n.

自己主張の強さ、(自らの要求を正当に表現すること)アサーティブネス

関: (adj.)assertive 断定的な、独断的な

WordNet

aggressive self-assurance; given to making bold assertions (同)self-assertiveness
diffidence about self promotion

Wikipedia preview

出典(authority):フリー百科事典『ウィキペディア（Wikipedia）』「2015/05/14 18:29:55」(JST)

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Assertiveness is the quality of being self-assured and confident without being aggressive. In the field of psychology and psychotherapy, it is a learnable skill and mode of communication. Dorland's Medical Dictionary defines assertiveness as: "a form of behavior characterized by a confident declaration or affirmation of a statement without need of proof; this affirms the person's rights or point of view without either aggressively threatening the rights of another (assuming a position of dominance) or submissively permitting another to ignore or deny one's rights or point of view".^[1]

During the second half of the 20th century, assertiveness was increasingly singled out as a behavioral skill taught by many personal development experts, behavior therapists, and cognitive behavioral therapists. Assertiveness is often linked to self-esteem. The term and concept was popularized to the general public by books such as Your Perfect Right: A Guide to Assertive Behavior (1970) by Robert E. Alberti, and When I Say No, I Feel Guilty: How To Cope Using the Skills of Systematic Assertiveness Therapy (1975) by Manuel J. Smith.

Training

Joseph Wolpe originally explored the use of assertiveness as a means of "reciprocal inhibition" of anxiety, in his 1958 book on treating neurosis; and it has since been commonly employed as an intervention in behavior therapy.^[2] Assertiveness Training ("AT") was introduced by Andrew Salter (1961) and popularized by Joseph Wolpe.^[3] Wolpe's belief was that a person could not be both assertive and anxious at the same time, and thus being assertive would inhibit anxiety. The goals of assertiveness training include:^[4]

increased awareness of personal rights
differentiation between non-assertiveness and assertiveness
differentiation between passive–aggressiveness and aggressiveness
learning both verbal and non-verbal assertiveness skills.

As a communication style and strategy, assertiveness is thus distinguished from both aggression and passivity. How people deal with personal boundaries, their own and those of other people, helps to distinguish between these three concepts. Passive communicators do not defend their own personal boundaries and thus allow aggressive people to abuse or manipulate them through fear. Passive communicators are also typically not likely to risk trying to influence anyone else. Aggressive people do not respect the personal boundaries of others and thus are liable to harm others while trying to influence them. A person communicates assertively by overcoming fear of speaking his or her mind or trying to influence others, but doing so in a way that respects the personal boundaries of others. Assertive people are also willing to defend themselves against aggressive people.

Communication

Assertive communication involves respect for the boundaries of oneself and others. It also presumes an interest in the fulfillment of needs and wants through cooperation.^[5]

According to the textbook Cognitive Behavior Therapy (2008), "Assertive communication of personal opinions, needs, and boundaries has been ... conceptualized as the behavioral middle ground, lying between ineffective passive and aggressive responses".^[6] Such communication "emphasizes expressing feelings forthrightly, but in a way that will not spiral into aggression".^[7]

If others' actions threaten one's boundaries, one communicates this to prevent escalation.^[8]

In contrast, "aggressive communication" judges, threatens, lies, breaks confidences, stonewalls, and violates others' boundaries.

At the opposite end of the dialectic is "passive communication". Victims may passively permit others to violate their boundaries. At a later time, they may come back and attack with a sense of impunity or righteous indignation.

Assertive communication attempts to transcend these extremes by appealing to the shared interest of all parties; it "focuses on the issue, not the person".^[9] Aggressive and/or passive communication, on the other hand, may mark a relationship's end,^[10] and reduce self-respect.

Assertive people

Assertive people tend to have the following characteristics:^{[citation needed]}

They feel free to express their feelings, thoughts, and desires.
They are "also able to initiate and maintain comfortable relationships with [other] people"^[11]
They know their rights.
They have control over their anger. This does not mean that they repress this feeling; it means that they control anger and talk about it in a reasoning manner.
"Assertive people ... are willing to compromise with others, rather than always wanting their own way ... and tend to have good self-esteem".^[12]
"Assertive people enter friendships from an 'I count my needs. I count your needs' position".^[13]

Techniques

Techniques of assertiveness can vary widely. Manuel Smith, in his 1975 book When I Say No, I Feel Guilty, offered some of the following behaviors:

Broken record

The "broken record" technique^[14] consists of simply repeating your requests or your refusals every time you are met with resistance. The term comes from vinyl records, the surface of which when scratched would lead the needle of a record player to loop over the same few seconds of the recording indefinitely. "As with a broken record, the key to this approach is repetition ... where your partner will not take no for an answer."^[15]

A disadvantage with this technique is that when resistance continues, your requests may lose power every time you have to repeat them. If the requests are repeated too often, it can backfire on the authority of your words. In these cases, it is necessary to have some sanctions on hand.

Fogging

Fogging^[14] consists of finding some limited truth to agree with in what an antagonist is saying. More specifically, one can agree in part or agree in principle.

Negative inquiry

Negative inquiry^[14] consists of requesting further, more specific criticism.

Negative assertion

Negative assertion^[14] is agreement with criticism without letting up demand.

I-statements

I-statements can be used to voice one's feelings and wishes from a personal position without expressing a judgment about the other person or blaming one's feelings on them.

Applications

Several research studies have identified assertiveness training as a useful tool in the prevention of alcohol-use disorders.^[16] Psychological skills in general including assertiveness and social skills have been posed as intervention for a variety of disorders with some empirical support.^[17]

In connection with gender theory, "Tannen argues that men and women would both benefit from learning to use the others' style. ... So, women would benefit from assertiveness training just as men might benefit from sensitivity training".^[18]

Criticism

Assertiveness may be practiced in an unbalanced way, especially by those new to the process: "[One] problem with the concept of assertiveness is that it is both complex and situation-specific. ... Behaviors that are assertive in one circumstance may not be so in another".^[19] More particularly, while "unassertiveness courts one set of problems, over-assertiveness creates another."^[20] Assertiveness manuals recognize that "many people, when trying out assertive behaviour for the first time, find that they go too far and become aggressive."^[21]

In the late 1970s and early 1980s, in the heyday of assertiveness training, some so-called assertiveness training techniques were distorted and "people were told to do some pretty obnoxious things in the name of assertiveness. Like blankly repeating some request over and over until you got your way".^[22] Divorced from respect for the rights of others, so-called assertiveness techniques could be psychological tools that might be readily abused: The line between repeatedly demanding with sanctions ("broken record") versus coercive nagging, emotional blackmail, or bullying, could be a fine one, and the caricature of assertiveness training as "training in how to get your own way ... or how to become as aggressive as the next person"^[23] was perpetuated.

References

^ "assertiveness" in Dorland's Medical Dictionary
^ Wolpe, J. (1958) Psychotherapy by Reciprocal Inhibition, (California: Stanford University Press, 1958), 53–62
^ W. Eduard Craighead/Charles B. Nemeroff eds., The Corsini Encyclopedia of Psychology and Behavioral Science: Volume I (2002) p. 142
^ Craighead/Nemeroff eds., p. 142
^ Driven by Research on hundreds of families: The Seven Principles for Making Marriage Work; by John Gottman, PhD, Randomhouse, May 16, 2000; coined the "Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse", four patterns of communicating which end including criticism, contempt, defensiveness, and stonewalling
^ William T. O'Donohue/Jane E. Fisher eds., Cognitive Behavior Therapy (2008)
^ Daniel Goleman, Emotional Intelligence (London 1996) p. 266
^ Facing Co-dependence: What It Is, Where It Comes from, How It Sabotages Our Lives by Pia Mellody, Andrea Wells Miller, and J. Keith Miller
^ Paul Gilbert, Overcoming Depression (London 1998) p. 219
^ from DBT as researched by Marsha M. Linehan, Professor, Department of Psychology, Director, Behavioral Research & Therapy Clinics at the University of Washington
^ Henry Virkler, Speaking the Truth with Love (2009) p. 48
^ Marie Reid/Richard Hammersley, Communicating Successfully in Groups (Psychology Press, 2000) p. 49
^ Virkler, p. 74
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d Smith, M.J. When I say no, I feel guilty 1975
^ Rich Pfeiffer, Relationships: Assertiveness Skills (2010) p. 28
^ DrugAlcohol-rehab.com
^ O'Donohue, W. (2003). Psychological Skills Training: Issues and Controversies. The Behavior Analyst Today, 4(3), 331–335. BAO
^ Susan A. Speer, Gender Talk (2005) p. 31
^ Michael Argyle, Social Situations (Cambridge 1981) p. 50
^ Deborah J. Swiss, The Male Mind at Work (2001) p. 20
^ Assert Yourself (A&C Black Publishers Ltd, London 2009) p. 8
^ Mark Mark Eisenstadt, Freedom from Agoraphobia (2003) p. 203
^ Sue Bishop, Develop Your Assertiveness (2006) p. 13

External links

Assertiveness – Definition and Elements
Relationship Problems: Assertiveness
Assertiveness and Assertiveness Training
Assertiveness Training Modules
Strategies To Increase Assertiveness

UpToDate Contents

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5. 女性のオルガスム障害の治療 treatment of female orgasmic disorder

English Journal

Spontaneous peer conversation in preschoolers with high-functioning autism spectrum disorder versus typical development.

Bauminger-Zviely N1, Karin E, Kimhi Y, Agam-Ben-Artzi G.Author information 1School of Education, Bar-Ilan University, Ramat-Gan, Israel.AbstractBACKGROUND: In typical development, early peer talk is crucial for pragmatic development. The pragmatic deficit, reflected in remarkably deficient conversational capabilities, is considered the hallmark of the language deficit in autism spectrum disorder (ASD); yet, spontaneous peer talk in preschoolers with ASD was rarely explored.
Journal of child psychology and psychiatry, and allied disciplines.J Child Psychol Psychiatry.2014 Apr;55(4):363-73. doi: 10.1111/jcpp.12158. Epub 2013 Oct 25.
BACKGROUND: In typical development, early peer talk is crucial for pragmatic development. The pragmatic deficit, reflected in remarkably deficient conversational capabilities, is considered the hallmark of the language deficit in autism spectrum disorder (ASD); yet, spontaneous peer talk in preschoo
PMID 24304222

Getting Acquainted: Actor and Partner Effects of Attachment and Temperament on Young Children's Peer Behavior.

McElwain NL, Holland AS, Engle JM, Ogolsky BG.AbstractGuided by a dyadic view of children's peer behavior, this study assessed actor and partner effects of attachment security and temperament on young children's behavior with an unfamiliar peer. At 33 months of age, child-mother attachment security was assessed via a modified Strange Situation procedure, and parents reported on child temperament (anger proneness and social fearfulness). At 39 months, same-sex children (N = 114, 58 girls) were randomly paired, and child dyads were observed during 3 laboratory visits occurring over 1 month. Actor-partner interdependence models, tested via multilevel modeling, revealed that actor security, partner anger proneness, and acquaintanceship (e.g., initial vs. later visits) combined to predict child behavior. Actor security predicted more responsiveness to the new peer partner at the initial visit, regardless of partner anger proneness. Actor security continued to predict responsiveness at the 2nd and 3rd visits when partner anger was low, but these associations were nonsignificant when partner anger was high. Actor security also predicted a less controlling assertiveness style at the initial visit when partner anger proneness was high, yet this association was nonsignificant by the final visit. The findings shed light on the dynamic nature of young children's peer behavior and indicate that attachment security is related to behavior in expected ways during initial interactions with a new peer, but may change as children become acquainted. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2014 APA, all rights reserved).
Developmental psychology.Dev Psychol.2014 Mar 17. [Epub ahead of print]
Guided by a dyadic view of children's peer behavior, this study assessed actor and partner effects of attachment security and temperament on young children's behavior with an unfamiliar peer. At 33 months of age, child-mother attachment security was assessed via a modified Strange Situation procedur
PMID 24635647

Feasibility, Acceptability, and Initial Efficacy of an Online Sexual Health Promotion Program for LGBT Youth: The Queer Sex Ed Intervention.

Mustanski B1, Greene GJ, Ryan D, Whitton SW.Author information 1a Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University.AbstractLesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender (LGBT) youth experience multiple sexual health inequities driven, in part, by deficits in parental and peer support, school-based sex education programs, and community services. Research suggests that the Internet may be an important resource in the development of sexual health among LGBT youth. We examined the feasibility of recruiting youth in same-sex relationships into an online sexual health intervention, evaluated intervention acceptability, and obtained initial estimates of intervention efficacy. LGBT youth (16 to 20 years old) completed Queer Sex Ed (QSE), an online, multimedia sexual health intervention consisting of five modules. The final sample (N = 202) completed the pretest, intervention, and posttest assessments. The primary study outcomes were sexual orientation identity and self-acceptance (e.g., coming-out self-efficacy), sexual health knowledge (e.g., sexual functioning), relationship variables (e.g., communication skills), and safer sex (e.g., sexual assertiveness). Analyses indicated that 15 of the 17 outcomes were found to be significant (p < .05). Effect sizes ranged from small for sexual orientation (e.g., internalized homophobia) and relationship variables (e.g., communication skills) to moderate for safer sex (e.g., contraceptive knowledge) outcomes. This study demonstrated the feasibility, acceptability, and initial efficacy of QSE, an innovative online comprehensive sexual health program for LGBT youth.
Journal of sex research.J Sex Res.2014 Mar 3. [Epub ahead of print]
Lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender (LGBT) youth experience multiple sexual health inequities driven, in part, by deficits in parental and peer support, school-based sex education programs, and community services. Research suggests that the Internet may be an important resource in the developmen
PMID 24588408

Japanese Journal

健常者を対象にしたアサーション・トレーニングの効果に関する文献レビュー

立石彩美
医療看護研究 9(1), 12-19, 2012-09
NAID 40019478299

対人葛藤場面での断り行動に対する自己効力感と社会的スキル及びアサーティブな態度,ユーモア対処との関わり

山田浩平,朝野聡,物部博文
学校保健研究 54(3), 203-210, 2012-08
NAID 40019416102

他者配慮の観点を含めた児童の主張性と内的・外的適応との関連

江口めぐみ,濱口佳和
心理学研究 83(2), 141-147, 2012-06
NAID 40019313380

Related Pictures

★リンクテーブル★

リンク元	「受動攻撃性人格障害」

「受動攻撃性人格障害」

　　[★]

英: passive-aggressive personality disorder
関: 受動攻撃性人格、人格障害

passive-aggressive personality disorder is associated with difficulties in assertiveness and the appropriate expression of anger. People with this disorder may act out their anger indirectly, presenting a resistant stance in situations involving social or occupational functioning.(Q book p.416)

同: パーソナリティ

[1] "assertiveness" in Dorland's Medical Dictionary

[2] Wolpe, J. (1958) Psychotherapy by Reciprocal Inhibition, (California: Stanford University Press, 1958), 53–62

[3] W. Eduard Craighead/Charles B. Nemeroff eds., The Corsini Encyclopedia of Psychology and Behavioral Science: Volume I (2002) p. 142

[4] Craighead/Nemeroff eds., p. 142

[5] Driven by Research on hundreds of families: The Seven Principles for Making Marriage Work; by John Gottman, PhD, Randomhouse, May 16, 2000; coined the "Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse", four patterns of communicating which end including criticism, contempt, defensiveness, and stonewalling

[6] William T. O'Donohue/Jane E. Fisher eds., Cognitive Behavior Therapy (2008)

[7] Daniel Goleman, Emotional Intelligence (London 1996) p. 266

[8] Facing Co-dependence: What It Is, Where It Comes from, How It Sabotages Our Lives by Pia Mellody, Andrea Wells Miller, and J. Keith Miller

[9] Paul Gilbert, Overcoming Depression (London 1998) p. 219

[10] rom DBT as researched by Marsha M. Linehan, Professor, Department of Psychology, Director, Behavioral Research & Therapy Clinics at the University of Washington

[11] Henry Virkler, Speaking the Truth with Love (2009) p. 48

[12] Marie Reid/Richard Hammersley, Communicating Successfully in Groups (Psychology Press, 2000) p. 49

[13] Virkler, p. 74

[smith-14] Smith, M.J. When I say no, I feel guilty 1975

[15] Rich Pfeiffer, Relationships: Assertiveness Skills (2010) p. 28

[16] DrugAlcohol-rehab.com

[17] O'Donohue, W. (2003). Psychological Skills Training: Issues and Controversies. The Behavior Analyst Today, 4(3), 331–335. BAO

[18] Susan A. Speer, Gender Talk (2005) p. 31

[19] Michael Argyle, Social Situations (Cambridge 1981) p. 50

[20] Deborah J. Swiss, The Male Mind at Work (2001) p. 20

[21] Assert Yourself (A&C Black Publishers Ltd, London 2009) p. 8

[22] Mark Mark Eisenstadt, Freedom from Agoraphobia (2003) p. 203

[23] Sue Bishop, Develop Your Assertiveness (2006) p. 13

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