関: Cf

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a radioactive transuranic element; discovered by bombarding curium with alpha particles (同)Cf, atomic number 98

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カリフォルニウム(人工放射性金属元素;化学記号は『Cf』)
californiumの化学記号

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出典(authority):フリー百科事典『ウィキペディア（Wikipedia）』「2015/08/13 21:30:41」(JST)

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Californium is a radioactive metallic chemical element with symbol Cf and atomic number 98. The element was first made in 1950 at the University of California Radiation Laboratory in Berkeley, by bombarding curium with alpha particles (helium-4 ions). It is an actinide element, the sixth transuranium element to be synthesized, and has the second-highest atomic mass of all the elements that have been produced in amounts large enough to see with the unaided eye (after einsteinium). The element was named after the university and the state of California. It is the heaviest element to occur naturally on Earth; heavier elements can only be produced by synthesis.

Two crystalline forms exist for californium under normal pressure: one above and one below 900 °C (1,650 °F). A third form exists at high pressure. Californium slowly tarnishes in air at room temperature. Compounds of californium are dominated by a chemical form of the element, designated californium(III), that can participate in three chemical bonds. The most stable of californium's twenty known isotopes is californium-251, which has a half-life of 898 years. This short half-life means the element is not found in significant quantities in the Earth's crust.^[a] Californium-252, with a half-life of about 2.64 years, is the most common isotope used and is produced at the Oak Ridge National Laboratory in the United States and the Research Institute of Atomic Reactors in Russia.

Californium is one of the few transuranium elements that have practical applications. Most of these applications exploit the property of certain isotopes of californium to emit neutrons. For example, californium can be used to help start up nuclear reactors, and it is employed as a source of neutrons when studying materials with neutron diffraction and neutron spectroscopy. Californium can also be used in nuclear synthesis of higher mass elements; ununoctium (element 118) was synthesized by bombarding californium-249 atoms with calcium-48 ions. Use of californium must take into account radiological concerns and the element's ability to disrupt the formation of red blood cells by bioaccumulating in skeletal tissue.

Characteristics

Physical properties

Californium is a silvery white actinide metal^[10] with a melting point of 900 ± 30 °C (1,650 ± 50 °F) and an estimated boiling point of 1,745 K (1,470 °C; 2,680 °F).^[11] The pure metal is malleable and is easily cut with a razor blade. Californium metal starts to vaporize above 300 °C (570 °F) when exposed to a vacuum.^[12] Below 51 K (−220 °C) californium metal is either ferromagnetic or ferrimagnetic (it acts like a magnet), between 48 and 66 K it is antiferromagnetic (an intermediate state), and above 160 K (−113 °C; −172 °F) it is paramagnetic (external magnetic fields can make it magnetic).^[13] It forms alloys with lanthanide metals but little is known about them.^[12]

The element has two crystalline forms under 1 standard atmosphere of pressure: A double-hexagonal close-packed form dubbed alpha (α) and a face-centered cubic form designated beta (β).^[b] The α form exists below 900 °C (1,650 °F) with a density of 15.10 g/cm³ and the β form exists above 900 °C with a density of 8.74 g/cm³.^[15] At 48 GPa of pressure the β form changes into an orthorhombic crystal system due to delocalization of the atom's 5f electrons, which frees them to bond.^[16]^[c]

The bulk modulus of a material is a measure of its resistance to uniform pressure. Californium's bulk modulus is 50 ± 5 GPa, which is similar to trivalent lanthanide metals but smaller than more familiar metals, such as aluminium (70 GPa).^[16]

Chemical properties and compounds

Representative californium compounds^[10]^[d]
state	compound	formula	color
+2	californium(II) bromide	CfBr₂	yellow
+2	californium(II) iodide	CfI₂	dark violet
+3	californium(III) oxide	Cf₂O₃	yellow-green
+3	californium(III) fluoride	CfF₃	bright green
+3	californium(III) chloride	CfCl₃	emerald green
+3	californium(III) iodide	CfI₃	lemon yellow
+4	californium(IV) oxide	CfO₂	black brown
+4	californium(IV) fluoride	CfF₄	green

Californium exhibits valences of 4, 3, or 2; indicating the number of chemical bonds one atom of this element can form.^[15] Its chemical properties are predicted to be similar to other primarily 3+ valence actinide elements^[18] and the element dysprosium, which is the lanthanide above californium in the periodic table.^[19] The element slowly tarnishes in air at room temperature, with the rate increasing when moisture is added.^[15] Californium reacts when heated with hydrogen, nitrogen, or a chalcogen (oxygen family element); reactions with dry hydrogen and aqueous mineral acids are rapid.^[15]

Californium is only water-soluble as the californium(III) cation. Attempts to reduce or oxidize the +3 ion in solution have failed.^[19] The element forms a water-soluble chloride, nitrate, perchlorate, and sulfate and is precipitated as a fluoride, oxalate, or hydroxide.^[18]

Isotopes

Twenty radioisotopes of californium have been characterized, the most stable being californium-251 with a half-life of 898 years, californium-249 with a half-life of 351 years, californium-250 with a half-life of 13.08 years, and californium-252 with a half-life of 2.645 years.^[9] All the remaining isotopes have half-lives shorter than a year, and the majority of these have half-lives shorter than 20 minutes.^[9] The isotopes of californium range in mass number from 237 to 256.^[9]

Californium-249 is formed from the beta decay of berkelium-249, and most other californium isotopes are made by subjecting berkelium to intense neutron radiation in a nuclear reactor.^[19] Although californium-251 has the longest half-life, its production yield is only 10% due to its tendency to collect neutrons (high neutron capture) and its tendency to interact with other particles (high neutron cross-section).^[20]

Californium-252 is a very strong neutron emitter, which makes it extremely radioactive and harmful.^[21]^[22]^[23] Californium-252 undergoes alpha decay (the loss of two protons and two neutrons) 96.9% of the time to form curium-248 while the remaining 3.1% of decays are spontaneous fission.^[9] One microgram (µg) of californium-252 emits 2.3 million neutrons per second, an average of 3.7 neutrons per spontaneous fission.^[24] Most of the other isotopes of californium decay to isotopes of curium (atomic number 96) via alpha decay.^[9]

History

The 60-inch-diameter (1.52 m) cyclotron used to first synthesize californium

Californium was first synthesized at the University of California Radiation Laboratory in Berkeley, by the physics researchers Stanley G. Thompson, Kenneth Street, Jr., Albert Ghiorso, and Glenn T. Seaborg on or about February 9, 1950.^[25] It was the sixth transuranium element to be discovered; the team announced its discovery on March 17, 1950.^[26]^[27]^[28]

To produce californium, a microgram-sized target of curium-242 (242
96Cm) was bombarded with 35 MeV-alpha particles (4
2He) in the 60-inch-diameter (1.52 m) cyclotron at Berkeley, which produced californium-245 (245
98Cf) plus one free neutron (n).^[25]

242
96Cm + 4
2He → 245
98Cf + 1
0n

Only about 5,000 atoms of californium were produced in this experiment,^[29] and these atoms had a half-life of 44 minutes.^[25]

The discoverers named the new element after the university and the state. This was a break from the convention used for elements 95 to 97, which drew inspiration from how the elements directly above them in the periodic table were named.^[30]^[e] However, the element directly above element 98 in the periodic table, dysprosium, has a name that simply means "hard to get at" so the researchers decided to set aside the informal naming convention.^[32] They added that "the best we can do is to point out [that] ... searchers a century ago found it difficult to get to California."^[31]

Weighable quantities of californium were first produced by the irradiation of plutonium targets at the Materials Testing Reactor at the National Reactor Testing Station in eastern Idaho; and these findings were reported in 1954.^[33] The high spontaneous fission rate of californium-252 was observed in these samples. The first experiment with californium in concentrated form occurred in 1958.^[25] The isotopes californium-249 to californium-252 were isolated that same year from a sample of plutonium-239 that had been irradiated with neutrons in a nuclear reactor for five years.^[10] Two years later, in 1960, Burris Cunningham and James Wallman of the Lawrence Radiation Laboratory of the University of California created the first californium compounds—californium trichloride, californium oxychloride, and californium oxide—by treating californium with steam and hydrochloric acid.^[34]

The High Flux Isotope Reactor (HFIR) at the Oak Ridge National Laboratory (ORNL) in Oak Ridge, Tennessee, started producing small batches of californium in the 1960s.^[35] By 1995, the HFIR nominally produced 500 milligrams (0.018 oz) of californium annually.^[36] Plutonium supplied by the United Kingdom to the United States under the 1958 US-UK Mutual Defence Agreement was used for californium production.^[37]

The Atomic Energy Commission sold californium-252 to industrial and academic customers in the early 1970s for $10 per microgram^[24] and an average of 150 mg (0.0053 oz) of californium-252 were shipped each year from 1970 to 1990.^[38]^[f] Californium metal was first prepared in 1974 by Haire and Baybarz who reduced californium(III) oxide with lanthanum metal to obtain microgram amounts of sub-micrometer thick films.^[39]^[40]^[g]

Occurrence

Nuclear testing has contaminated the environment with traces of californium.

Very minute amounts of californium have been found to exist on Earth due to neutron capture reactions and beta decay in very highly concentrated uranium-bearing deposits.^[42] Traces of californium can be found near facilities that use the element in mineral prospecting and in medical treatments.^[43] The element is fairly insoluble in water, but it adheres well to ordinary soil; and concentrations of it in the soil can be 500 times higher than in the water surrounding the soil particles.^[44]

Fallout from atmospheric nuclear testing prior to 1980 contributed a small amount of californium to the environment.^[44] Californium isotopes with mass numbers 249, 252, 253, and 254 have been observed in the radioactive dust collected from the air after a nuclear explosion.^[45] Californium is not a major radionuclide at United States Department of Energy legacy sites since it was not produced in large quantities.^[44]

Californium was once believed to be produced in supernovas, as their decay matches the 60 day half-life of ²⁵⁴Cf.^[46] However, subsequent studies failed to demonstrate any californium spectra,^[47] and supernova light curves are now thought to follow the decay of nickel-56.^[48]

Production

Californium is produced in nuclear reactors and particle accelerators.^[49] Californium-250 is made by bombarding berkelium-249 (249
97Bk) with neutrons, forming berkelium-250 (250
97Bk) via neutron capture (n,γ) which, in turn, quickly beta decays (β⁻) to californium-250 (250
98Cf) in the following reaction:^[50]

249
97Bk(n,γ)250
97Bk → 250
98Cf + β⁻

Bombardment of californium-250 with neutrons produces californium-251 and californium-252.^[50]

Prolonged irradiation of americium, curium, and plutonium with neutrons produces milligram amounts of californium-252 and microgram amounts of californium-249.^[51] As of 2006, curium isotopes 244 to 248 are irradiated by neutrons in special reactors to produce primarily californium-252 with lesser amounts of isotopes 249 to 255.^[52]

Microgram quantities of californium-252 are available for commercial use through the U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission.^[49] Only two sites produce californium-252 – the Oak Ridge National Laboratory in the United States, and the Research Institute of Atomic Reactors in Dimitrovgrad, Russia. As of 2003, the two sites produce 0.25 grams and 0.025 grams of californium-252 per year, respectively.^[53]

Three californium isotopes with significant half-lives are produced, requiring a total of 15 neutron captures by uranium-238 without nuclear fission or alpha decay occurring during the process.^[53] Californium-253 is at the end of a production chain that starts with uranium-238, includes several isotopes of plutonium, americium, curium, berkelium, and the californium isotopes 249 to 253 (see diagram).

Scheme of the production of californium-252 from uranium-238 by neutron irradiation

Applications

Fifty-ton shipping cask built at Oak Ridge National Laboratory which can transport up to 1 gram of ²⁵²Cf.^[54] Large and heavily shielded transport containers are needed to prevent the release of highly radioactive material in case of normal and hypothetical accidents.^[55]

Californium-252 has a number of specialized applications as a strong neutron emitter, and each microgram of fresh californium produces 139 million neutrons per minute.^[24] This property makes californium useful as a neutron startup source for some nuclear reactors^[15] and as a portable (non-reactor based) neutron source for neutron activation analysis to detect trace amounts of elements in samples.^[56]^[h] Neutrons from californium are employed as a treatment of certain cervical and brain cancers where other radiation therapy is ineffective.^[15] It has been used in educational applications since 1969 when the Georgia Institute of Technology received a loan of 119 µg of californium-252 from the Savannah River Plant.^[58] It is also used with online elemental coal analyzers and bulk material analyzers in the coal and cement industries.

Neutron penetration into materials makes californium useful in detection instruments such as fuel rod scanners;^[15] neutron radiography of aircraft and weapons components to detect corrosion, bad welds, cracks and trapped moisture;^[59] and in portable metal detectors.^[60] Neutron moisture gauges use californium-252 to find water and petroleum layers in oil wells, as a portable neutron source for gold and silver prospecting for on-the-spot analysis,^[19] and to detect ground water movement.^[61] The major uses of californium-252 in 1982 were, in order of use, reactor start-up (48.3%), fuel rod scanning (25.3%), and activation analysis (19.4%).^[62] By 1994 most californium-252 was used in neutron radiography (77.4%), with fuel rod scanning (12.1%) and reactor start-up (6.9%) as important but distant secondary uses.^[62]

Californium-251 has a very small calculated critical mass (about 5 kg (11 lb)),^[63] high lethality, and a relatively short period of toxic environmental irradiation. The low critical mass of californium led to some exaggerated claims about possible uses for the element.^[i]

In October 2006, researchers announced that three atoms of ununoctium (element 118) had been identified at the Joint Institute for Nuclear Research in Dubna, Russia, as the product of bombardment of californium-249 with calcium-48, making it the heaviest element ever synthesized. The target for this experiment contained about 10 mg of californium-249 deposited on a titanium foil of 32 cm² area.^[65]^[66]^[67] Californium has also been used to produce other transuranium elements; for example, element 103 (later named lawrencium) was first synthesized in 1961 by bombarding californium with boron nuclei.^[68]

Precautions

Californium that bioaccumulates in skeletal tissue releases radiation that disrupts the body's ability to form red blood cells.^[69] The element plays no natural biological role in any organism due to its intense radioactivity and low concentration in the environment.^[43]

Californium can enter the body from ingesting contaminated food or drinks or by breathing air with suspended particles of the element. Once in the body, only 0.05% of the californium will reach the bloodstream. About 65% of that californium will be deposited in the skeleton, 25% in the liver, and the rest in other organs, or excreted, mainly in urine. Half of the californium deposited in the skeleton and liver are gone in 50 and 20 years, respectively. Californium in the skeleton adheres to bone surfaces before slowly migrating throughout the bone.^[44]

The element is most dangerous if taken into the body. In addition, californium-249 and californium-251 can cause tissue damage externally, through gamma ray emission. Ionizing radiation emitted by californium on bone and in the liver can cause cancer.^[44]

Notes

^ The Earth formed 4.5 billion years ago, and the extent of natural neutron emission within it that could produce californium from more stable elements is extremely limited.
^ A double hexagonal close-packed (dhcp) unit cell consists of two hexagonal close-packed structures that share a common hexagonal plane, giving dhcp an ABACABAC sequence.^[14]
^ The three lower-mass transplutonium elements—americium, curium, and berkelium—require much less pressure to delocalize their 5f electrons.^[16]
^ Other +3 oxidation states include the sulfide and metallocene.^[17] Compounds in the +4 oxidation state are strong oxidizing agents and those in the +2 state are strong reducing agents.^[10]
^ Europium, in the sixth period directly above element 95, was named for the continent it was discovered on, so element 95 was named americium. Element 96 was named for Marie Curie and Pierre Curie as an analog to the naming of gadolinium, which was named for the scientist and engineer Johan Gadolin. Terbium was named for the village it was discovered in, so element 97 was named berkelium.^[31]
^ The Nuclear Regulatory Commission replaced the Atomic Energy Commission when the Energy Reorganization Act of 1974 was implemented. The price of californium-252 was increased by the NRC several times and was $60 per microgram by 1999; this price does not include the cost of encapsulation and transportation.^[24]
^ In 1975, another paper stated that the californium metal prepared the year before was the hexagonal compound Cf₂O₂S and face-centered cubic compound CfS.^[41] The 1974 work was confirmed in 1976 and work on californium metal continued.^[39]
^ By 1990, californium-252 had replaced plutonium-beryllium neutron sources due to its smaller size and lower heat and gas generation.^[57]
^ An article entitled "Facts and Fallacies of World War III" in the July 1961, edition of Popular Science magazine read "A californium atomic bomb need be no bigger than a pistol bullet. You could build a hand-held six-shooter to fire bullets that would explode on contact with the force of 10 tons of TNT."^[64]

References

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^ Joseph Jacob Katz; Glenn Theodore Seaborg; Lester R. Morss (1986). The Chemistry of the actinide elements. Chapman and Hall. p. 1038. ISBN 9780412273704. Retrieved 11 July 2011.
^ Greenwood 1997, p. 1265.
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^ CRC 2006, p. 11.196.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f NNDC contributors (2008). Sonzogni, Alejandro A. (Database Manager), ed. "Chart of Nuclides". National Nuclear Data Center, Brookhaven National Laboratory. Retrieved 2010-03-01.
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^ ^a ^b Haire 2006, p. 1526.
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^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g O'Neil 2006, p. 276.
^ ^a ^b ^c Haire 2006, p. 1522.
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^ Hicks, D. A.; Ise, John; Pyle, Robert V. (1955). "Multiplicity of Neutrons from the Spontaneous Fission of Californium-252". Physical Review 97 (2): 564–565. Bibcode:1955PhRv...97..564H. doi:10.1103/PhysRev.97.564.
^ Hicks, D. A.; Ise, John; Pyle, Robert V. (1955). "Spontaneous-Fission Neutrons of Californium-252 and Curium-244". Physical Review 98 (5): 1521–1523. Bibcode:1955PhRv...98.1521H. doi:10.1103/PhysRev.98.1521.
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^ ^a ^b ^c ^d Martin, R. C.; Knauer, J. B.; Balo, P. A. (1999). "Production, Distribution, and Applications of Californium-252 Neutron Sources". Applied Radiation and Isotopes 53 (4–5): 785–92. doi:10.1016/S0969-8043(00)00214-1. PMID 11003521.
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^ Thompson, S. G.; Street, Jr., K.; A., Ghiorso; Seaborg, G. T. (1950). "Element 98". Physical Review 78 (3): 298. Bibcode:1950PhRv...78..298T. doi:10.1103/PhysRev.78.298.2.
^ Thompson, S. G.; Street, Jr., K.; Ghiorso, A.; Seaborg, G. T. (1950). "The New Element Californium (Atomic Number 98)" (PDF). Physical Review 80 (5): 790. Bibcode:1950PhRv...80..790T. doi:10.1103/PhysRev.80.790.
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^ ^a ^b Haire 2006, p. 1519.
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^ Ruiz-Lapuente1996, p. 274.
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^ ^a ^b Heiserman 1992, p. 348.
^ Cunningham 1968, p. 105.
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^ Seaborg 1994, p. 245.
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^ Seaborg 1990, p. 318.
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^ Osborne-Lee 1995, pp. 26–27.
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Seaborg, Glenn T.; Loveland, Walter D. (1990). The Elements Beyond Uranium. John Wiley & Sons, Inc. ISBN 978-0-471-89062-1.
Seaborg, G. T. (1994). Modern alchemy: selected papers of Glenn T. Seaborg. World Scientific. ISBN 978-981-02-1440-1.
Seaborg, G. T. (1996). Adloff, J. P., ed. One Hundred Years after the Discovery of Radioactivity. Oldenbourg Wissenschaftsverlag. ISBN 978-3-486-64252-0.
Seaborg, Glenn T. (2004). "Californium". In Geller, Elizabeth. Concise Encyclopedia of Chemistry. McGraw-Hill. p. 94. ISBN 978-0-07-143953-4.
Szwacki, Nevill Gonzalez; Szwacka, Teresa (2010). Basic Elements of Crystallography. Pan Stanford. ISBN 978-981-4241-59-5.
Weeks, Mary Elvira; Leichester, Henry M. (1968). "21: Modern Alchemy". Discovery of the Elements. Journal of Chemical Education. pp. 848–850. ISBN 978-0-7661-3872-8. LCCN 68015217.

External links

Californium at The Periodic Table of Videos (University of Nottingham)
NuclearWeaponArchive.org – Californium
Hazardous Substances Databank – Californium, Radioactive

UpToDate Contents

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1. 成人における放射線障害の生物学および臨床的特徴 biology and clinical features of radiation injury in adults

English Journal

Spontaneous Partitioning of Californium from Curium: Curious Cases from the Crystallization of Curium Coordination Complexes.

Cary SK1, Silver MA1, Liu G2, Wang JC1, Bogart JA3, Stritzinger JT1, Arico AA1, Hanson K1, Schelter EJ3, Albrecht-Schmitt TE1.
Inorganic chemistry.Inorg Chem.2015 Nov 12. [Epub ahead of print]
The reaction of 248CmCl3 with excess 2,6-pyridinedicarboxylic acid (DPA) under mild solvothermal conditions results in crystallization of the tris-chelate complex Cm(HDPA)3·H2O. Approximately half of the curium remains in solution at the end of this process, and evaporation of the mother liquor res
PMID 26562586

AN INTERLABORATORY COMPARISON ON THE DETERMINATION OF 241Am, 244Cm AND 252Cf IN URINE.

Gerstmann UC1, Taubner K2, Hartmann M2.
Radiation protection dosimetry.Radiat Prot Dosimetry.2015 Nov 2. pii: ncv447. [Epub ahead of print]
An intercomparison exercise on the determination of 241Am, 244Cm and 252Cf in urine was performed. Since it was designed with regard to emergency preparedness, the detection limit for each nuclide was set to 0.1 Bq per 24-h urine sample. Most of the participating laboratories were established bioass
PMID 26535001

A retrospective study of californium-252 neutron brachytherapy combined with EBRT versus 3D-CRT in the treatment of esophageal squamous cell cancer.

Wang Q1, Li T2, Lang J3, Wang J4, Wang J5, Liu H6, Jia X7, Liu B8, Wang CK9.
Radiation oncology (London, England).Radiat Oncol.2015 Oct 24;10(1):212. doi: 10.1186/s13014-015-0520-7.
BACKGROUND: We conducted a retrospective analysis on 884 patients who were diagnosed with esophageal squamous cell carcinoma (ESCC) and treated with either the neutron brachytherapy in combination with external beam radiotherapy (NBT + EBRT) or 3-dimensional conformal radiation therapy (3D-CRT)
PMID 26499111

Combination of external beam radiotherapy and Californium (Cf)-252 neutron intracavity brachytherapy is more effective in control of cervical squamous cell carcinoma than that of cervical adenocarcinoma.

Xiong Y1, Liu J, Chen S, Zhou Q, Xu W, Tang C, Chen Y, Yang M, Lei X.
Medical oncology (Northwood, London, England).Med Oncol.2015 Sep;32(9):231. doi: 10.1007/s12032-015-0670-3. Epub 2015 Aug 14.
The objective of this study was to compare the effect of combined external beam radiotherapy (EBRT) and Californium (Cf)-252 neutron intracavity brachytherapy (ICBT) on cervical squamous versus adenocarcinoma. A total of 106 patients with stage IB-IIIB cervical cancer were accrued between January 20
PMID 26271794

Japanese Journal

カリフォルニウム252を用いた超小型衛星向けの放射線試験に関する研究

冨岡孝裕,増井博一,趙孟佑 [他]
宇宙科学技術連合講演会講演集 58, 5p, 2014-11-12
NAID 40020279962

カリフォルニウム252を利用した鳳龍参号バスシステムへの放射線試験

奥村裕太,富岡孝裕,増井博一 [他]
宇宙科学技術連合講演会講演集 57, 5p, 2013-10-09
NAID 40020229652

^<252>Cf中性子校正場における線源周辺構造による中性子フルエンス分布の非等方性

辻村憲雄,吉田忠義
Radioisotopes 55(2), 61-70, 2006-02-15
NAID 10017293437

｀２５２´Ｃｆ中性子校正場における線源周辺構造による中性子フルエンス分布の非等方性

辻村憲雄,吉田忠義
RADIOISOTOPES 55(2), 61-70, 2006
中性子測定器の校正に使用される252Cf標準中性子線源は, ステンレス鋼の二重構造からなるカプセルに252Cfが封じられている。252Cfそのものから放出される中性子のフルエンス分布は等方であるが, 実際には, 線源カプセルのほか, 線源ハンドリング用の金属製ホ …
NAID 130004127628

「Cf」

Californium, ₉₈Cf
General properties
Name, symbol	californium, Cf
Pronunciation	/ˌkælɨˈfɔrniəm/; KAL-i-FOR-nee-əm
Appearance	silvery
Californium in the periodic table
	berkelium ← californium → einsteinium
Atomic number	98
Standard atomic weight (Ar)	(251)
Element category	actinide
Group, block	group n/a, f-block
Period	period 7
Electron configuration	[Rn] 5f10 7s2
per shell	2, 8, 18, 32, 28, 8, 2
Physical properties
Phase	solid
Melting point	1173 K (900 °C, 1652 °F)
Boiling point	1743 K (1470 °C, 2678 °F) (estimation)
Density near r.t.	15.1 g/cm3
Atomic properties
Oxidation states	2, 3, 4
Electronegativity	Pauling scale: 1.3
Ionization energies	1st: 608 kJ/mol
Miscellanea
Crystal structure	double hexagonal close-packed (dhcp)
Mohs hardness	3–4
CAS Registry Number	7440-71-3
History
Naming	after California, where it was discovered
Discovery	Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory (1950)
Most stable isotopes
	Main article: Isotopes of californium
	Isotope references
	view; talk; edit; · references

　　[★]

カリホルニウム

関: californium

[age_of_earth-10] The Earth formed 4.5 billion years ago, and the extent of natural neutron emission within it that could produce californium from more stable elements is extremely limited.

[16] A double hexagonal close-packed (dhcp) unit cell consists of two hexagonal close-packed structures that share a common hexagonal plane, giving dhcp an ABACABAC sequence.^[14]

[19] The three lower-mass transplutonium elements—americium, curium, and berkelium—require much less pressure to delocalize their 5f electrons.^[16]

[21] Other +3 oxidation states include the sulfide and metallocene.^[17] Compounds in the +4 oxidation state are strong oxidizing agents and those in the +2 state are strong reducing agents.^[10]

[36] Europium, in the sixth period directly above element 95, was named for the continent it was discovered on, so element 95 was named americium. Element 96 was named for Marie Curie and Pierre Curie as an analog to the naming of gadolinium, which was named for the scientist and engineer Johan Gadolin. Terbium was named for the village it was discovered in, so element 97 was named berkelium.^[31]

[44] The Nuclear Regulatory Commission replaced the Atomic Energy Commission when the Energy Reorganization Act of 1974 was implemented. The price of californium-252 was increased by the NRC several times and was $60 per microgram by 1999; this price does not include the cost of encapsulation and transportation.^[24]

[48] In 1975, another paper stated that the californium metal prepared the year before was the hexagonal compound Cf₂O₂S and face-centered cubic compound CfS.^[41] The 1974 work was confirmed in 1976 and work on californium metal continued.^[39]

[65] By 1990, californium-252 had replaced plutonium-beryllium neutron sources due to its smaller size and lower heat and gas generation.^[57]

[73] An article entitled "Facts and Fallacies of World War III" in the July 1961, edition of Popular Science magazine read "A californium atomic bomb need be no bigger than a pistol bullet. You could build a hand-held six-shooter to fire bullets that would explode on contact with the force of 10 tons of TNT."^[64]

[FOOTNOTECRC20064.56-1] CRC 2006, p. 4.56.

[FOOTNOTECRC20061.14-2] CRC 2006, p. 1.14.

[3] Joseph Jacob Katz; Glenn Theodore Seaborg; Lester R. Morss (1986). The Chemistry of the actinide elements. Chapman and Hall. p. 1038. ISBN 9780412273704. Retrieved 11 July 2011.

[FOOTNOTEGreenwood19971265-4] Greenwood 1997, p. 1265.

[FOOTNOTEEmsley199850-5] Emsley 1998, p. 50.

[FOOTNOTECRC200610.204-6] CRC 2006, p. 10.204.

[FOOTNOTECRC1991254-7] CRC 1991, p. 254.

[FOOTNOTECRC200611.196-8] CRC 2006, p. 11.196.

[NNDC2008-9] ^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f NNDC contributors (2008). Sonzogni, Alejandro A. (Database Manager), ed. "Chart of Nuclides". National Nuclear Data Center, Brookhaven National Laboratory. Retrieved 2010-03-01.

[FOOTNOTEJakubke1994166-11] Jakubke 1994, p. 166.

[FOOTNOTEHaire20061522.E2.80.931523-12] Haire 2006, pp. 1522–1523.

[FOOTNOTEHaire20061526-13] Haire 2006, p. 1526.

[FOOTNOTEHaire20061525-14] Haire 2006, p. 1525.

[FOOTNOTESzwacki201080-15] Szwacki 2010, p. 80.

[FOOTNOTEO.27Neil2006276-17] ^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g O'Neil 2006, p. 276.

[FOOTNOTEHaire20061522-18] Haire 2006, p. 1522.

[FOOTNOTECotton19991163-20] Cotton 1999, p. 1163.

[FOOTNOTESeaborg2004-22] Seaborg 2004.

[FOOTNOTECRC20064.8-23] CRC 2006, p. 4.8.

[FOOTNOTEHaire20061504-24] Haire 2006, p. 1504.

[25] Hicks, D. A.; Ise, John; Pyle, Robert V. (1955). "Multiplicity of Neutrons from the Spontaneous Fission of Californium-252". Physical Review 97 (2): 564–565. Bibcode:1955PhRv...97..564H. doi:10.1103/PhysRev.97.564.

[26] Hicks, D. A.; Ise, John; Pyle, Robert V. (1955). "Spontaneous-Fission Neutrons of Californium-252 and Curium-244". Physical Review 98 (5): 1521–1523. Bibcode:1955PhRv...98.1521H. doi:10.1103/PhysRev.98.1521.

[27] Hjalmar, E.; Slätis, H.; Thompson, S.G. (1955). "Energy Spectrum of Neutrons from Spontaneous Fission of Californium-252". Physical Review 100 (5): 1542–1543. Bibcode:1955PhRv..100.1542H. doi:10.1103/PhysRev.100.1542.

[osti-28] Martin, R. C.; Knauer, J. B.; Balo, P. A. (1999). "Production, Distribution, and Applications of Californium-252 Neutron Sources". Applied Radiation and Isotopes 53 (4–5): 785–92. doi:10.1016/S0969-8043(00)00214-1. PMID 11003521.

[FOOTNOTECunningham1968103-29] Cunningham 1968, p. 103.

[30] Thompson, S. G.; Street, Jr., K.; A., Ghiorso; Seaborg, G. T. (1950). "Element 98". Physical Review 78 (3): 298. Bibcode:1950PhRv...78..298T. doi:10.1103/PhysRev.78.298.2.

[E98-31] Thompson, S. G.; Street, Jr., K.; Ghiorso, A.; Seaborg, G. T. (1950). "The New Element Californium (Atomic Number 98)" (PDF). Physical Review 80 (5): 790. Bibcode:1950PhRv...80..790T. doi:10.1103/PhysRev.80.790.

[32] Street, K., Jr.; Thompson, S. G.; Seaborg, G. T. (1950). "Chemical Properties of Californium" (PDF). Journal of the American Chemical Society 72 (10): 4832. doi:10.1021/ja01166a528.

[FOOTNOTESeaborg199682-33] Seaborg 1996, p. 82.

[FOOTNOTEWeeks1968849-34] Weeks 1968, p. 849.

[FOOTNOTEWeeks1968848-35] Weeks 1968, p. 848.

[FOOTNOTEHeiserman1992347-37] Heiserman 1992, p. 347.

[38] Diamond, H; Magnusson, L.; Mech, J.; Stevens, C.; Friedman, A.; Studier, M.; Fields, P.; Huizenga, J. (1954). "Identification of Californium Isotopes 249, 250, 251, and 252 from Pile-Irradiated Plutonium". Physical Review 94 (4): 1083. Bibcode:1954PhRv...94.1083D. doi:10.1103/PhysRev.94.1083.

[39] "Element 98 Prepared". Science News Letters 78 (26). December 1960.

[40] "The High Flux Isotope Reactor". Oak Ridge National Laboratory. Archived from the original on 2010-05-27. Retrieved 22 August 2010.

[FOOTNOTEOsborne-Lee199511-41] Osborne-Lee 1995, p. 11.

[42] "Plutonium and Aldermaston – an Historical Account" (PDF). UK Ministry of Defence. 4 September 2001. p. 30. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2006-12-13. Retrieved 15 March 2007.

[FOOTNOTEOsborne-Lee19956-43] Osborne-Lee 1995, p. 6.

[FOOTNOTEHaire20061519-45] Haire 2006, p. 1519.

[46] Haire, R.G.; Baybarz, R.D. (1974). "Crystal Structure and Melting Point of Californium Metal". Journal of Inorganic and Nuclear Chemistry 36 (6): 1295. doi:10.1016/0022-1902(74)80067-9.

[47] Zachariasen, W. (1975). "On Californium Metal". Journal of Inorganic and Nuclear Chemistry 37 (6): 1441–1442. doi:10.1016/0022-1902(75)80787-1.

[emsley-49] Emsley, John (2011). Nature's Building Blocks: An A-Z Guide to the Elements (New ed.). New York, NY: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-960563-7.

[FOOTNOTEEmsley200190-50] Emsley 2001, p. 90.

[ANL2005-51] ANL contributors (August 2005). "Human Health Fact Sheet: Californium" (PDF). Argonne National Laboratory.

[52] Fields, P. R.; Studier, M.; Diamond, H.; Mech, J.; Inghram, M.; Pyle, G.; Stevens, C.; Fried, S. et al. (1956). "Transplutonium Elements in Thermonuclear Test Debris". Physical Review 102 (1): 180–182. Bibcode:1956PhRv..102..180F. doi:10.1103/PhysRev.102.180.

[super1-53] Baade, W.; Burbidge, G. R.; Hoyle, F.; Burbidge, E. M.; Christy, R. F.; Fowler, W. A. (August 1956). "Supernovae and Californium 254" (PDF). Publications of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific 68 (403): 296–300. Bibcode:1956PASP...68..296B. doi:10.1086/126941. Retrieved 26 September 2012.

[super2-54] Conway, J. G.; Hulet, E.K.; Morrow, R.J. (1 February 1962). "Emission Spectrum of Californium". Journal of the Optical Society of America 52. Retrieved 26 September 2012.

[FOOTNOTERuiz-Lapuente1996274-55] Ruiz-Lapuente1996, p. 274.

[FOOTNOTEKrebs2006327.E2.80.93328-56] Krebs 2006, pp. 327–328.

[FOOTNOTEHeiserman1992348-57] Heiserman 1992, p. 348.

[FOOTNOTECunningham1968105-58] Cunningham 1968, p. 105.

[FOOTNOTEHaire20061503-59] Haire 2006, p. 1503.

[FOOTNOTENRC200833-60] NRC 2008, p. 33.

[FOOTNOTESeaborg1994245-61] Seaborg 1994, p. 245.

[62] Shuler, James (2008). "DOE Certified Radioactive Materials Transportation Packagings" (PDF). United States Department of Energy. p. 1.

[Martin2000-63] Martin, R. C. (24 September 2000). Applications and Availability of Californium-252 Neutron Sources for Waste Characterization (PDF). Spectrum 2000 International Conference on Nuclear and Hazardous Waste Management. Chattanooga, Tennessee. Retrieved 2 May 2010.

[FOOTNOTESeaborg1990318-64] Seaborg 1990, p. 318.

[FOOTNOTEOsborne-Lee199533-66] Osborne-Lee 1995, p. 33.

[FOOTNOTEOsborne-Lee199526.E2.80.9327-67] Osborne-Lee 1995, pp. 26–27.

[68] "Will You be 'Mine'? Physics Key to Detection". Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. 25 October 2000. Archived from the original on 2007-02-18. Retrieved 21 March 2007.

[69] Davis, S. N.; Thompson, Glenn M.; Bentley, Harold W.; Stiles, Gary (2006). "Ground-Water Tracers – A Short Review". Ground Water 18 (1): 14–23. doi:10.1111/j.1745-6584.1980.tb03366.x.

[FOOTNOTEOsborne-Lee199512-70] Osborne-Lee 1995, p. 12.

[71] "Evaluation of nuclear criticality safety data and limits for actinides in transport" (PDF). Institut de Radioprotection et de Sûreté Nucléaire. p. 16. Retrieved 20 December 2010.

[72] Mann, Martin (July 1961). "Facts and Fallacies of World War III". Popular Science 179 (1): 92–95, 178–181. ISSN 0161-7370. "force of 10 tons of TNT" on page 180.

[74] Oganessian, Yu. Ts.; Utyonkov, V.; Lobanov, Yu.; Abdullin, F.; Polyakov, A.; Sagaidak, R.; Shirokovsky, I.; Tsyganov, Yu. et al. (2006). "Synthesis of the isotopes of elements 118 and 116 in the californium-249 and ²⁴⁵Cm+⁴⁸Ca fusion reactions". Physical Review C 74 (4): 044602–044611. Bibcode:2006PhRvC..74d4602O. doi:10.1103/PhysRevC.74.044602.

[75] Sanderson, K. (17 October 2006). "Heaviest element made – again". Nature News (Nature). doi:10.1038/news061016-4.

[76] Schewe, P.; Stein, B. (17 October 2006). "Elements 116 and 118 Are Discovered". Physics News Update. American Institute of Physics. Retrieved 19 October 2006.

[77] <Please add first missing authors to populate metadata.> (April 1961). "Element 103 Synthesized". Science News-Letter 79 (17): 259. doi:10.2307/3943043.

[FOOTNOTECunningham1968106-78] Cunningham 1968, p. 106.

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