出典(authority):フリー百科事典『ウィキペディア(Wikipedia)』「2014/06/27 18:16:57」(JST)
Latin grammar |
---|
|
|
Latin is an inflected language, and as such its nouns, pronouns, and adjectives must be declined (i.e. their endings alter to show grammatical case). A set of declined forms of the same word pattern is called a declension. There are five declensions, which are numbered and grouped by ending and grammatical gender. For simple declension paradigms, visit the Wiktionary appendices: First declension, Second declension, Third declension, Fourth declension, Fifth declension. Each noun follows one of these five declensions.
A complete Latin noun declension consists of up to seven grammatical cases: nominative, vocative, accusative, genitive, dative, ablative and locative.
They are often abbreviated to the first three letters.
The sequence NOM-VOC-ACC-GEN-DAT-ABL has been the usual order taught in Britain and many Commonwealth countries since the publication of Hall Kennedy's Latin Primer (1866). It reflects the tendencies of different cases to share similar endings (see Syncretic trends below). For a discussion of other sequences taught elsewhere, see Instruction in Latin. However, some[which?] schools teach it in the order NOM-GEN-DAT-ACC-ABL-VOC, as first given[by whom?].[1]
Syncretism, where one form in a paradigm shares the ending of another form in the paradigm, is common in Latin. The following are the most notable patterns of syncretism:
Old Latin had essentially two patterns of endings. One pattern was shared by the first and second declensions, with a clear similarity to the first and second declensions of Ancient Greek. The other pattern was used by the third, fourth and fifth declensions, and has similarities with the Greek third declension.
There are five declensions for Latin nouns:
Nouns of this declension usually end in –a in the nominative singular and are mostly feminine, e.g. 'road' (via, viae fem.) and 'water' (aqua, aquae fem.). There is a small class of masculine exceptions generally referring to occupations, e.g. 'farmer' (agricola, agricolae masc.) and 'sailor' (nauta, nautae masc.).
The predominant letter in the ending forms of this declension is a. The nominative singular form consists of the stem and the ending –a, and the genitive singular form is the stem plus –ae.
aqua, –ae water f. |
agricola, –ae farmer m. |
|||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Singular | Plural | Singular | Plural | |||||
Nominative | aqua | –a | aquae | –ae | agricola | –a | agricolae | –ae |
Vocative | aqua | –a | aquae | –ae | agricola | –a | agricolae | –ae |
Accusative | aquam | –am | aquās | –ās | agricolam | –am | agricolās | –ās |
Genitive | aquae[2] | –ae | aquārum | –ārum | agricolae | –ae | agricolārum | –ārum |
Dative | aquae | –ae | aquīs | –īs | agricolae | –ae | agricolīs | –īs |
Ablative | aquā | –ā | aquīs | –īs | agricolā | –ā | agricolīs | –īs |
Locative | aquae | –ae | aquīs | –īs | agricolae | –ae | agricolīs | –īs |
The first declension also includes three types of Greek loanwords, derived from Ancient Greek's Alpha Declension. They are declined irregularly in the singular, but are sometimes treated as if they were native Latin nouns, e.g. nominative athlēta instead of the original athlētēs. Interestingly, archaic (Homeric) first declension Greek nouns and adjectives had been formed in exactly the same way as in Latin: nephelēgeréta Zeus (Zeus the cloud-gatherer) had in classical Greek become nephelēgerétēs.
For full paradigm tables and more detailed information, see the Wiktionary appendix First declension.
The second declension is a large group of nouns consisting of mostly masculine nouns like equus, equī ("horse") and puer, puerī ("boy") and neuter nouns like castellum, castellī ("fort"). There are several small groups of feminine exceptions, including names of gemstones, plants, trees, and some towns and cities.
In the nominative singular, most masculine nouns consist of the stem and the ending –us, although some end in –er, which is not necessarily attached to the complete stem. Neuter nouns generally have a nominative singular consisting of the stem and the ending –um. However, every second-declension noun has the ending –ī attached as a suffix to the root of the noun in the genitive singular form. The predominant letter in the ending forms of this declension is o.
Masculine:
dominus, –ī master m. |
||||
---|---|---|---|---|
Singular | Plural | |||
Nominative | dominus | –us | dominī | –ī |
Vocative | domine | –e | dominī | –ī |
Accusative | dominum | –um | dominōs | –ōs |
Genitive | dominī | –ī | dominōrum | –ōrum |
Dative | dominō | –ō | dominīs | –īs |
Ablative | dominō | –ō | dominīs | –īs |
Neuter:
bellum, –ī war n. |
||||
---|---|---|---|---|
Singular | Plural | |||
Nominative | bellum | –um | bella | –a |
Vocative | bellum | –um | bella | –a |
Accusative | bellum | –um | bella | –a |
Genitive | bellī | –ī | bellōrum | –ōrum |
Dative | bellō | –ō | bellīs | –īs |
Ablative | bellō | –ō | bellīs | –īs |
Locative | bellō | –ō | bellīs | –īs |
Nouns ending in –ius and –ium have a genitive singular in –ī in earlier Latin, which was regularized to –iī in the later language. Masculine nouns in –ius have a vocative singular in –ī at all stages. These forms in –ī are stressed on the same syllable as the nominative singular, sometimes in violation of the usual Latin stress rule. For example, the genitive and vocative singular Vergilī (from Vergilius) is pronounced [werˈɡiliː], with stress on the penult, even though it is short.[3]
There is no contraction of –iī(s) in plural forms.
fīlius, –ī son m. |
auxilium, –ī aid, help n. |
|||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Singular | Plural | Singular | Plural | |||||
Nominative | fīlius | –ius | fīliī | –iī | auxilium | –ium | auxilia | –ia |
Vocative | fīlī | –ī | fīliī | –iī | auxilium | –ium | auxilia | –ia |
Accusative | fīlium | –ium | fīliōs | –iōs | auxilium | –ium | auxilia | –a |
Genitive | fīlī (later) fīliī |
–ī (later) –iī |
fīliōrum | –iōrum | auxilī (later) auxiliī |
–ī (later) –iī |
auxiliōrum | –iōrum |
Dative | fīliō | –iō | fīliīs | –iīs | auxiliō | –iō | auxiliīs | –iīs |
Ablative | fīliō | –iō | fīliīs | –iīs | auxiliō | –iō | auxiliīs | –iīs |
Some masculine nouns of the second declension end in an –er or an –ir in the nominative singular. For such nouns, the genitive singular must be learned to see if the E is dropped. For example, socer, –erī keeps its E. However, the noun magister, –trī ("teacher") drops its E in the genitive singular. Nouns with –ir in the nominative singular never drop the I.
The declension of second declension R nouns is identical to that of the regular second declension, with the exception of the vocative singular, which is identical to the nominative rather than ending in an –e.
For declension tables of second declension nouns, see the corresponding Wiktionary appendix.
The second declension contains two types of masculine Greek nouns and one form of neuter Greek noun. These nouns are irregular only in the singular, as are their first declension counterparts. Greek nouns in the second declension are derived from the Omicron Declension.
Some Greek nouns may also be declined as normal Latin nouns. For example, theātron can appear as theātrum.
In the older language, nouns ending with –vus, –quus and –vum take o rather than u in the nominative and accusative singular.
servos, –ī slave m. |
equos, –ī horse m. |
aevom, –ī eternity, age n. |
||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Singular | Singular | Singular | ||||
Nominative | servos | –os | equos | –os | aevom | –om |
Vocative | serve | –e | eque | –e | aevom | –om |
Accusative | servom | –om | equom | –om | aevom | –om |
Genitive | servī | –ī | equī | –ī | aevī | –ī |
Dative | servō | –ō | equō | –ō | aevō | –ō |
Ablative | servō | –ō | equō | –ō | aevō | –ō |
The plural of deus (god, deity) is irregular.
Nom. | dī/diī/deī |
Voc. | dī |
Acc. | deōs |
Gen. | deōrum/deum |
Dat. | dīs/diīs/deīs |
Abl. | dīs/diīs/deīs |
The vocative singular of Deus is not attested in Classical Latin. In Ecclesiastical Latin the vocative is Deus.
In poetry, –um may be substituted for –ōrum as the genitive plural ending.
The third declension is the largest group of nouns. The nominative singular of these nouns may end in –a,–e, –ī, –ō, –y, –c, –l, –n, –r, –s, –t, or –x. This group of nouns includes masculine, neuter, and feminine nouns. Examples are flumen, fluminis neut. ("river"), flos, floris masc. ("flower"), and pax, pacis fem. ("peace"). Each noun has the ending –is as a suffix attached to the root of the noun in the genitive singular form. Masculine, feminine and neuter nouns each have their own special nominative singular endings. For instance, many masculine nouns end in an –or (amor). Many feminine nouns end in an –īx (phoenīx), and many neuter nouns end in an –us (onus).
prīnceps, prīncipis leader, chief, prince m. |
phoenīx, phoenīcis phoenix, fire-bird f. |
cōnāmen, conaminis effort, struggle n. |
||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Singular | Plural | Singular | Plural | Singular | Plural | |||||||
Nominative | prīnceps | –s1 | prīncipēs | –ēs | phoenīx | –s1 | phoenīcēs | –ēs | cōnāmen | —1 | cōnāmina | –a |
Vocative | prīnceps | –s1 | prīncipēs | –ēs | phoenīx | –s1 | —— | cōnāmen | —1 | cōnāmina | –a | |
Accusative | prīncipem | –em | prīncipēs | –ēs | phoenīca[4] | –em | —— | cōnāmen | —1,2 | cōnāmina | –a | |
Genitive | prīncipis | –is | prīncipum | –um | phoenīcis | –is | —— | cōnāminis | –is | —— | ||
Dative | prīncipī | –ī | prīncipibus | –ibus | phoenīcī | –ī | —— | cōnāminī | –ī | —— | ||
Ablative | prīncipe | –e | prīncipibus | –ibus | phoenīce | –e | —— | cōnāmine | –e | —— | ||
Locative | prīncipī | –ī | prīncipibus | –ibus | phoenīcī | –ī | —— | cōnāminī | –ī | —— |
1 The nominative singular is formed in one of four ways: with –s, with no ending, or by one of these two with a different stem from the oblique cases. The same is true of other forms that are the same as the nominative singular: the vocative singular and the neuter accusative singular.
2 The nominative and accusative of neuter nouns are always identical. It should not be assumed that –en is always the appropriate ending, as it might appear above.
The third declension also has a set of nouns that are declined differently. They are called i-stems. I-stems are broken into two subcategories: pure and mixed. Pure i-stems are indicated by the parisyllabic rule or special neuter endings. Mixed i-stems are indicated by the double consonant rule.
Pure i-stems may exhibit peculiar endings in both singular and plural. Mixed i-stems employ normal (consonant) 3rd declension endings in the singular but i-stem endings in the plural. Note the alternative i-stem endings indicated in parentheses.
amnis, amnis stream, torrent m. (Pure) |
pars, partis part, piece f. (Mixed) |
animal, animālis animal, living being n. (Pure) |
||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Parisyllabic Rule | Double Consonant Rule | Special Neuter Ending | ||||||||||
Singular | Plural | Singular | Plural | Singular | Plural | |||||||
Nominative | amnis | –s1 | amnēs | –ēs | pars | –s1 | partēs | –ēs | animal | —1 | animālia | –ia |
Vocative | amnis | –s1 | amnēs | –ēs | pars | –s1 | partēs | –ēs | animal | —1 | animālia | –ia |
Accusative | amnem | –em (–im) | amnēs | –ēs (–īs) | partem partim |
–em –im |
partēs | –ēs (–īs) |
animal | —1 | animālia | –ia |
Genitive | amnis | –is | amnium | –ium | partis | –is | partium | –ium | animālis | –is | animālium | –ium |
Dative | amnī | –ī | amnibus | –ibus | partī | –ī | partibus | –ibus | animālī | –ī | animālibus | –ibus |
Ablative | amne amnī |
–e (–ī) | amnibus | –ibus | parte | –e | partibus | –ibus | animālī | –ī | animālibus | –ibus |
1 The nominative singular is formed in one of four ways: with –s, with no ending, or by one of these two with a different stem from the oblique cases. The same is true of other forms that are the same as the nominative singular: the vocative singular and the neuter accusative singular.
The rules for determining i-stems from non-i-stems and "mixed" i-stems should be thought of more as "guidelines" than "rules": even among the Romans themselves, the categorization of a 3rd declension word as an i-stem or non-i-stem was quite fluid. The result is that many words that should be i-stems according to the parisyllabic and consonant stem rules actually are not, such as canis or iuvenis. By the parisyllabic rule, "canis" should be a masculine i-stem and thus differ from the non-i-stems by having an extra –i– in the plural genitive form: "canium". In reality, the plural genitive of "canis" is "canum", the form of a non-i-stem. This fluidity even in Roman times results in much more uncertainty in Medieval Latin, as scholars were trying to imitate what was fluid to begin with.
In the third declension, there are four irregular nouns.
Case | vīs force, power f. |
sūs, suis swine, pig, hog c. |
bōs, bovis ox, bullock c. |
Iuppiter, Iovis Jupiter m. |
|||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Singular | Plural | Singular | Plural | Singular | Plural | Singular | |
Nominative | vīs | vīrēs | sūs | suēs | bōs[5] | bovēs | Iuppiter[5] |
Vocative | vīs | vīrēs | sūs | suēs | bōs[5] | bovēs | Iuppiter[5] |
Accusative | vim | vīrēs | suem | suēs | bovem | bovēs | Iovem |
Genitive | —— | vīrium | suis | suum | bovis | boum | Iovis |
Dative | —— | vīribus | suī | subus | bovī | bōbus būbus[5] |
Iovī |
Ablative | vī | vīribus | sue | subus | bove | bōbus būbus[5] |
Iove |
The fourth declension is a group of nouns consisting of mostly masculine words such as fluctus, fluctūs (masc.) ("a wave")' and portus, portūs (masc.)("a port") with a few feminine exceptions, including manus, manūs (fem.) ("hand"). The fourth declension also includes several neuter nouns including genu, genūs (neut.) ("knee"). Each noun has the ending –ūs as a suffix attached to the root of the noun in the genitive singular form. The predominant letter in the ending forms of this declension is u.
portus, –ūs port, haven, harbor m. |
cornū, –ūs horn, strength n. |
|||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Singular | Plural | Singular | Plural | |||||
Nominative | portus | –us | portūs | –ūs | cornū | –ū | cornua | –ua |
Vocative | portus | –us | portūs | –ūs | cornū | –ū | cornua | –ua |
Accusative | portum | –um | portūs | –ūs | cornū | –ū | cornua | –ua |
Genitive | portūs | –ūs | portuum | –uum | cornūs | –ūs | cornuum | –uum |
Dative | portuī | –uī | portibus | –ibus | cornū | –ū | cornibus | –ibus |
Ablative | portū | –ū | portibus | –ibus | cornū | –ū | cornibus | –ibus |
In the dative and ablative plural, –ibus is sometimes replaced with –ubus. This is so for only a few nouns, such as artus, "the limbs".
The declension of domus is irregular:
domus, –ūs house, home f. |
||||
---|---|---|---|---|
Singular | Plural | |||
Nominative | domus | –us | domūs | –ūs |
Vocative | domus | –us | —— | |
Accusative | domum | –um | domōs / domūs | –ōs / ūs |
Genitive | domūs | –ūs | domōrum / domuum | –ōrum / uum |
Dative | domuī | –uī | domibus | –ibus |
Ablative | domō | –ō | domibus | –ibus |
The fifth declension is a small group of nouns consisting of mostly feminine words like 'affair, matter, thing' (rēs, reī fem.) and 'day' (diēs, diēī usually masculine, except on notable days when it is feminine). Each noun has either the ending –ēī or –eī as a suffix attached to the root of the noun in the genitive singular form
effigiēs, –ēī effigy, ideal f. |
spēs, –eī hope, anticipation f. |
|||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Singular | Plural | Singular | Plural | |||||
Nominative | effigiēs | –ēs | effigiēs | –ēs | spēs | –ēs | spēs | –ēs |
Vocative | effigiēs | –ēs | effigiēs | –ēs | spēs | –ēs | spēs | –ēs |
Accusative | effigiem | –em | effigiēs | –ēs | spem | –em | spēs | –ēs |
Genitive | effigiēī | –ēī | effigiērum | –ērum | speī | –eī | spērum | –ērum |
Dative | effigiēī | –ēī | effigiēbus | –ēbus | speī | –eī | spēbus | –ēbus |
Ablative | effigiē | –ē | effigiēbus | –ēbus | spē | –ē | spēbus | –ēbus |
Note that nouns ending in iēs have long ēī in the dative and genitive, while nouns ending in a consonant + ēs have short eī in these cases.
Relative and demonstrative pronouns are generally declined like first and second declension adjectives, with the following differences:
These differences identify the "pronominal" declension, and a few adjectives follow this pattern. The vocative, where not shown, is the same as the nominative.
The first and second persons are irregular. They may be only masculine or feminine.
First Person | Second Person | |||
---|---|---|---|---|
ego, meī I m. and f. |
nōs, nostri we m. and f. |
tū, tuī thou m. and f. |
vōs, vestri ye m. and f. |
|
Singular | Plural | Singular | Plural | |
Nominative | ego | nōs | tū | vōs |
Vocative | —— | —— | tū | vōs |
Accusative | mē | nōs | tē | vōs |
Genitive | mei1 | nostri1 | tui1 | vestri1 |
Dative | mihi | nōbīs | tibi | vōbīs |
Ablative | mē | nōbīs | tē | vōbīs |
1These pronouns are declined in the 1st and 2nd declensions to agree in number and case with the thing possessed.
Usually, to show the ablative of accompaniment, cum would be added to the ablative form. However, with personal pronouns and the interrogative (not with 3rd person), cum is added onto the end of the ablative form. For example: mēcum, nōbīscum, tēcum, vōbīscum and quōcum (sometimes quīcum).
is, eī he, they m. |
ea, eae she, they f. |
id, ea it, they n. |
||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Singular | Plural | Singular | Plural | Singular | Plural | |
Nominative | is | eī, iī | ea | eae | id | ea |
Vocative | – | – | – | – | – | – |
Accusative | eum | eōs | eam | eās | id | ea |
Genitive | eius | eōrum | eius | eārum | eius | eōrum |
Dative | eī | eīs, iīs | eī | eīs, iīs | eī | eīs, iīs |
Ablative | eō | eīs, iīs | eā | eīs, iīs | eō | eīs, iīs |
The third person reflexive pronouns always refer back to the subject, whether it be singular or plural.
—, suus himself, herself |
|
---|---|
Nominative | — |
Vocative | – |
Accusative | sē, sēsē |
Genitive | suus1 |
Dative | sibi |
Ablative | sē, sēsē |
1This pronoun is declined in the 1st and 2nd declensions to agree in number and case with the thing possessed.
The interrogative pronouns are used strictly for asking questions. They are distinct from the relative pronoun and the interrogative adjective (which is declined like the relative pronoun). Interrogative pronouns rarely occur in the plural. The plural interrogative pronouns are the same as the plural relative pronouns.
quis who? m. and f. |
quid what? n. only |
|
---|---|---|
Singular | ||
Nominative | quis | quid |
Vocative | – | – |
Accusative | quem | quid |
Genitive | cuius | cuius |
Dative | cuī | cuī |
Ablative | quō | quō |
hic, haec, hoc this, this one (proximal) |
ille, illa, illud that, that one (distal) |
iste, ista, istud that of yours (medial) |
||||||||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Masculine | Feminine | Neuter | Masculine | Feminine | Neuter | Masculine | Feminine | Neuter | ||||||||||
Singular | Plural | Singular | Plural | Singular | Plural | Singular | Plural | Singular | Plural | Singular | Plural | Singular | Plural | Singular | Plural | Singular | Plural | |
Nominative | hic | hī | haec | hae | hoc | haec | ille | illī | illa | illae | illud | illa | iste | istī | ista | istae | istud | ista |
Vocative | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – |
Accusative | hunc | hōs | hanc | hās | hoc | haec | illum | illōs | illam | illās | illud | illa | istum | istōs | istam | istās | istud | ista |
Genitive | huius | hōrum | huius | hārum | huius | hōrum | illīus | illōrum | illīus | illārum | illīus | illōrum | istīus | istōrum | istīus | istārum | istīus | istōrum |
Dative | huic | hīs | huic | hīs | huic | hīs | illī | illīs | illī | illīs | illī | illīs | istī | istīs | istī | istīs | istī | istīs |
Ablative | hōc | hīs | hāc | hīs | hōc | hīs | illō | illīs | illā | illīs | illō | illīs | istō | istīs | istā | istīs | istō | istīs |
ipse, ipsa, ipsum himself, herself, itself |
||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Masculine | Feminine | Neuter | ||||
Singular | Plural | Singular | Plural | Singular | Plural | |
Nominative | ipse | ipsī | ipsa | ipsae | ipsum | ipsa |
Vocative | – | – | – | – | – | – |
Accusative | ipsum | ipsōs | ipsam | ipsās | ipsum | ipsa |
Genitive | ipsīus | ipsōrum | ipsīus | ipsārum | ipsīus | ipsōrum |
Dative | ipsī | ipsīs | ipsī | ipsīs | ipsī | ipsīs |
Ablative | ipsō | ipsīs | ipsā | ipsīs | ipsō | ipsīs |
quī, quae, quod who, which, that |
||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Masculine | Feminine | Neuter | ||||
Singular | Plural | Singular | Plural | Singular | Plural | |
Nominative | quī | quī | quae | quae | quod | quae |
Vocative | – | – | – | – | – | – |
Accusative | quem | quōs | quam | quās | quod | quae |
Genitive | cūius | quōrum | cūius | quārum | cūius | quōrum |
Dative | cui | quibus | cui | quibus | cui | quibus |
Ablative | quō | quibus | quā | quibus | quō | quibus |
First and second declension are inflected in the masculine, the feminine and the neuter; the masculine form typically ends in –us (although some end in –er, see below), the feminine form ends in –a, and the neuter form ends in –um. Therefore, some adjectives are given like altus, alta, altum .
altus, –a, –um high, long, tall |
||||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Masculine | Feminine | Neuter | ||||||||||
Singular | Plural | Singular | Plural | Singular | Plural | |||||||
Nominative | altus | –us | altī | –ī | alta | –a | altae | –ae | altum | –um | alta | –a |
Vocative | alte | –e | altī | –ī | alta | –a | altae | –ae | altum | –um | alta | –a |
Accusative | altum | –um | altōs | –ōs | altam | –am | altās | –ās | altum | –um | alta | –a |
Genitive | altī | –ī | altōrum | –ōrum | altae | –ae | altārum | –ārum | altī | –ī | altōrum | –ōrum |
Dative | altō | –ō | altīs | –īs | altae | –ae | altīs | –īs | altō | –ō | altīs | –īs |
Ablative | altō | –ō | altīs | –īs | altā | –ā | altīs | –īs | altō | –ō | altīs | –īs |
Some first and second declension adjectives' masculine form end in an –er. As with second declension nouns –r nouns, some adjectives retain the e throughout inflection, and some omit it. Sacer, sacra, sacrum omits its e while miser, misera, miserum keeps it.
miser, –era, –erum sad, poor, unhappy |
||||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Masculine | Feminine | Neuter | ||||||||||
Singular | Plural | Singular | Plural | Singular | Plural | |||||||
Nominative | miser | –er | miserī | –ī | misera | –a | miserae | –ae | miserum | –um | misera | –a |
Vocative | miser | –er | miserī | –ī | misera | –a | miserae | –ae | miserum | –um | misera | –a |
Accusative | miserum | –um | miserōs | –ōs | miseram | –am | miserās | –ās | miserum | –um | misera | –a |
Genitive | miserī | –ī | miserōrum | –ōrum | miserae | –ae | miserārum | –ārum | miserī | –ī | miserōrum | –ōrum |
Dative | miserō | –ō | miserīs | –īs | miserae | –ae | miserīs | –īs | miserō | –ō | miserīs | –īs |
Ablative | miserō | –ō | miserīs | –īs | miserā | –ā | miserīs | –īs | miserō | –ō | miserīs | –īs |
sacer, –cra, –crum sacred, holy |
||||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Masculine | Feminine | Neuter | ||||||||||
Singular | Plural | Singular | Plural | Singular | Plural | |||||||
Nominative | sacer | –er | sacrī | –ī | sacra | –a | sacrae | –ae | sacrum | –um | sacra | –a |
Vocative | sacer | –er | sacrī | –ī | sacra | –a | sacrae | –ae | sacrum | –um | sacra | –a |
Accusative | sacrum | –um | sacrōs | –ōs | sacram | –am | sacrās | –ās | sacrum | –um | sacra | –a |
Genitive | sacrī | –ī | sacrōrum | –ōrum | sacrae | –ae | sacrārum | –ārum | sacrī | –ī | sacrōrum | –ōrum |
Dative | sacrō | –ō | sacrīs | –īs | sacrae | –ae | sacrīs | –īs | sacrō | –ō | sacrīs | –īs |
Ablative | sacrō | –ō | sacrīs | –īs | sacrā | –ā | sacrīs | –īs | sacrō | –ō | sacrīs | –īs |
Nine first and second declension adjectives are irregular in the genitive and the dative in all genders. They can be remembered by using the mnemonic acronym UNUS NAUTA. They are:
ūllus, –a, –um; any
nūllus, –a, –um; no, none (of any)
uter, –tra, –trum; which (of two)
sōlus, –a, –um; sole, alone
neuter, –tra, –trum; neither (of two)
alius, –a, –ud; (gen. sing. alīus; another)
ūnus, –a, –um; one
tōtus, –a, –um; whole
alter, –era, –erum; the other (of two)
ūllus, –a, –um any |
||||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Masculine | Feminine | Neuter | ||||||||||
Singular | Plural | Singular | Plural | Singular | Plural | |||||||
Nominative | ūllus | –us | ūllī | –ī | ūlla | –a | ūllae | –ae | ūllum | –um | ūlla | –a |
Vocative | ūlle | –e | ūllī | –ī | ūlla | –a | ūllae | –ae | ūllum | –um | ūlla | –a |
Accusative | ūllum | –um | ūllōs | –ōs | ūllam | –am | ūllās | –ās | ūllum | –um | ūlla | –a |
Genitive | ūllīus | –īus | ūllōrum | –ōrum | ūllīus | –īus | ūllārum | –ārum | ūllīus | –īus | ūllōrum | –ōrum |
Dative | ūllī | –ī | ūllīs | –īs | ūllī | –ī | ūllīs | –īs | ūllī | –ī | ūllīs | –īs |
Ablative | ūllō | –ō | ūllīs | –īs | ūllā | –ā | ūllīs | –īs | ūllō | –ō | ūllīs | –īs |
Third declension adjectives are normally declined like third declension i-stem nouns, except for the fact they always have a –ī rather than an –e in the ablative singular (unlike i-stem nouns, in which only neuters have –ī). Some adjectives, however, like the one-ending vetus, veteris (old, aged), have an –e in the ablative singular (all genders), a –um in the genitive plural (all genders), and an –a in the nominative and accusative plural (neuter only).
These have a single nominative ending for all genders, although as usual the endings for the other cases vary. As with nouns, a genitive is given for the purpose of inflection.
atrōx, –ōcis terrible, mean, cruel |
||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Masculine & Feminine | Neuter | |||||||
Singular | Plural | Singular | Plural | |||||
Nominative | atrōx | –ōx | atrōcēs | –ēs | atrōx | –ōx | atrōcia | –ia |
Vocative | atrōx | –ōx | atrōcēs | –ēs | atrōx | –ōx | atrōcia | –ia |
Accusative | atrōcem | –em | atrōcēs | –ēs1 | atrōx | –ōx | atrōcia | –ia |
Genitive | atrōcis | –is | atrōcium | –ium | atrōcis | –is | atrōcium | –ium |
Dative | atrōcī | –ī | atrōcibus | –ibus | atrōcī | –ī | atrōcibus | –ibus |
Ablative | atrōcī | –ī² | atrōcibus | –ibus | atrōcī | –ī² | atrōcibus | –ibus |
1—may end in –īs
²—may end in –e
Third declension adjectives that have two endings have one form for the masculine and feminine, and a separate form for the neuter. The ending for the masculine and feminine is –is, and the ending for the neuter is –e. Because the sexed form ends in an –is, we find the adjective genitive singular.
agilis, –e nimble, swift |
||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Masculine & Feminine | Neuter | |||||||
Singular | Plural | Singular | Plural | |||||
Nominative | agilis | –is | agilēs | –ēs | agile | –e | agilia | –ia |
Vocative | agilis | –is | agilēs | –ēs | agile | –e | agilia | –ia |
Accusative | agilem | –em | agilēs | –ēs1 | agile | –e | agilia | –ia |
Genitive | agilis | –is | agilium | –ium | agilis | –is | agilium | –ium |
Dative | agilī | –ī | agilibus | –ibus | agilī | –ī | agilibus | –ibus |
Ablative | agilī | –ī | agilibus | –ibus | agilī | –ī | agilibus | –ibus |
1—may end in –īs
Third declension adjectives with three endings have three separate nominative forms for all three genders. Like third and second declension –r nouns, the masculine ends in an –er. The feminine ends in an –ris, and the neuter ends in an –re. With that information, we come upon the genitive singular needed for inflection, the feminine form.
celer, –eris, –ere swift, rapid, brash |
||||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Masculine | Feminine | Neuter | ||||||||||
Singular | Plural | Singular | Plural | Singular | Plural | |||||||
Nominative | celer | –er | celerēs | –ēs | celeris | –is | celerēs | –ēs | celere | –e | celeria | –ia |
Vocative | celer | –er | celerēs | –ēs | celeris | –is | celerēs | –ēs | celere | –e | celeria | –ia |
Accusative | celerem | –em | celerēs | –ēs1 | celerem | –em | celerēs | –ēs1 | celere | –e | celeria | –ia |
Genitive | celeris | –is | celerium | –ium | celeris | –is | celerium | –ium | celeris | –is | celerium | –ium |
Dative | celerī | –ī | celeribus | –ibus | celerī | –ī | celeribus | –ibus | celerī | –ī | celeribus | –ibus |
Ablative | celerī | –ī | celeribus | –ibus | celerī | –ī | celeribus | –ibus | celerī | –ī | celeribus | –ibus |
alacer, –cris, –cre lively, jovial, animated |
||||||||||||
Masculine | Feminine | Neuter | ||||||||||
Singular | Plural | Singular | Plural | Singular | Plural | |||||||
Nominative | alacer | –er | alacrēs | –ēs | alacris | –is | alacrēs | –ēs | alacre | –e | alacria | –ia |
Vocative | alacer | –er | alacrēs | –ēs | alacris | –is | alacrēs | –ēs | alacre | –e | alacria | –ia |
Accusative | alacrem | –em | alacrēs | –ēs1 | alacrem | –em | alacrēs | –ēs1 | alacre | –e | alacria | –ia |
Genitive | alacris | –is | alacrium | –ium | alacris | –is | alacrium | –ium | alacris | –is | alacrium | –ium |
Dative | alacrī | –ī | alacribus | –ibus | alacrī | –ī | alacribus | –ibus | alacrī | –ī | alacribus | –ibus |
Ablative | alacrī | –ī | alacribus | –ibus | alacrī | –ī | alacribus | –ibus | alacrī | –ī | alacribus | –ibus |
1—may end in –īs
As in English, adjectives have superlative and comparative forms. For regular first and second declension and third declension adjectives with one or two endings, the comparative is formed by adding an –ior for the masculine and feminine, and an –ius for the neuter to the base. The genitive for both are formed by adding an –iōris. Therefore, they are declined like the third declension. However, they are not declined as i-stems are. Superlatives formed by adding an –issimus, –a, –um to the base. Now, we find that superlatives are declined like first and second declension adjectives.
Adjective | Positive | Comparative | Superlative |
---|---|---|---|
benignus, –a, –um (kind, nice) | benignior, –ius | benignissimus, –a, –um | |
frīgidus, –a, –um (cold, chilly) | frīgidior, –ius | frīgidissimus, –a, –um | |
calidus, –a, –um (hot, fiery) | calidior, –ius | calidissimus, –a, –um | |
pugnāx, –ācis (pugnacious) | pugnācior, –ius | pugnācissimus, –a, –um | |
fortis, –e (strong, robust) | fortior, –ius | fortissimus, –a, –um | |
aequālis, –e (equal, even) | aequālior, –ius | aequālissimus, –a, –um |
Adjectives (in the third and first and second declensions) that have masculine nominative singular forms ending in –er have different forms. If the feminine and neuter forms drop the E, use that for the comparative form. The superlative is formed by adding a –rimus onto the masculine form.
Adjective | Positive | Comparative | Superlative |
---|---|---|---|
pulcher, –chra, –chrum (pretty, beautiful) | pulchrior, –ius | pulcherrimus, –a, –um | |
sacer, –cra, –crum (sacred, holy) | sacrior, –ius | sacerrimus, –a, –um | |
tener, –era, –erum (delicate, tender) | tenerior, –ius | tenerrimus, –a, –um | |
ācer, –cris, –cre (sharp) | ācrior, –ius | ācerrimus, –a, –um | |
celēber, –bris, –bre (celebrated, famous) | celēbrior, –ius | celēberrimus, –a, –um | |
celer, –eris, –ere (quick, fast) | celerior, –ius | celerrimus, –a, –um |
Some third declension adjectives with two endings in –lis in the sexed nominative singular have irregular superlative forms. The following are the only adjectives that have this unique form.
Adjective | Positive | Comparative | Superlative |
---|---|---|---|
facilis, –e (easy) | facilior, –ius | facillimus, –a, –um | |
difficilis, –e (hard, difficult) | difficilior, –ius | difficillimus, –a, –um | |
similis, –e (similar, like) | similior, –ius | simillimus, –a, –um | |
dissimilis, –e (unlike, dissimilar) | dissimilior, –ius | dissimillimus, –a, –um | |
gracilis, –e (slender, slim) | gracilior, –ius | gracillimus, –a, –um | |
humilis, –e (low, humble) | humilior, –ius | humillimus, –a, –um |
As in most languages, Latin has adjectives that have irregular comparatives and superlatives.
Adjective | Positive | Comparative | Superlative |
---|---|---|---|
bonus, –a, –um (good) | melior, –ius | optimus, –a, –um | |
malus, –a, –um (bad, evil) | peior, –ius | pessimus, –a, –um | |
magnus, –a, –um (great, large) | maior, –ius | maximus, –a, –um | |
parvus, –a, –um (small, slight) | minor, –us | minimus, –a, –um | |
multus, –a, –um (much, many) | plūs1 | plurimus, –a, –um | |
propinquus, –a, –um (near, close) | propior, –ius | proximus, –a, –um | |
mātūrus, –a, –um (ripe, mature) | mātūrior, –ius | mātūrrimus, –a, –um2 | |
nēquam3 (worthless) | nēquior, –ius | nēquissimus, –a, –um | |
posterus, –a, –um (next, future) | posterior, –ius | postremus, –a, –um | |
superus, –a, –um (above, upper) | superior, –ius | supremus, –a, –um | |
exterus, –a, –um (outer, outward) | exterior, –ius | extremus, –a, –um | |
novus, –a, –um (new, strange) | novior, –ium | novissimus, –a, –um | |
senex, senis (old, aged) | senior, –ius | —— | |
iuvenis, –is (young, youthful) | iuvenior –ius / iūnior, –ius | —— |
The adjective īdem, eadem, idem means 'same.' It is a variant of the third person pronouns that were declined earlier. Generally, they are formed by adding –dem to a declined third person pronouns. However, some forms have been changed to ease pronunciation.
īdem, eadem, idem the same, same as |
||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Masculine | Feminine | Neuter | ||||
Singular | Plural | Singular | Plural | Singular | Plural | |
Nominative | īdem | eīdem, iīdem |
eadem | eaedem | idem | eadem |
Vocative | īdem | eīdem, iīdem |
eadem | eaedem | idem | eadem |
Accusative | eundem | eōsdem | eandem | eāsdem | idem | eadem |
Genitive | eiusdem | eōrundem | eiusdem | eārundem | eiusdem | eōrundem |
Dative | eīdem | eīsdem, iīsdem |
eīdem | eīsdem, iīsdem |
eīdem | eīsdem, iīsdem |
Ablative | eōdem | eīsdem, iīsdem |
eādem | eīsdem, iīsdem |
eōdem | eīsdem, iīsdem |
See also: Roman numerals for symbology.
There are several different kinds of numeral words in Latin: the two most common are cardinal numerals, and ordinal numerals. There are also several more rare numerals such as distributive numerals and adverbial numerals
All numerals, except ūnum (one), duo (two), tria (three), centum (one hundred), and mīlia (thousand, sing. mīlle) are indeclinable adjectives. Ūnus, ūna, ūnum is declined like a first and second declension adjective with an –īus in the genitive, and –ī in the dative. Duo is declined irregularly, and tria is declined like a third declension adjective.
duo, duae, duo two |
|||
---|---|---|---|
Masculine | Feminine | Neuter | |
Plural | |||
Nominative | duo | duae | duo |
Vocative | duo | duae | duo |
Accusative | duōs / duo | duās | duo |
Genitive | duōrum / duum | duārum | duōrum |
Dative | duōbus | duābus | duōbus |
Ablative | duōbus | duābus | duōbus |
It should be noted that ambō, "both", is declined as duo is, though its o is long.
trēs, tria | |||
---|---|---|---|
Masculine & Feminine | Neuter | ||
Plural | |||
Nominative | trēs | tria | |
Vocative | trēs | tria | |
Accusative | trēs, trīs | tria | |
Genitive | trium | trium | |
Dative | tribus | tribus | |
Ablative | tribus | tribus |
The word mīlle, is singular, an adjective and indeclinable. However, its plural, mīlia, is a plural 3rd declension i-stem neuter noun.
mīlia, mīlium (a) thousand n. |
||
---|---|---|
Plural | ||
Nominative | mīlia | |
Vocative | mīlia | |
Accusative | mīlia | |
Genitive | mīlium | |
Dative | mīlibus | |
Ablative | mīlibus |
As stated before, the rest of the numbers are indeclinable adjectives. They are also indeclinable as substantives.
1 | I | ūnus, –a, –um | 11 | XI | ūndecim | 21 | XXI | ūnus et vigintī | 101 | CI | centum et ūnus |
2 | II | duo, –ae, –o | 12 | XII | duodecim | 22 | XXII | duō et vigintī | 200 | CC | ducentī, –ae, –a |
3 | III | trēs, –ia | 13 | XIII | trēdecim | 30 | XXX | trīgintā | 300 | CCC | trecentī |
4 | IV | quattuor | 14 | XIV | quattuordecim | 40 | XL | quadrāgintā | 400 | CD | quadringentī |
5 | V | quīnque | 15 | XV | quīndecim | 50 | L | quīnquāgintā | 500 | D | quīngentī |
6 | VI | sex | 16 | XVI | sēdecim | 60 | LX | sexāgintā | 600 | DC | sescentī |
7 | VII | septem | 17 | XVII | septendecim | 70 | LXX | septuāgintā | 700 | DCC | septingentī |
8 | VIII | octō | 18 | XVIII | duodēvigintī | 80 | LXXX | octōgintā | 800 | DCCC | octingentī |
9 | IX | novem | 19 | XIX | ūndēvigintī | 90 | XC | nōnāgintā | 900 | CM | nōngentī |
10 | X | decem | 20 | XX | vigintī | 100 | C | centum | 1000 | M | mīlle |
Ordinal numerals all decline like normal 1st and 2nd declension adjectives. When declining the two-word ordinals (thirteenth through twenty-second, with the exception of twentieth), both words decline to match in gender, number and case.
Note: "secundus" only means "second" in the sense of "following". The adjective alter, –ra, –rum meaning "the other (of two)" was more frequently used in many instances that English would use "second".
Ordinal numbers, not cardinal numbers, are commonly used to represent dates, because they are in the format of "in the tenth year of Caesar", etc. which also carried over into the Anno Domini system and Christian dating, i.e. "anno post Christum natum centesimo"(also "centensimo") = AD 100.
A rare numeral construction denoting an equal number distributed among several objects, e.g. "How many each?" "Two by two." They decline like normal 1st and 2nd declension adjectives, and are logically always plural. Bis, Bina = "twice two". A classical example would be "Uxores habent deni duo deniqui inter se communes" = "groups of ten or twelve men had wives in common" –Gallic Wars, Julius Caesar
Adverbial numerals are (as the name states) indeclinable adverbs, but because all of the other numeral constructions are adjectives, they are listed here with them. Adverbial numerals give how many times a thing happened. Semel = once, Bis = twice, Ter = thrice (three times), Quater = four times, etc.
Adverbs are not declined. However, adverbs must be formed if one wants to make an adjective into an adverb.
First and second declension adjectives' adverbs are formed by adding an –ē onto their bases.
Adjective | Adverb | |
---|---|---|
clārus, –a, –um (clear, famous) | clārē (clearly, famously) | |
validus, –a, –um (strong, robust) | validē (strongly, robustly) | |
īnfīrmus, –a, –um (weak) | īnfīrmē (weakly) | |
solidus, –a, –um (complete, firm) | solidē (completely, firmly) | |
integer, –gra, –grum (whole, fresh) | integrē (wholly, freshly) | |
līber, –era, –erum (free) | līberē (freely) |
Typically, third declension adjectives' adverbs are formed by adding an –iter onto their bases. However, most third declension adjectives with one ending simply add an –er to their bases.
Adjective | Adverb | |
---|---|---|
prūdēns, –entis (prudent) | prūdenter (prudently) | |
audāx, –ācis (bold) | audāciter (boldly) | |
virilis, –e (courageous, spirited) | viriliter (courageously, spiritedly) | |
salūbris, –e (wholesome) | salūbriter (wholesomely) |
Adverbs' comparative forms are their neuter adjectives' comparative forms. Adverbs' superlative forms are made in the same way in which first and second declension adjectives' adverbs are made.
First and second declension adjectives' adverbs are formed by adding an –ē onto their bases.
Positive | Comparative | Superlative |
---|---|---|
clārē (clearly, famously) | clārius | clārissimē |
solidē (completely, firmly) | solidius | —— |
līberē (freely) | līberius | —— |
prudenter (prudently) | prudentius | prudentissimē |
salūbriter (wholesomely) | salūbrius | salūbrissimē |
As so with adjectives, there are irregular adverbs with peculiar comparative and superlative forms.
Positive | Comparative | Superlative |
---|---|---|
bene (well) | melius | optimē |
male (ill, badly) | peius | pessimē |
māgnoperē (greatly) | magis | maximē |
multum (much, a lot) | plūs | plūrimum |
parvum (little) | minus | minimē |
nēquiter (worthlessly) | nēquius | nēquissimē |
saepe (often) | saepius | saepissimē |
mātūrē (seasonably, betimes) | mātūrius | māturrimē |
prope (near) | propius | proximē |
nūper (recently) | —— | nūperrimē |
potis (possible) | potius (rather) | potissimē (especially) |
——— | prius (before, previously) | prīmum /primo (first) |
secus (otherwise) | sētius / sequius (less) | —— |
Some nouns are only used in the singular, such as:
Some nouns are only used in the plural (plurale tantum) such as:
Indeclinable nouns are neuter nouns which occur only in the nominative and the accusative singular. There are only six such nouns:
Heterogeneous nouns are nouns which vary in respect to gender.
Singular | Plural |
balneum n. bath | balneae f. or balnea n. bath-house |
epulum n. feast, banquet | epulae f. feasts, banquets |
frēnum n. bridle, curb | frēnī m. bridle, curb |
iocus m. joke, jest | ioca n. or ioci m. jokes, jests |
locus m. place, location | loca n. places, locations; locī region |
rāstrum n. hoe, rake | rāstrī m. hoes, rakes |
Nouns whose plural meaning is different from the singular meaning are called plūrālia tantum.
Singular | Plural |
aedēs, –is f. building, temple | aedēs, –ium rooms, house |
auxilium, –ī n. help, aid | auxilia, –ōrum auxiliary troops |
carcer, –eris m. prison, cell | carcerēs, –um starting-place of a chariot race |
castrum, –ī n. fort, castle, fortress | castra, –ōrum milit. camp, encampment |
cōpia, –ae f. plenty, much, abundance | cōpiae, –ārum troops |
fīnis, –is m. end, boundary | fīnēs, –ium territory |
fortūna, –ae f. luck, chance | fortūnae –ārum wealth |
grātia, –ae f. charm, favor | grātiae, –ārum thanks |
impedīmentum, –ī m. impediment, hindrance | impedīmenta, –ōrum baggage, baggage train |
littera, –ae f. letter (as in A, B, C, etc.) | litterae, –ārum epistle, scholarship, literature |
mōs, mōris m. habit, inclination | mōrēs, –um m. morals, character |
opera, –ae f. trouble, pains | operae, –ārum workmen |
opis f.[6] help | opēs, –ium resources, wealth |
pars, partis f. part, piece | partēs, –ium office, function |
|
.