biological species

生物種、生物学的種

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biospecies

WordNet

1. (biology) taxonomic group whose members can interbreed
2. a specific kind of something; "a species of molecule"; "a species of villainy"
3. of parents and children; related by blood; "biological child"
4. pertaining to biology or to life and living things (同)biologic

PrepTutorEJDIC

1. 〈C〉(生物分類上の)『種』(しゅ),種族(「属」(genus)の下の単位) / 〈C〉(…の)種類《+『of』+『名』》 / 《the ~》人類(mankind)
2. (紙弊に対した)正金,正貨

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出典(authority):フリー百科事典『ウィキペディア（Wikipedia）』「2015/10/20 16:50:07」(JST)

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For other uses, see Species (disambiguation).

The hierarchy of biological classification's eight major taxonomic ranks. A genus contains one or more species. Intermediate minor rankings are not shown.

In biology, a species (abbreviated sp., with the plural form species abbreviated spp.) is one of the basic units of biological classification and a taxonomic rank. A species is often defined as the largest group of organisms where two hybrids are capable of reproducing fertile offspring, typically using sexual reproduction. While in many cases this definition is adequate, the difficulty of defining species is known as the species problem. Differing measures are often used, such as similarity of DNA, morphology, or ecological niche. Presence of specific locally adapted traits may further subdivide species into "infraspecific taxa" such as subspecies (and in botany other taxa are used, such as varieties, subvarieties, and formae).

Species hypothesized to have the same ancestors are placed in one genus, based on similarities. The similarity of species is judged based on comparison of physical attributes, and where available, their DNA sequences. All species are given a two-part name, a "binomial name", or just "binomial". The first part of a binomial is the generic name, the genus to which the species belongs. The second part is either called the specific name (a term used only in zoology) or the specific epithet (the term used in botany, which can also be used in zoology). For example, Boa constrictor is one of four species of the Boa genus. While the genus gets capitalized, the species name does not. The binomial is written in italics when printed and underlined when handwritten.

A usable definition of the word "species" and reliable methods of identifying particular species are essential for stating and testing biological theories and for measuring biodiversity, though other taxonomic levels such as families may be considered in broad-scale studies. Extinct species known only from fossils are generally difficult to assign precise taxonomic rankings, which is why higher taxonomic levels such as families are often used for fossil-based studies.

The total number of non-bacterial and non-archaeal species in the world has been estimated at 8.7 million, with previous estimates ranging from two million to 100 million.

History and development of the concept

John Ray

Carl Linnaeus believed in the fixity of species.

In the earliest works of science, a species was simply an individual organism that represented a group of similar or nearly identical organisms. No other relationships beyond that group were implied. Aristotle used the words genus and species to mean generic and specific categories. Aristotle and other pre-Darwinian scientists took the species to be distinct and unchanging, with an "essence", like the chemical elements. When early observers began to develop systems of organization for living things, they began to place formerly isolated species into a context. Many of these early delineation schemes would now be considered whimsical and these included consanguinity based on color (all plants with yellow flowers) or behavior (snakes, scorpions and certain biting ants).

John Ray (1686), an English naturalist, was the first to give a biological definition of the term species.

In the 18th century Swedish scientist Carl Linnaeus classified organisms according to shared physical characteristics, and not simply based upon differences. He is also established the idea of a taxonomic hierarchy of classification based upon observable characteristics and intended to reflect natural relationships. At the time, however, it was still widely believed that there was no organic connection between species, no matter how similar they appeared. This view was influenced by European scholarly and religious education at the time, which held that the categories of life are dictated by God, in a hierarchical scheme. Although there are always differences (although sometimes minute) between individual organisms, Linnaeus strove to identify individual organisms that were exemplary of the species, and considered other non-exemplary organisms to be deviant and imperfect.

By the 19th century most naturalists understood that species could change form over time, and that the history of the planet provided enough time for major changes. Jean-Baptiste Lamarck, in his 1809 Zoological Philosophy, offered one of the first logical arguments against creationism. The new emphasis was on determining how a species could change over time. Lamarck suggested that an organism could pass on an acquired trait to its offspring (i.e. he attributed the giraffe's long neck to generations of giraffes stretching to reach the leaves of higher treetops). With the acceptance of the natural selection idea of Charles Darwin in the 1860s, however, Lamarck's view of goal-oriented evolution, also known as a teleological process, was eclipsed. Recent interest in inheritance of acquired characteristics centers around epigenetic processes (e.g. methylation) that do not affect DNA sequences, but instead alter expression in an inheritable manner. Thus, Neo-Lamarckism, as it is sometimes termed, is not a challenge to the theory of evolution by natural selection.

Charles Darwin and Alfred Wallace provided what scientists now consider as the most powerful and compelling theory of evolution. Darwin argued that it was populations that evolved, not individuals. His argument relied on a radical shift in perspective from that of Linnaeus: rather than defining species in ideal terms (and searching for an ideal representative and rejecting deviations), Darwin considered variation among individuals to be natural. He further argued that variation, far from being problematic, actually provides the explanation for the existence of distinct species.

Darwin's work drew on Thomas Malthus' insight that the rate of growth of a biological population will always outpace the rate of growth of the resources in the environment, such as the food supply. As a result, Darwin argued, not all the members of a population will be able to survive and reproduce. Those that did will, on average, be the ones possessing variations—however slight—that make them slightly better adapted to the environment. If these variable traits are heritable, then the offspring of the survivors will also possess them. Thus, over many generations, adaptive variations will accumulate in the population, while counter-adaptive traits will tend to be eliminated.

Whether a variation is adaptive or non-adaptive depends on the environment: different environments favor different traits. Since the environment effectively selects which organisms live to reproduce, it is the environment (the "fight for existence") that selects the traits to be passed on. This is the theory of evolution by natural selection. In this model, the length of a giraffe's neck would be explained by positing that proto-giraffes with longer necks would have had a significant reproductive advantage to those with shorter necks. Over many generations, the entire population would be a species of long-necked animals.

In 1859, when Darwin published his theory of natural selection, the mechanism behind the inheritance of individual traits was unknown. Although Darwin made some speculations on how traits are inherited (pangenesis), his theory relies only on the fact that inheritable traits exist, and are variable (which makes his accomplishment even more remarkable.) Although Gregor Mendel's paper on genetics was published in 1866, its significance was not recognized. It was not until 1900 that his work was rediscovered by Hugo de Vries, Carl Correns and Erich von Tschermak, who realised that the "inheritable traits" in Darwin's theory are genes.

The theory of the evolution of species through natural selection has two important implications for discussions of species—consequences that fundamentally challenge the assumptions behind Linnaeus' taxonomy. First, it suggests that species are not just similar, they may actually be related. Some students of Darwin argue that all species are descended from a common ancestor. Second, it supposes that "species" are not homogeneous, fixed, permanent things; members of a species are all different, and over time species change. This suggests that species do not have any clear boundaries but are rather momentary statistical effects of constantly changing gene-frequencies. One may still use Linnaeus' taxonomy to identify individual plants and animals, but one can no longer think of species as independent and immutable.

The rise of a new species from a parental line is called speciation. There is no clear line demarcating the ancestral species from the descendant species.

Although the current scientific understanding of species suggests that there is no rigorous and comprehensive way to distinguish between different species in all cases, biologists continue to seek concrete ways to operationalize the idea. One of the most popular biological definitions of species is in terms of reproductive isolation; if two creatures cannot reproduce to produce fertile offspring of both sexes, then they are in different species. This definition captures a number of intuitive species boundaries, but it remains imperfect. It has nothing to say about species that reproduce asexually, for example, and it is very difficult to apply to extinct species. Moreover, boundaries between species are often fuzzy: there are examples where members of one population can produce fertile offspring of both sexes with a second population, and members of the second population can produce fertile offspring of both sexes with members of a third population, but members of the first and third population cannot produce fertile offspring, or can only produce fertile offspring of the homozygous sex. Consequently, some people reject this definition of a species.

Richard Dawkins defines two organisms as conspecific if and only if they have the same number of chromosomes and, for each chromosome, both organisms have the same number of nucleotides (The Blind Watchmaker, p. 118). However, most taxonomists would disagree. For example, in many amphibians, most notably in New Zealand's Leiopelma frogs, the genome consists of "core" chromosomes that are mostly invariable and accessory chromosomes, of which exist a number of possible combinations. Even though the chromosome numbers are highly variable between populations, these can interbreed successfully and form a single evolutionary unit. In plants, polyploidy is extremely commonplace with few restrictions on interbreeding; as individuals with an odd number of chromosome sets are usually sterile, depending on the actual number of chromosome sets present, this results in the odd situation where some individuals of the same evolutionary unit can interbreed with certain others and some cannot, with all populations being eventually linked as to form a common gene pool.

The classification of species has been profoundly affected by technological advances that have allowed researchers to determine relatedness based on molecular markers, starting with the comparatively crude blood plasma precipitation assays in the mid-20th century to Charles Sibley's DNA-DNA hybridization studies in the 1970s leading to DNA sequencing techniques. The results of these techniques caused revolutionary changes in the higher taxonomic categories (such as phyla and classes), resulting in the reordering of many branches of the phylogenetic tree (see also: molecular phylogeny). For taxonomic categories below genera, the results have been mixed so far; the pace of evolutionary change on the molecular level is rather slow, yielding clear differences only after considerable periods of reproductive separation. DNA-DNA hybridization results have led to misleading conclusions, the pomarine skua – great skua phenomenon being a famous example. Turtles have been determined to evolve with just one-eighth of the speed of other reptiles on the molecular level, and the rate of molecular evolution in albatrosses is half of what is found in the rather closely related storm-petrels, both being within the Procellariiformes. The hybridization technique is now obsolete and is replaced by more reliable computational approaches for sequence comparison. Molecular taxonomy is not directly based on the evolutionary processes, but rather on the overall change brought upon by these processes. The processes that lead to the generation and maintenance of variation such as mutation, crossover and selection are not uniform (see also molecular clock). DNA is only extremely rarely a direct target of natural selection rather than changes in the DNA sequence enduring over generations being a result of the latter; for example, silent transition-transversion combinations would alter the melting point of the DNA sequence, but not the sequence of the encoded proteins and thus are a possible example where, for example in microorganisms, a mutation confers a change in fitness all by itself.

Biologists' working definition

A usable definition of the word "species" and reliable methods of identifying particular species is essential for stating and testing biological theories and for measuring biodiversity. Traditionally, multiple examples of a proposed species must be studied for unifying characters before it can be regarded as a species.

Some biologists may view species as statistical phenomena, as opposed to the traditional idea, with a species seen as a class of organisms. In that case, a species is defined as a separately evolving lineage that forms a single gene pool. Although properties such as DNA-sequences and morphology are used to help separate closely related lineages, this definition has fuzzy boundaries. However, the exact definition of the term "species" is still controversial, particularly in prokaryotes, and this is called the species problem. Biologists have proposed a range of more precise definitions, but the definition used is a pragmatic choice that depends on the particularities of the species of concern.

Common names and species

The commonly used names for plant and animal taxa sometimes correspond to species: for example, "lion", "walrus", and "camphor tree" – each refers to a species. In other cases common names do not: for example, "deer" refers to a family of 34 species, including Eld's deer, red deer and elk (as the use in American English meaning wapiti, not the use in British English meaning moose). The last two species were once considered a single species, illustrating how species boundaries may change with increased scientific knowledge.

Placement within genera

Ideally, a species is given a formal, scientific name, although in practice there are very many unnamed species (which have only been described, not named). When a species is named, it is placed within a genus. From a scientific point of view this can be regarded as a hypothesis that the species is more closely related to other species within its genus (if any) than to species of other genera. Species and genus are usually defined as part of a larger taxonomic hierarchy. The best-known taxonomic ranks are, in order: life, domain, kingdom, phylum, class, order, family, genus, and species. This assignment to a genus is not immutable; later a different (or the same) taxonomist may assign it to a different genus, in which case the name will also change.

In biological nomenclature, the name for a species is a two-part name (a binomial name), treated as Latin, although roots from any language can be used as well as names of locales or individuals. The generic name is listed first (with its leading letter capitalized), followed by a second term. The terminology used for the second term differs between zoological and botanical nomenclature.

• In zoological nomenclature, the second part of the name can be called the specific name or the specific epithet. For example, gray wolves belong to the species Canis lupus, coyotes to Canis latrans, golden jackals to Canis aureus, etc., and all of those belong to the genus Canis (which also contains many other species). For the gray wolf, the genus name is Canis, the specific name or specific epithet is lupus, and the binomen, the name of the species, is Canis lupus.
• In botanical nomenclature, the second part of the name can only be called the specific epithet. The 'specific name' in botany is always the combination of genus name and specific epithet. For example, the species commonly known as the longleaf pine is Pinus palustris; the genus name is Pinus, the specific epithet is palustris, the specific name is Pinus palustris.

This binomial naming convention, later formalized in the biological codes of nomenclature, was first used by Leonhart Fuchs and introduced as the standard by Carolus Linnaeus in his 1753 Species Plantarum (followed by his 1758 Systema Naturae, 10th edition).

Abbreviated names

Books and articles sometimes intentionally do not identify species fully and use the abbreviation "sp." in the singular or "spp." (Species pluralis, Latin abbreviation for multiple species) in the plural in place of the specific epithet (e.g. Canis sp.) This commonly occurs in the following situations:

• The authors are confident that some individuals belong to a particular genus but are not sure to which exact species they belong. This is particularly common in paleontology.
• The authors use "spp." as a short way of saying that something applies to many species within a genus, but do not wish to say that it applies to all species within that genus. If scientists mean that something applies to all species within a genus, they use the genus name without the specific epithet.

Sometimes, the aforementioned plural is rendered as "sps.", which may lead to confusion with "ssp.", this one standing for subspecies instead. In books and articles, genus and species names are usually printed in italics. Abbreviations such as "sp.", "spp.", "sps.", "ssp.", "subsp.", etc. should not be italicized.

Identification codes

Various codes have been devised for identifying particular species. For example:

• National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI) employs a numeric 'taxid' or Taxonomy identifier, a "stable unique identifier", e.g. the taxid of H. sapiens is 9606.
• Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) employs a three- or four-letter code for a limited number of organisms; in this code, for example, H. sapiens is simply hsa.
• UniProt employs an "organism mnemonic" of not more than five alphanumeric characters, e.g. HUMAN for H. sapiens.
• Integrated Taxonomic Information System (ITIS) provides a unique number for each species.

Difficulty defining or identifying species

Main article: Species problem

It is surprisingly difficult to define the word "species" in a way that applies to all naturally occurring organisms, and the debate among biologists about how to define "species" and how to identify actual species is called the species problem. Over two dozen distinct definitions of "species" are in use amongst biologists.

This problem dates as early as to the writings of Charles Darwin. While Darwin wrote the following in On the Origin of Species, Chapter II:

No one definition has satisfied all naturalists; yet every naturalist knows vaguely what he means when he speaks of a species. Generally the term includes the unknown element of a distinct act of creation.

He readdressed the question in The Descent of Man, specifically discussing the "question whether mankind consists of one or several species," where he revised his opinion, writing:

it is a hopeless endeavour to decide this point on sound grounds, until some definition of the term "species" is generally accepted; and the definition must not include an element that cannot possibly be ascertained, such as an act of creation.

Most modern textbooks follow Ernst Mayr's definition, known as the Biological Species Concept (BSC) of a species as "groups of actually or potentially interbreeding natural populations, which are reproductively isolated from other such groups". It has been argued that this definition of species is not only a useful formulation, but is also a natural consequence of the effect of sexual reproduction on the dynamics of natural selection. (Also see Speciation.)

Various parts of this definition serve to exclude some unusual or artificial matings:

• Those that as a result of deliberate human action, or occur only in captivity (when the animal's normal mating partners may not be available)
• Those that involve animals that may be physically and physiologically capable of mating but, for various reasons, do not normally do so in the wild

The typical textbook definition above works well for most multi-celled organisms, but there are several types of situations in which it breaks down:

• By definition it applies only to organisms that reproduce sexually. So it does not work for asexually reproducing single-celled organisms and for the relatively few parthenogenetic or apomictic multi-celled organisms. The term "phylotype" is often applied to such organisms.
• Biologists frequently do not know whether two morphologically similar groups of organisms are "potentially" capable of interbreeding.
• There is considerable variation in the degree to which hybridization may succeed under natural conditions, or even in the degree to which some organisms use sexual reproduction between individuals to breed.
• In ring species, members of adjacent populations interbreed successfully but members of some non-adjacent populations do not.

Among microorganisms, in particular, the problem of species identification is made difficult by discordance between molecular and morphological investigations; these can be categorized as two types: (i) one morphology, multiple lineages (e.g. morphological convergence, cryptic species) and (ii) one lineage, multiple morphologies (e.g. phenotypic plasticity, multiple life-cycle stages). In addition, in these and other organisms, horizontal gene transfer (HGT) makes it difficult to define the term species. All species definitions assume that an organism acquires its genes from one or two parents very like the "daughter" organism, but HGT makes that assumption false. There is strong evidence of HGT between very dissimilar groups of prokaryotes, and at least occasionally between dissimilar groups of eukaryotes. Williamson argues that there is also evidence for HGT in some crustaceans and echinoderms.

Definitions of species

Prior to Darwin, naturalists viewed species as ideal or general types, which could be exemplified by an ideal specimen bearing all the traits general to the species. Darwin's theories shifted attention from uniformity to variation and from the general to the particular. According to intellectual historian Louis Menand,

Once our attention is redirected to the individual, we need another way of making generalizations. We are no longer interested in the conformity of an individual to an ideal type; we are now interested in the relation of an individual to the other individuals with which it interacts. To generalize about groups of interacting individuals, we need to drop the language of types and essences, which is prescriptive (telling us what finches should be), and adopt the language of statistics and probability, which is predictive (telling us what the average finch, under specified conditions, is likely to do). Relations will be more important than categories; functions, which are variable, will be more important than purposes; transitions will be more important than boundaries; sequences will be more important than hierarchies.

This shift results in a new approach to "species"; Darwin concluded that species are what they appear to be: ideas, which are provisionally useful for naming groups of interacting individuals. "I look at the term species", he wrote, "as one arbitrarily given for the sake of convenience to a set of individuals closely resembling each other ... It does not essentially differ from the word variety, which is given to less distinct and more fluctuating forms. The term variety, again, in comparison with mere individual differences, is also applied arbitrarily, and for convenience sake."

Practically, biologists define species as populations of organisms that have a high level of genetic similarity. This may reflect an adaptation to the same niche, and the transfer of genetic material from one individual to others, through a variety of possible means. The exact level of similarity used in such a definition is arbitrary, but this is the most common definition used for organisms that reproduce asexually (asexual reproduction), such as some plants and microorganisms.

This lack of any clear species concept in microbiology has led to some authors arguing that the term "species" is not useful when studying bacterial evolution. Instead they see genes as moving freely between even distantly related bacteria, with the entire bacterial domain being a single gene pool. Nevertheless, a kind of rule of thumb has been established, saying that species of Bacteria or Archaea with 16S rRNA gene sequences more similar than 97% to each other need to be checked by DNA-DNA Hybridization if they belong to the same species or not. This concept has been updated recently, saying that the border of 97% was too low and can be raised to 98.7%.

In the study of sexually reproducing organisms, where genetic material is shared through the process of reproduction, the ability of two organisms to interbreed and produce fertile offspring of both sexes is generally accepted as a simple indicator that the organisms share enough genes to be considered members of the same species. Thus a "species" is a group of interbreeding organisms.

This definition can be extended to say that a species is a group of organisms that could potentially interbreed—fish could still be classed as the same species even if they live in different lakes, as long as they could still interbreed were they ever to come into contact with each other. On the other hand, there are many examples of series of three or more distinct populations, where individuals of the population in the middle can interbreed with the populations to either side, but individuals of the populations on either side cannot interbreed. These are known as ring species. Thus, one could argue that these populations constitute a single species, or two distinct species. This is not a paradox; it is evidence that species are defined by gene frequencies, and thus have fuzzy boundaries.

Consequently, any single, universal definition of "species" is necessarily arbitrary. Instead, biologists have proposed a range of definitions; which definition a biologists uses is a pragmatic choice, depending on the particularities of that biologist's research.

In practice, these definitions often coincide, and the differences between them are more a matter of emphasis than of outright contradiction. Nevertheless, no species concept yet proposed is entirely objective, or can be applied in all cases without resorting to judgment.

For most vertebrates, this is the biological species concept (BSC), and to a lesser extent (or for different purposes) the phylogenetic species concept (PSC). Many BSC subspecies are considered species under the PSC; the difference between the BSC and the PSC can be summed up insofar as that the BSC defines a species as a consequence of manifest evolutionary history, while the PSC defines a species as a consequence of manifest evolutionary potential. Thus, a PSC species is "made" as soon as an evolutionary lineage has started to separate, while a BSC species starts to exist only when the lineage separation is complete. Accordingly, there can be considerable conflict between alternative classifications based upon the PSC versus BSC, as they differ completely in their treatment of taxa that would be considered subspecies under the latter model (e.g. the numerous subspecies of honey bees).

Typological species

A group of organisms in which individuals are members of the species if they sufficiently conform to certain fixed properties. The clusters of variations or phenotypes within specimens (i.e. longer or shorter tails) would differentiate the species. This method was used as a "classical" method of determining species, such as with Linnaeus early in evolutionary theory. However, we now know that different phenotypes do not always constitute different species (e.g. a four-winged Drosophila born to a 2-winged mother is not a different species). Species named in this manner are called morphospecies.

Evolutionary species

A single evolutionary lineage of organisms within which genes can be shared, and that maintains its integrity with respect to other lineages through both time and space. At some point in the evolution of such a group, some members may diverge from the main population and evolve into a subspecies, a process that may eventually lead to the formation of a new species if isolation (geographical or ecological) is maintained. The process through which species are formed by evolution is called speciation. A species that gives rise to another species is a paraphyletic species, or paraspecies.

Phylogenetic (cladistic) species

A phylogenetic or cladistic species is an evolutionarily divergent lineage—a lineage that has maintained its hereditary integrity with respect to other lineages through both time and space. At some point in the evolution of such a group, members may diverge from one another: when such a divergence becomes sufficiently clear, the two populations are regarded as separate species. This category of species definition differs from evolutionary species in that the parent of the phylogenetic species goes extinct taxonomically when a new species evolves; the mother and daughter populations now forming two new species. Subspecies as such are not recognized under this definition; either a population is a phylogenetic species or it is not taxonomically distinguishable.

The Phylogenetic Species Concept is a method used by biologists to help classify species. Biologists have long struggled with determining if organisms belong to the same or different species, and there exist numerous methods and “concepts” that help biologists determine the distinct taxa, such as the Biological Species Concept, the Morphological Species Concept, and more. As species are the units on which other aspects of biology such as ecology and conservation depend it is important to treat evolutionarily distinct lineages as species whilst recognising that no single species concept is entirely satisfactory.

Based on each concept, a species can be defined using different criteria. The Phylogenetic Species Concept (PSC) focuses on nucleotide divergence and classifies species as the smallest group of populations that can be distinguished by a unique set of traits (determined genetically). Molecular markers are used to determine the genetic similarities or differences in the nuclear or mitochondrial DNA of various species. This method overall reveals the smallest units that can be used to analyze phylogenies and can be used for cladistic analysis.

Advantages

PSC can be an effective method of determining the level of genetic exchange or gene flow between populations. This concept has helped identify many new species that were not previously identified using the other concepts (Biological, Morphological, etc.). These other concepts define various species based on more broad (relative to DNA) observations that sometimes are not specific enough to differentiate seemingly similar populations that may in fact differ genetically. PSC, however, can detect these important differences and oftentimes more accurately categorize species For example, in a study done on fungi, studying the nucleotide characters using PSC produced the most accurate results in recognizing the numerous fungi species compared to other concepts used. Unlike the popular Biological Species Concept, PSC also does not rely on reproductive isolation, thus it is independent of processes that are integral in other concepts. Moreover, PSC is a method that also works for asexual lineages. In this way, PSC is applicable to a greater range of cases. Furthermore, when two species have recently diverged and morphological or observable differences have not yet developed, PSC can still detect the divergence and the existence of two species instead of one. Thus PSC can often identify species that otherwise would not have been distinct using other species concepts, such as the Morphological Species Concept, in cases where there may be a lack of morphological or phenotypic traits between the species.

Drawbacks

While this is a method that works well—and often better— than other species concepts in many situations, PSC does not work in every situation and can also have drawbacks. For example, if a study observes only one polymorphic locus of a group of organisms, organisms that should form distinct species could be clumped into one species (as members of closely related but distinct species may be identical at this one locus). To avoid this problem, one should study multiple polymorphic loci to achieve more accurate results. Another drawback is that PSC may not work in situations. When genetic isolation is not recognized as a result of only a few of the ancestral polymorphic loci being fixed at that point in one of the species being observed, the observed organisms may not be separated into species correctly. In these cases, species classification would be most effective using the Morphological Species Concept or the Biological Species Concept Finally, PSC only can be used to study extant species. As a result, this method is not effective when analyzing fossils.

It has been argued, that operation of the phylogenetic species concept (PSC) will lead to taxonomic inflation, since smaller and smaller units of its population can be distinguished—even down to individuals. Species of Bovidae (i.e., cattle, sheep, goats and antelopes) for example, should be split up into far more species based on this concept.

Other species concepts

Ecological species

A set of organisms adapted to a particular set of resources, called a niche, in the environment. According to this concept, populations form the discrete phenetic clusters that we recognize as species because the ecological and evolutionary processes controlling how resources are divided up tend to produce those clusters.

Reproductive species

Two organisms that are able to reproduce naturally to produce fertile offspring of both sexes. Organisms that can reproduce but almost always make infertile hybrids of at least one sex, such as a mule, hinny or F1 male cattalo are not considered to be the same species.

Isolation species

A set of actually or potentially interbreeding populations. This is generally a useful formulation for scientists working with living examples of the higher taxa like mammals, fish, and birds, but more problematic for organisms that do not reproduce sexually. The results of breeding experiments done in artificial conditions may or may not reflect what would happen if the same organisms encountered each other in the wild, making it difficult to gauge whether or not the results of such experiments are meaningful in reference to natural populations.

Genetic species

Based on similarity of DNA of individuals or populations. Techniques to compare similarity of DNA include DNA-DNA hybridization, and genetic fingerprinting (or DNA barcoding).

Cohesion species

Most inclusive population of individuals having the potential for phenotypic cohesion through intrinsic cohesion mechanisms. This is an expansion of the mate-recognition species concept to allow for post-mating isolation mechanisms; no matter whether populations can hybridize successfully, they are still distinct cohesion species if the amount of hybridization is insufficient to completely mix their respective gene pools.

Evolutionarily significant unit (ESU)

An evolutionarily significant unit is a population of organisms that is considered distinct for purposes of conservation. Often referred to as a species or a wildlife species, an ESU also has several possible definitions, which coincide with definitions of species.

Phenetic species

Based on phenetics.

Microspecies

A species with very little genetic variability, usually one that reproduces by apomixis.

Recognition species

Based on shared reproductive systems, including mating behavior. The Recognition concept of species has been introduced by Hugh E. H. Paterson, after earlier work by Wilhelm Petersen.

Mate-recognition species

A group of organisms that are known to recognize one another as potential mates. Like the isolation species concept above, it applies only to organisms that reproduce sexually. Unlike the isolation species concept, it focuses specifically on pre-mating reproductive isolation.

Numbers of species

Main article: Global biodiversity

An estimate of the number of some undiscovered and discovered eukaryotic species.

Bearing in mind the aforementioned problems with categorizing species, the following numbers are only a guide. Based on various discussions from the first decade of the new millennium, counts can roughly be broken down as follows:

Number of prokaryotic species, domain Bacteria

This number is very difficult to assess, but the discussed range varies from tens of thousands to billions; most recent approaches and studies appear to favor the larger magnitude number. Smaller numbers arise from assumptions based on a plateauing of identification of new species (which has technical explanations other than that fewer species remain to be identified). Larger numbers address the fact that success in culturing bacteria has only been achieved in half of identified Bacterial phyla (where lack of success in attempts to culture a bacterial isolate limits abilities to study and delineate new species), and address the difficulty of applying traditional botanic and zoologic definitions of species to asexually reproducing bacteria (where more modern sequencing and molecular approaches support higher species tallies).

Number of prokaryotic species, domain Archaea

As a further microbial domain, the issues and difficulties of domain Bacteria also pertain to any counting of species of Archaea, all the more given their various extreme habitats. The classification of archaea into species is also controversial, as they also reproduce asexually (likewise eliminating applicability of species definitions based on interbreeding), and face the same difficulties associated with organism isolation and culturing (see citations for Bacteria, above). Archaebacteria have been shown to exhibit high rates of horizontal gene transfer (resulting from a bacterial cognate of sex), including between organisms quite separate based on genomic analysis. As the Archaea article notes, "[c]urrent knowledge on genetic diversity is fragmentary and the total number of archaean species cannot be estimated with any accuracy" ... though like domain Bacteria, the number of cultured and studied phyla relative to the total is low (as of 2005, less than 50% of known phyla cultured). Taken together, very high numbers of unique archaebacterial types are likely, as in the case of domain Bacteria.

Number of eukaryotic species

This number has historically varied from a few million to about 100 millions. However these higher numbers, which were based on the potential deep marine and arthropod diversity, are now considered unlikely. The total number of eukaryotic species is likely to be 5 ± 3 million of which about 1.5 million have been already named. Some older estimates for various eukaryote phyla are:

• As many as 1.5 million fungi
• 3,067 brown algae
• 17,000 lichens
• 321,212 plants, including:
  • 10,134 red and green algae
  • 16,236 mosses
  • 12,000 ferns and horsetails
  • 1,021 gymnosperms
  • 281,821 angiosperms
• 1,367,555 non-insect animals, including:
  • 1,305,250 invertebrates
    • 2,175 corals
    • 85,000 mollusks
    • As many as 1.1 million arachnids, including ~1 million mites and ~100,000 other arachnids
    • 47,000 crustaceans
    • 68,827 other invertebrates
  • 63,649 vertebrates
    • 31,300 fish
    • 7,093 amphibians
    • 9,768 reptiles
    • 9,998 birds
    • 5,490 mammals
• As many as 10–30 million insects

At present, organisations such as the Global Taxonomy Initiative, the European Distributed Institute of Taxonomy and the Census of Marine Life (the last of these only for marine organisms) are trying to improve taxonomy and add previously undiscovered species to the taxonomy system. Current knowledge covers only a portion of the organisms in the biosphere and thus does not enable a complete understanding of the workings of the environment. Humankind is also currently wiping out undiscovered species at an unprecedented rate, which means that even before a new species has had the chance of being studied and classified, it may already be extinct.

Lumping and splitting of taxa

Main article: Lumpers and splitters

The naming of a particular species may be regarded as a hypothesis about the evolutionary relationships and distinguishability of that group of organisms. As further information comes to hand, the hypothesis may be confirmed or refuted. Sometimes, especially in the past when communication was more difficult, taxonomists working in isolation have given two distinct names to individual organisms later identified as the same species. When two named species are discovered to be of the same species, the older species name is usually retained, and the newer species name dropped, a process called synonymization, or colloquially, as lumping. Dividing a taxon into multiple, often new, taxons is called splitting. Taxonomists are often referred to as "lumpers" or "splitters" by their colleagues, depending on their personal approach to recognizing differences or commonalities between organisms.

See also

• Cline
• Cryptic species complex
• Encyclopedia of Life
• Endangered species
• Global biodiversity
• Koinophilia
• Ring species
• Speciation
• Species description
• Species naming
• Species problem
• Systematics

References

Further reading

• Other Species Concepts – U.C. Berkeley
• 2003-12-31, ScienceDaily: Working On The 'Porsche Of Its Time': New Model For Species Determination Offered
• 2003-08-08, ScienceDaily: Cross-species Mating May Be Evolutionarily Important And Lead To Rapid Change
• 2004-01-09 ScienceDaily: Mayo Researchers Observe Genetic Fusion Of Human, Animal Cells; May Help Explain Origin Of AIDS
• 2000-09-18, ScienceDaily: Scientists Unravel Ancient Evolutionary History Of Photosynthesis

External links

• Barcoding of species
• Catalogue of Life
• European Species Names in Linnaean, Czech, English, German and French
• Speciation
• Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy entry: Species
• VisualTaxa
• Wikispecies – The free species directory that anyone can edit from the Wikimedia Foundation

UpToDate Contents

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• 1. ヒアリの昆虫学および管理 entomology and control of imported fire ants
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English Journal

• Functionalized ultra-low fouling carboxy- and hydroxy-functional surface platforms: functionalization capacity, biorecognition capability and resistance to fouling from undiluted biological media.

• Vaisocherová H, Sevců V, Adam P, Spačková B, Hegnerová K, de Los Santos Pereira A, Rodriguez-Emmenegger C, Riedel T, Houska M, Brynda E, Homola J.SourceInstitute of Photonics and Electronics, Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic, v.v.i., Chaberská 57, 18251 Prague, Czech Republic.
• Biosensors & bioelectronics.Biosens Bioelectron.2014 Jan 15;51:150-7. doi: 10.1016/j.bios.2013.07.015. Epub 2013 Jul 25.
• The non-specific binding of non-target species to functionalized surfaces of biosensors continues to be challenge for biosensing in real-world media. Three different low-fouling and functionalizable surface platforms were employed to study the effect of functionalization on fouling resistance from s
• PMID 23954672

• Global Analysis of FRET-FLIM Data in Live Plant Cells.

• Laptenok SP, Snellenburg JJ, Bücherl CA, Konrad KR, Borst JW.SourceLaboratoire d'Optique et Biosciences, INSERM U696-CNRS UMR7645, Ecole Polytechnique, Palaiseau, France.
• Methods in molecular biology (Clifton, N.J.).Methods Mol Biol.2014;1076:481-502. doi: 10.1007/978-1-62703-649-8_21.
• This chapter describes the procedure for globally analyzing fluorescence lifetime imaging (FLIM) data for the observation and quantification of Förster resonance energy transfer (FRET) in live plant cells. The procedure is illustrated by means of a case study, for which plant protoplasts were trans
• PMID 24108640

• Polar plot representation of time-resolved fluorescence.

• Eichorst JP, Wen Teng K, Clegg RM.SourceCenter of Biophysics and Computational Biology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL, USA.
• Methods in molecular biology (Clifton, N.J.).Methods Mol Biol.2014;1076:97-112. doi: 10.1007/978-1-62703-649-8_6.
• Measuring changes in a molecule's fluorescence emission is a common technique to study complex biological systems such as cells and tissues. Although the steady-state fluorescence intensity is frequently used, measuring the average amount of time that a molecule spends in the excited state (the fluo
• PMID 24108625

Japanese Journal

• A histology-free description of the branched-proboscis ribbonworm Gorgonorhynchus albocinctus sp. nov. (Nemertea: Heteronemertea)

• KAJIHARA Hiroshi
• Publications of the Seto Marine Biological
• … A new species of heteronemertean with branched proboscis, Gorgonorhynchus albocinctus sp. … bermudensis Wheeler, 1940, the new species can be differentiated by having a brown body colour with a white band near the tip of the head. …
• NAID 120005651916

• Annotated checklist of the sharks, batoids and chimaeras (Chondrichthyes: Elasmobranchii, Holocephali) from waters of Russia and adjacent areas

• YURY V. DYLDIN
• Publications of the Seto Marine Biological
• … From Russia the border areas, 40 species of sharks, 59 species of batoids and 7 species of chimeras that belong to the two classes (Elasmobranchii and Holocephali), 11 orders, 29 families, 5 subfamilies and 54 genera have been recorded over the last hundred years. …
• NAID 120005608044

• An illustrated and annotated checklist of fishes on Kitami-Yamato Bank, southern Sea of Okhotsk

• TOHKAIRIN Akira,HAMATSU Tomonori,YOSHIKAWA Akane,KAI Yoshiaki,NAKABO Tetsuji
• Publications of the Seto Marine Biological
• … All material was collected in late April, 2013 and 2014 by the bottom trawl net, a total of 450 specimens being classified into 92 species representing 21 families. … These include Bathyraja trachouros, the first record from the Sea of Okhotsk, and Careproctus segaliensis, only the second confirmed record of the species. …
• NAID 120005530929

Related Links

• Biological Species Concept - Understanding Evolution

The biological species concept defines a species as members of populations that actually or potentially interbreed in nature, not according to similarity of appearance. Although appearance is helpful in identifying species, it does not define ...

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