oxidized to carbon dioxide. Carbon monoxide is both short-lived in the atmosphere (on average about two months) and spatially variable in concentration.

In the atmosphere of Venus carbon monoxide occurs as a result of the photodissociation of carbon dioxide by electromagnetic radiation of wavelengths shorter than 169 nm.

Due to its long lifetime in the mid-troposphere, carbon monoxide is also used as tracer of transport for pollutant plumes.^[48]

Urban pollution

Carbon monoxide is a temporary atmospheric pollutant in some urban areas, chiefly from the exhaust of internal combustion engines (including vehicles, portable and back-up generators, lawn mowers, power washers, etc.), but also from incomplete combustion of various other fuels (including wood, coal, charcoal, oil, paraffin, propane, natural gas, and trash).

Large CO pollution events can be observed from space over cities.^[49]

Role in ground-level ozone formation

Carbon monoxide is, along with aldehydes, part of the series of cycles of chemical reactions that form photochemical smog. It reacts with hydroxyl radical (^•OH) to produce a radical intermediate ^•HOCO, which transfers rapidly its radical hydrogen to O₂ to form peroxy radical (HO₂^•) and carbon dioxide (CO₂).^[50] Peroxy radical subsequently reacts with nitrogen oxide (NO) to form nitrogen dioxide (NO₂) and hydroxyl radical. NO₂ gives O(³P) via photolysis, thereby forming O₃ following reaction with O₂. Since hydroxyl radical is formed during the formation of NO₂, the balance of the sequence of chemical reactions starting with carbon monoxide and leading to the formation of ozone is:

CO + 2O₂ + hν → CO₂ + O₃

(where hν refers to the photon of light absorbed by the NO₂ molecule in the sequence)

Although the creation of NO₂ is the critical step leading to low level ozone formation, it also increases this ozone in another, somewhat mutually exclusive way, by reducing the quantity of NO that is available to react with ozone.^[51]

Indoor pollution

In closed environments, the concentration of carbon monoxide can easily rise to lethal levels. On average, 170 people in the United States die every year from carbon monoxide produced by non-automotive consumer products.^[52] However, according to the Florida Department of Health, "every year more than 500 Americans die from accidental exposure to carbon monoxide and thousands more across the U.S. require emergency medical care for non-fatal carbon monoxide poisoning"^[53] These products include malfunctioning fuel-burning appliances such as furnaces, ranges, water heaters, and gas and kerosene room heaters; engine-powered equipment such as portable generators; fireplaces; and charcoal that is burned in homes and other enclosed areas. The American Association of Poison Control Centers (AAPCC) reported 15,769 cases of carbon monoxide poisoning resulting in 39 deaths in 2007.^[54] In 2005, the CPSC reported 94 generator-related carbon monoxide poisoning deaths.^[52] Forty-seven of these deaths were known to have occurred during power outages due to severe weather, including Hurricane Katrina.^[52] Still others die from carbon monoxide produced by non-consumer products, such as cars left running in attached garages. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention estimates that several thousand people go to hospital emergency rooms every year to be treated for carbon monoxide poisoning.^[55]

Presence in Blood

Carbon monoxide is absorbed through breathing and enters the blood stream through gas exchange in the lungs. It is also produced in hemoglobin metabolism and enters the blood from the tissues, and thus is present in all normal tissues, even if not inhaled.

Normal circulating levels in the blood are 0% to 3%,^{[clarification needed]}^{[citation needed]} and are higher in smokers. Carbon monoxide levels cannot be assessed through a physical exam. Laboratory testing requires a blood sample (arterial or venous) and laboratory analysis on a CO-Oximeter. Additionally, a noninvasive carboxyhemoglobin (SpCO) test method from Pulse CO-Oximetry exists and has been validated compared to invasive methods.^[56]

Astrophysics

Outside of Earth, carbon monoxide is the second-most common molecule in the interstellar medium, after molecular hydrogen. Because of its asymmetry, the carbon monoxide molecule produces far brighter spectral lines than the hydrogen molecule, making CO much easier to detect. Interstellar CO was first detected with radio telescopes in 1970. It is now the most commonly used tracer of molecular gas in general in the interstellar medium of galaxies, as molecular hydrogen can only be detected using ultraviolet light, which requires space telescopes. Carbon monoxide observations provide much of the information about the molecular clouds in which most stars form.^[57]

Beta Pictoris, the second brightest star in the constellation Pictor, shows an excess of infrared emission compared to normal stars of its type, which is caused by large quantities of dust and gas (including carbon monoxide)^[58]^[59] near the star.

Production

Many methods have been developed for carbon monoxide's production.^[60]

Industrial production

A major industrial source of CO is producer gas, a mixture containing mostly carbon monoxide and nitrogen, formed by combustion of carbon in air at high temperature when there is an excess of carbon. In an oven, air is passed through a bed of coke. The initially produced CO₂ equilibrates with the remaining hot carbon to give CO. The reaction of CO₂ with carbon to give CO is described as the Boudouard reaction.^[61] Above 800 °C, CO is the predominant product:

CO₂ + C → 2 CO (ΔH = 170 kJ/mol)

Another source is "water gas", a mixture of hydrogen and carbon monoxide produced via the endothermic reaction of steam and carbon:

H₂O + C → H₂ + CO (ΔH = +131 kJ/mol)

Other similar "synthesis gases" can be obtained from natural gas and other fuels.

Carbon monoxide is also a byproduct of the reduction of metal oxide ores with carbon, shown in a simplified form as follows:

MO + C → M + CO

Carbon monoxide is also produced by the direct oxidation of carbon in a limited supply of oxygen or air.

2C(s) + O₂ → 2CO(g)

Since CO is a gas, the reduction process can be driven by heating, exploiting the positive (favorable) entropy of reaction. The Ellingham diagram shows that CO formation is favored over CO₂ in high temperatures.

Laboratory preparation

Carbon monoxide is conveniently produced in the laboratory by the dehydration of formic acid or oxalic acid, for example with concentrated sulfuric acid.^[62]^[63]^[64] Another method is heating an intimate mixture of powdered zinc metal and calcium carbonate, which releases CO and leaves behind zinc oxide and calcium oxide:

Zn + CaCO₃ → ZnO + CaO + CO

Silver nitrate and iodoform also afford carbon monoxide:

CHI₃ + 3AgNO₃ + H₂O → 3HNO₃ + CO + 3AgI

Coordination chemistry

Energy level scheme of the σ and π orbitals of carbon monoxide

The HOMO of CO is a σ MO.

The LUMO of CO is a π*antibonding MO.

Most metals form coordination complexes containing covalently attached carbon monoxide. Only metals in lower oxidation states will complex with carbon monoxide ligands. This is because there must be sufficient electron density to facilitate back-donation from the metal d_xz-orbital, to the π*molecular orbital from CO. The lone pair on the carbon atom in CO, also donates electron density to the d_x²−y² on the metal to form a sigma bond. This electron donation is also exhibited with the cis effect, or the labilization of CO ligands in the cis position. Nickel carbonyl, for example, forms by the direct combination of carbon monoxide and nickel metal:

Ni + 4 CO → Ni(CO)₄ (1 bar, 55 °C)

For this reason, nickel in any tubing or part must not come into prolonged contact with carbon monoxide. Nickel carbonyl decomposes readily back to Ni and CO upon contact with hot surfaces, and this method is used for the industrial purification of nickel in the Mond process.^[65]

In nickel carbonyl and other carbonyls, the electron pair on the carbon interacts with the metal; the carbon monoxide donates the electron pair to the metal. In these situations, carbon monoxide is called the carbonyl ligand. One of the most important metal carbonyls is iron pentacarbonyl, Fe(CO)₅:

Many metal-CO complexes are prepared by decarbonylation of organic solvents, not from CO. For instance, iridium trichloride and triphenylphosphine react in boiling 2-methoxyethanol or DMF to afford IrCl(CO)(PPh₃)₂.

Metal carbonyls in coordination chemistry are usually studied using infrared spectroscopy.

Organic and main group chemistry

In the presence of strong acids and water, carbon monoxide reacts with alkenes to form carboxylic acids in a process known as the Koch–Haaf reaction.^[62] In the Gattermann–Koch reaction, arenes are converted to benzaldehyde derivatives in the presence of AlCl₃ and HCl.^[63] Organolithium compounds (e.g. butyl lithium) react with carbon monoxide, but these reactions have little scientific use.

Although CO reacts with carbocations and carbanions, it is relatively nonreactive toward organic compounds without the intervention of metal catalysts.^[66]

With main group reagents, CO undergoes several noteworthy reactions. Chlorination of CO is the industrial route to the important compound phosgene. With borane CO forms an adduct, H₃BCO, which is isoelectronic with the acylium cation [H₃CCO]⁺. CO reacts with sodium to give products resulting from C-C coupling such as sodium acetylenediolate 2Na+
·C
2O2−
2. It reacts with molten potassium to give a mixture of an organometallic compound, potassium acetylenediolate 2K+
·C
2O2−
2, potassium benzenehexolate 6K+
C
6O6−
6,^[67] and potassium rhodizonate 2K+
·C
6O2−
6.^[68]

The compounds cyclohexanehexone or triquinoyl (C₆O₆) and cyclopentanepentone or leuconic acid (C₅O₅), which so far have been obtained only in trace amounts, can be regarded as polymers of carbon monoxide.

At pressures of over 5 gigapascals, carbon monoxide converts into a solid polymer of carbon and oxygen. This is metastable at atmospheric pressure but is a powerful explosive.^[69]^[70]

Uses

Chemical industry

Carbon monoxide is an industrial gas that has many applications in bulk chemicals manufacturing.^[71] Large quantities of aldehydes are produced by the hydroformylation reaction of alkenes, carbon monoxide, and H₂. Hydroformylation is coupled to the Shell Higher Olefin Process to give precursors to detergents.

Phosgene, useful for preparing isocyanates, polycarbonates, and polyurethanes, is produced by passing purified carbon monoxide and chlorine gas through a bed of porous activated carbon, which serves as a catalyst. World production of this compound was estimated to be 2.74 million tonnes in 1989.^[72]

CO + Cl₂ → COCl₂

Methanol is produced by the hydrogenation of carbon monoxide. In a related reaction, the hydrogenation of carbon monoxide is coupled to C-C bond formation, as in the Fischer-Tropsch process where carbon monoxide is hydrogenated to liquid hydrocarbon fuels. This technology allows coal or biomass to be converted to diesel.

In the Monsanto process, carbon monoxide and methanol react in the presence of a homogeneous rhodium catalyst and hydroiodic acid to give acetic acid. This process is responsible for most of the industrial production of acetic acid.

An industrial scale use for pure carbon monoxide is purifying nickel in the Mond process.

Meat coloring

Carbon monoxide is used in modified atmosphere packaging systems in the US, mainly with fresh meat products such as beef, pork, and fish to keep them looking fresh. The carbon monoxide combines with myoglobin to form carboxymyoglobin, a bright-cherry-red pigment. Carboxymyoglobin is more stable than the oxygenated form of myoglobin, oxymyoglobin, which can become oxidized to the brown pigment metmyoglobin. This stable red color can persist much longer than in normally packaged meat.^[73] Typical levels of carbon monoxide used in the facilities that use this process are between 0.4% to 0.5%.

The technology was first given "generally recognized as safe" (GRAS) status by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) in 2002 for use as a secondary packaging system, and does not require labeling. In 2004, the FDA approved CO as primary packaging method, declaring that CO does not mask spoilage odor.^[74] Despite this ruling, the process remains controversial for fears that it masks spoilage.^[75]^[76] In 2007, a bill^[77] was introduced to the United States House of Representatives to label modified atmosphere carbon monoxide packaging as a color additive, but the bill died in subcommittee. The process is banned in many other countries, including Japan, Singapore, and the European Union.^[78]^[79]^[80]

Medicine

In biology, carbon monoxide is naturally produced by the action of heme oxygenase 1 and 2 on the heme from hemoglobin breakdown. This process produces a certain amount of carboxyhemoglobin in normal persons, even if they do not breathe any carbon monoxide.

Following the first report that carbon monoxide is a normal neurotransmitter in 1993,^[7]^[8] as well as one of three gases that naturally modulate inflammatory responses in the body (the other two being nitric oxide and hydrogen sulfide), carbon monoxide has received a great deal of clinical attention as a biological regulator. In many tissues, all three gases are known to act as anti-inflammatories, vasodilators, and encouragers of neovascular growth.^[9] However, the issues are complex, as neovascular growth is not always beneficial, since it plays a role in tumor growth, and also the damage from wet macular degeneration, a disease for which smoking (a major source of carbon monoxide in the blood, several times more than natural production) increases the risk from 4 to 6 times.

There is a theory that, in some nerve cell synapses, when long-term memories are being laid down, the receiving cell makes carbon monoxide, which back-transmits to the transmitting cell, telling it to transmit more readily in future. Some such nerve cells have been shown to contain guanylate cyclase, an enzyme that is activated by carbon monoxide.^[8]

Studies involving carbon monoxide have been conducted in many laboratories throughout the world for its anti-inflammatory and cytoprotective properties. These properties have potential to be used to prevent the development of a series of pathological conditions including ischemia reperfusion injury, transplant rejection, atherosclerosis, severe sepsis, severe malaria, or autoimmunity. Clinical tests involving humans have been performed, however the results have not yet been released.^[10]

Lasers

Carbon monoxide has also been used as a lasing medium in high-powered infrared lasers.^[81]

Niche uses

Carbon monoxide has been proposed for use as a fuel on Mars. Carbon monoxide/oxygen engines have been suggested for early surface transportation use as both carbon monoxide and oxygen can be straightforwardly produced from the atmosphere of Mars by zirconia electrolysis, without using any Martian water resources to obtain hydrogen, which would be needed to make methane or any hydrogen-based fuel.^[82]

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External links

Explanation of the structure
Carbon Monoxide Safety Association
International Chemical Safety Card 0023
NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards
CDC – Carbon Monoxide – NIOSH Workplace Safety and Health Topic
External MSDS data sheet
Carbon Monoxide Detector Placement
Carbon Monoxide Purification Process
Carbon Monoxide Hazards with Backpacking Stoves
Microscale Gas Chemistry Experiments with Carbon Monoxide
Instant insight outlining the physiology of carbon monoxide from the Royal Society of Chemistry
Pictures of CO Poisoning Radiology and Pathology Images from MedPix.
The Silent Killer - Everything You Need To Know About Carbon Monoxide Poisoning

UpToDate Contents

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1. 一酸化炭素中毒 carbon monoxide poisoning
2. 一酸化炭素拡散能 diffusing capacity for carbon monoxide
3. Overview of chorea
4. 高圧酸素療法 hyperbaric oxygen therapy
5. 肺症状を伴うHIV感染患者に対するアプローチ approach to the hiv infected patient with pulmonary symptoms

English Journal

Hydrogen sulfide inhibits hypoxia- but not anoxia-induced hypoxia-inducible factor 1 activation in a von hippel-lindau- and mitochondria-dependent manner.

Kai S, Tanaka T, Daijo H, Harada H, Kishimoto S, Suzuki K, Takabuchi S, Takenaga K, Fukuda K, Hirota K.Source1 Department of Anesthesia, Kyoto University Hospital , Kyoto, Japan .
Antioxidants & redox signaling.Antioxid Redox Signal.2012 Feb 1;16(3):203-16. Epub 2011 Oct 17.
Abstract Aims: In addition to nitric oxide and carbon monoxide, hydrogen sulfide (H(2)S) is an endogenously synthesized gaseous molecule that acts as an important signaling molecule in the living body. Transcription factor hypoxia-inducible factor 1 (HIF-1) is known to respond to intracellular red
PMID 22004513

Heme breakdown and ischemia/reperfusion injury in grafted liver during living donor liver transplantation.

Matsumi J, Morimatsu H, Matsusaki T, Kaku R, Shimizu H, Takahashi T, Yagi T, Matsumi M, Morita K.SourceDepartment of Anesthesiology and Resuscitology, Okayama University Medical School, Okayama, Japan.
International journal of molecular medicine.Int J Mol Med.2012 Feb;29(2):135-40. doi: 10.3892/ijmm.2011.821. Epub 2011 Oct 27.
Living donor liver transplantation (LDLT) requires ischemia/reperfusion (I/R), which can cause early graft injury. However, the detailed mechanism of I/R injury remains unknown. Heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1) is a rate-limiting enzyme in heme catabolism and results in th
PMID 22037960

High-temperature pyrolysis/gas chromatography/isotope ratio mass spectrometry: simultaneous measurement of the stable isotopes of oxygen and carbon in cellulose.

Woodley EJ, Loader NJ, McCarroll D, Young GH, Robertson I, Heaton TH, Gagen MH, Warham JO.SourceDepartment of Geography, University of Exeter, Rennes Drive, Exeter, EX4 4RJ, UK; Department of Geography, Swansea University, Singleton Park, Swansea, SA2 8PP, UK; NERC Isotope Geosciences Laboratory, British Geological Survey, Nottingham, NG12 5GG, UK. ewanwoodley@gmail.com.
Rapid communications in mass spectrometry : RCM.Rapid Commun Mass Spectrom.2012 Jan 30;26(2):109-14. doi: 10.1002/rcm.5302.
Stable isotope analysis of cellulose is an increasingly important aspect of ecological and palaeoenvironmental research. Since these techniques are very costly, any methodological development which can provide simultaneous measurement of stable carbon and oxygen isotope ratios in cellulose deserves
PMID 22173798

Japanese Journal

Direct synthesis of few-layer graphene supported platinum nanocatalyst for methanol oxidation

Tan Hong,Ma Xiaohui,Sheng Leimei,An Kang,Yu Liming,Zhao Hongbin,Xu Jiaqiang,Ren Wei,Zhao Xinluo
Jpn. J. Appl. Phys. 53(11), 117101, 2014-10-07
… High-crystalline few-layer graphene supported Pt nanoparticles have been synthesized by arc discharge evaporation of carbon electrodes containing Pt element. … Cyclic voltammograms and chronoamperometric curves show that our present Pt/graphene catalysts have larger current density for methanol oxidation, higher tolerance to carbon monoxide poisoning, and better stability during the operating procedure, compared to commercial Pt/C catalysts. …
NAID 150000109876

自殺未遂者に対する精神科作業療法介入の可能性 : 急性一酸化炭素中毒の症例を通して

山本敦子,四本かやの,北元健 [他]
作業療法 = Japanese occupationai therapy researh : JOTR 33(5), 432-441, 2014-10
NAID 40020237612

3036 3つの煙流動予測計算モデルによる一酸化炭素濃度の再現計算 : 区画火災の模型実験データと比較して(煙流動性状,防火,2014年度日本建築学会大会(近畿)学術講演会・建築デザイン発表会)

橋村征,山内幸雄,水野雅之,若月薫
学術講演梗概集 2014(防火), 71-72, 2014-09-12
NAID 110009855493

「一酸化炭素中毒」

Carbon monoxide
Names
	Preferred IUPAC name Carbon monoxide
	Other names Carbon monooxide; Carbonous oxide; Carbon(II) oxide; Carbonyl; Flue gas; Monoxide
Identifiers
CAS Registry Number	630-08-0
Beilstein Reference	3587264
ChEBI	CHEBI:17245
ChemSpider	275
EC number	211-128-3
Gmelin Reference	421
	InChI InChI=1S/CO/c1-2 ; Key: UGFAIRIUMAVXCW-UHFFFAOYSA-N ; InChI=1/CO/c1-2; Key: UGFAIRIUMAVXCW-UHFFFAOYAT ;
Jmol-3D images	Image
KEGG	D09706
MeSH	Carbon+monoxide
PubChem	281
RTECS number	FG3500000
	SMILES [C-]#[O+] ;
UNII	7U1EE4V452
UN number	1016
Properties
Chemical formula	CO
Molar mass	28.010 g/mol
Appearance	colorless gas
Odor	odorless
Density	789 kg/m3, liquid; 1.250 kg/m3 at 0 °C, 1 atm; 1.145 kg/m3 at 25 °C, 1 atm
Melting point	−205.02 °C (−337.04 °F; 68.13 K)
Boiling point	−191.5 °C (−312.7 °F; 81.6 K)
Solubility in water	27.6 mg/L (25 °C)
Solubility	soluble in chloroform, acetic acid, ethyl acetate, ethanol, ammonium hydroxide, benzene
Henry's law; constant (kH)	1.04 atm-m3/mol
Refractive index (nD)	1.0003364
Dipole moment	0.122 D
Thermochemistry
Specific; heat capacity (C)	29.1 J/K mol
Std molar; entropy (So298)	197.7 J·mol−1·K−1
Std enthalpy of; formation (ΔfHo298)	−110.5 kJ·mol−1
Std enthalpy of; combustion (ΔcHo298)	−283.4 kJ/mol
Hazards
Safety data sheet	See: data page; ICSC 0023
EU classification	F T+
R-phrases	R61 R12 R26 R48/23
S-phrases	S53 S45
NFPA 704	4 3 0
Flash point	−191 °C (−311.8 °F; 82.1 K)
Autoignition; temperature	609 °C (1,128 °F; 882 K)
Explosive limits	12.5–74.2%
	Lethal dose or concentration (LD, LC):
LC50 (Median concentration)	8636 ppm (rat, 15 min); 5207 ppm (rat, 30 min); 1784 ppm (rat, 4 hr); 2414 ppm (mouse, 4 hr); 5647 ppm (guinea pig, 4 hr)
LCLo (Lowest published)	4000 ppm (human, 30 min); 5000 ppm (human, 5 min)
	US health exposure limits (NIOSH):
PEL (Permissible)	TWA 50 ppm (55 mg/m3)
REL (Recommended)	TWA 35 ppm (40 mg/m3) C 200 ppm (229 mg/m3)
IDLH (Immediate danger	1200 ppm
Related compounds
Related carbon oxides	Carbon dioxide; Carbon suboxide; Oxocarbons
Supplementary data page
Structure and; properties	Refractive index (n),; Dielectric constant (εr), etc.
Thermodynamic; data	Phase behaviour; solid–liquid–gas
Spectral data	UV, IR, NMR, MS
	Except where otherwise noted, data are given for materials in their standard state (at 25 °C [77 °F], 100 kPa).
	verify (what is: /?)
	Infobox references

　　[★]

英: carbon monoxide poisoning CO poisoning
同: CO中毒
関: 一酸化炭素 carbon monoxide CO

概念

一酸化炭素を吸入による中毒

疫学

わが国では中毒死の原因物質として頻度が高い(60%で最多 (YN.K-33))。自殺が半数以上。
COの発生源としては、火災、都市ガス、自動車の排気ガス、瞬間湯沸かし器などの各種燃焼器具、練炭などの炭製品などが挙げられる。
季節性で、特に冬に多い。

病因 HIM.1142

1. 一酸化炭素ヘモグロビンの生成により末梢への酸素運搬が阻害される(COのHbに対する親和性はO2のそれの250倍)　→　組織低酸素
2. 酸素解離曲線の左方移動。
3. CO とミオグロビンの結合　→　(心臓)心筋虚血、不整脈
4. チトクロム酸化酵素との結合による細胞呼吸障害。
5. 再灌流障害、酸素ラジカル生成・脂質過酸化による中枢神経障害。

病理

中枢神経：大脳基底核、レンズ核の虚血性変化が特徴的

法医

剖検所見では、死斑・血液の鮮紅色調が特徴。
血中COHbが50-60%以上であれば死因としうる。
焼死体では、煤の吸引とともに、火災時に生存していたことの根拠として重要。

症候

IMD.1143, NEL.355

症状はCOHbの血中濃度に依存する。
初期症状は頭痛、悪心・嘔吐で、非特異的でありインフルエンザ、胃腸炎と誤診されやすい。さらにCOHb濃度が上がると、激しい頭痛、めまい、視野の変化、脱力が生じる。高濃度では昏睡、てんかん発作、呼吸不安定、死が起こる。
血中COHb＞10%；頭痛。＞30%；激しい頭痛、悪心、嘔吐。＞60-70%；死亡

眼症状：網膜出血(NEL.355)、乳頭浮腫(CASES.192)
皮膚・粘膜：(急性のCO中毒)generalized chery-red color of the skin and mucous membranes.
中枢神経症状：
循環器症状：胸痛、心電図上の虚血性変化、不整脈
呼吸器症状：息切れ、頻呼吸
消化器症状：悪心・嘔吐
泌尿器症状：失禁
慢性期：遅発性精神系精神症状群 delayed neuro-psychiatric syndrome：10-30%に認める。50-75%は1年以内に回復
回復した意識が1-3週後に再び低下することがある。

重症例では中枢神経系、腎臓、肺、心臓等が冒される

病型による症状

急性一酸化炭素中毒
慢性一酸化炭素中毒、間歇型一酸化炭素中毒：知覚障害、運動障害(錐体路症状、錐体外路症状)

IMD.1142

COHb(%)	症状
≦10	ほとんどなし
10～20	前頭部頭重感、皮膚血管拡張
20～30	拍動性頭痛、体動時の息切れ
30～40	悪心、めまい、視力障害、疲労感、判断力低下
40～50	頻脈、昏迷、脱力、虚脱
50～60	昏睡、痙攣
60～70	低血圧、呼吸微弱
≧70	呼吸停止、死亡

WMM.757

20-40% : めまい、頭痛、脱力、判断力の低下、悪心・嘔吐、視力の低下。網膜の出血が見られることがある。
40-60% : 頻呼吸、頻拍、失行、失神、てんかん。ECGではST部位の変化、伝導障害、心房・心室性不整脈が分かるかもしれない。
60%以上: 昏睡、死

BPT.282

20-30%：全身性の低酸素血症
60-70%：死亡

NEL. 355

>15%：症状が出現
>20%：中毒症状が出現
>40%：重度の神経症状が出現

身体所見

古典的所見のcherry-red lips(さくらんぼ色の唇)、チアノーゼ、眼底出血の頻度は高くない。　→　むしろですねCO-Hbの吸光度特性はO2-Hbに似てるからチアノーゼは見いだされないよ。

検査

HIM.1142

1. 血液ガス検査

COHb濃度の上昇(基準値：1-3%、ヘビースモーカー：15%)
pulse-oximetry gap：パルスオキシメーターでは COHb と酸化 Hb の区別が不可能なため、酸素飽和度の実測値より高値となる。
動脈酸素分圧は正常だから(そうなの？)、動脈酸素飽和度や一酸化炭素ヘモグロビンを測定する必要がある(WMM.757)

2. 血液生化学

CK、LDH　→　心筋障害を示唆

3. 心電図

心筋虚血、不整脈(頻脈、各種ブロックなど)

4. 頭部CT・MRI検査

CT：意識障害を来す疾患の除外診断

大脳基底核：萎縮、限局性低吸収
大脳白質　：広範な低吸収

MRI：白質の脱髄所見、淡蒼球(globus pallidus)の壊死

治療

100%酸素投与

COHbが10%未満になるまで継続(WMM.757)
4-6時間の治療後にも症状が持続する場合には、高気圧酸素療法を考慮する。

高圧酸素療法 hyperbaric oxygen HBO

高圧酸素療法(3 atm)は以下の患者に推奨される；意識がない、神経症状、ECG所見で虚血、重度の代謝性アシドーシス、横紋筋融解症、肺浮腫、あるいはショックが認められる患者(WMM.757)
RCTによる有効性に関する根拠はないが、昏睡、意識消失、痙攣などの重度中枢神経症状、肺浮腫、心筋虚血、重症代謝性アシドーシスを呈する場合、COHb ＞ 40%、妊娠時、高齢患者には適応(IMD.1142)。
高酸素療法は長期的な神経学的転帰を改善する(WMM.757)

血液中のCOの半減期 NEL.355

健常人：平均5-6時間
100%酸素の投与下：40-60分
高圧酸素(2.5-3気圧)：15-30分　適応：CO中毒に適合した神経症状が出現/子供や妊婦でCOHbレベルが25%より大きいこと

診断

発症した患者をとりまく状況(居合わせた他の人、COを発生しうる環境か)を聴く
除外診断：CO中毒様の症状を来す疾患を鑑別。特に中枢神経疾患

後遺症

精神神経症状：健忘症、自発性低下、感情障害、パーキンソン症候群など

予後

速やかに意識が回復する場合は予後良好
意思疎通の回復は4日以内に限られ、昏睡が遷延する場合には回復を期待できない。

「CO」

　　[★]

「一酸化炭素」

　　[★]

英: carbon monoxide, CO

臨床関連

一酸化炭素中毒

「carbon monoxide intoxication」

　　[★]

一酸化炭素中毒

関: carbon monoxide poisoning

「diffusing capacity for carbon monoxide」

　　[★] 一酸化炭素肺拡散能力

「carbon」

　　[★]

炭素、カーボン

関: C、carbonic

「monoxide」

　　[★]

一酸化物、一酸化の

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リンク元	「一酸化炭素中毒」「CO」「一酸化炭素」
拡張検索	「carbon monoxide intoxication」「diffusing capacity for carbon monoxide」
関連記事	「carbon」「monoxide」

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carbon monoxide