関: anaerobic bacteria、anaerobic bacterium

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an organism (especially a bacterium) that does not require air or free oxygen to live

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嫌(けん)気性生物(空気・遊離酸素を必要としない細菌類)

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出典(authority):フリー百科事典『ウィキペディア（Wikipedia）』「2015/05/19 00:03:25」(JST)

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Aerobic and anaerobic bacteria can be identified by growing them in test tubes of thioglycollate broth:
1: Obligate aerobes need oxygen because they cannot ferment or respire anaerobically. They gather at the top of the tube where the oxygen concentration is highest.
2: Obligate anaerobes are poisoned by oxygen, so they gather at the bottom of the tube where the oxygen concentration is lowest.
3: Facultative anaerobes can grow with or without oxygen because they can metabolise energy aerobically or anaerobically. They gather mostly at the top because aerobic respiration generates more ATP than either fermentation or anaerobic respiration.
4: Microaerophiles need oxygen because they cannot ferment or respire anaerobically. However, they are poisoned by high concentrations of oxygen. They gather in the upper part of the test tube but not the very top.

5: Aerotolerant organisms do not require oxygen as they metabolise energy anaerobically. Unlike obligate anaerobes however, they are not poisoned by oxygen. They can be found evenly spread throughout the test tube.

An anaerobic organism or anaerobe is any organism that does not require oxygen for growth. It may react negatively or even die if oxygen is present. An anaerobic organism may be unicellular (e.g. protozoans,^[1] bacteria^[2]) or multicellular (e.g. Nereid (worm) polychaetes,^[3] juvenile Trichinella spiralis (pork worm) parasites^[4])^[discuss]. For practical purposes, there are three categories of anaerobe:

Obligate anaerobes, which are harmed by the presence of oxygen.^[5]^[6]
Aerotolerant organisms, which cannot use oxygen for growth, but tolerate its presence.^[7]
Facultative anaerobes, which can grow without oxygen but use oxygen if it is present.^[7]

Energy metabolism

Obligate anaerobes may use fermentation or anaerobic respiration.^{[citation needed]} Aerotolerant organisms are strictly fermentative.^{[citation needed]} In the presence of oxygen, facultative anaerobes use aerobic respiration; without oxygen, some of them ferment; some use anaerobic respiration.^[7]

Fermentation

There are many anaerobic fermentative reactions.

Fermentative anaerobic organisms mostly use the lactic acid fermentation pathway:

C₆H₁₂O₆ + 2 ADP + 2 phosphate → 2 lactic acid + 2 ATP

The energy released in this equation is approximately 150 kJ per mol, which is conserved in regenerating two ATP from ADP per glucose. This is only 5% of the energy per sugar molecule that the typical aerobic reaction generates.

Plants and fungi (e.g., yeasts) in general use alcohol (ethanol) fermentation when oxygen becomes limiting:

C₆H₁₂O₆ (glucose) + 2 ADP + 2 phosphate → 2 C₂H₅OH + 2 CO₂↑ + 2 ATP

The energy released is about 180 kJ per mol, which is conserved in regenerating two ATP from ADP per glucose.

Anaerobic bacteria and archaea use these and many other fermentative pathways, e.g., propionic acid fermentation, butyric acid fermentation, solvent fermentation, mixed acid fermentation, butanediol fermentation, Stickland fermentation, acetogenesis, or methanogenesis.

Culturing anaerobes

Since normal microbial culturing occurs in atmospheric air, which is an aerobic environment, the culturing of anaerobes poses a problem. Therefore, a number of techniques are employed by microbiologists when culturing anaerobic organisms, for example, handling the bacteria in a glovebox filled with nitrogen or the use of other specially sealed containers, or techniques such as injection of the bacteria into a dicot plant, which is an environment with limited oxygen. The GasPak System is an isolated container that achieves an anaerobic environment by the reaction of water with sodium borohydride and sodium bicarbonate tablets to produce hydrogen gas and carbon dioxide. Hydrogen then reacts with oxygen gas on a palladium catalyst to produce more water, thereby removing oxygen gas. The issue with the Gaspak method is that an adverse reaction can take place where the bacteria may die, which is why a thioglycollate medium should be used. The thioglycollate supplies a medium mimicking that of a dicot, thus providing not only an anaerobic environment but all the nutrients needed for the bacteria to thrive.^[8]

References

^ Upcroft P, Upcroft JA. "Drug Targets and Mechanisms of Resistance in". pp. 150–164. doi:10.1128/CMR.14.1.150-164.2001. PMC 88967. PMID 11148007.
^ Levinson, W. (2010). Review of Medical Microbiology and Immunology (11th ed.). McGraw-Hill. pp. 91–93. ISBN 978-0-07-174268-9.
^ Schöttler, U. (November 30, 1979). "On the Anaerobic Metabolism of Three Species of Nereis (Annelida)" (PDF). Marine Ecology Progress Series 1: 249–54. doi:10.3354/meps001249. ISSN 1616-1599. Retrieved February 14, 2010.
^ Roberts, Larry S., John Janovay (2005). Foundations of Parasitology (7th ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill. pp. 405–407.
^ Prescott LM, Harley JP, Klein DA (1996). Microbiology (3rd ed.). Wm. C. Brown Publishers. pp. 130–131. ISBN 0-697-29390-4.
^ Brooks GF, Carroll KC, Butel JS, Morse SA (2007). Jawetz, Melnick & Adelberg's Medical Microbiology (24th ed.). McGraw Hill. pp. 307–312. ISBN 0-07-128735-3.
^ ^a ^b ^c Hogg, S. (2005). Essential Microbiology (1st ed.). Wiley. pp. 99–100. ISBN 0-471-49754-1.
^ "GasPak System". Accessed May 3, 2008.

UpToDate Contents

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English Journal

Nickel and platinum group metal nanoparticle production by Desulfovibrio alaskensis G20.

Capeness MJ1, Edmundson MC1, Horsfall LE2.
New biotechnology.N Biotechnol.2015 Dec 25;32(6):727-31. doi: 10.1016/j.nbt.2015.02.002. Epub 2015 Feb 14.
Desulfovibrio alaskensis G20 is an anaerobic sulfate reducing bacteria. While Desulfovibrio species have previously been shown to reduce palladium and platinum to the zero-state, forming nanoparticles in the process; there have been no reports that D. alaskensis is able to form these nanoparticles.
PMID 25686718

Metabolic footprinting of Lactobacillus buchneri strain LA1147 during anaerobic spoilage of fermented cucumbers.

Johanningsmeier SD1, McFeeters RF2.
International journal of food microbiology.Int J Food Microbiol.2015 Dec 23;215:40-8. doi: 10.1016/j.ijfoodmicro.2015.08.004. Epub 2015 Aug 12.
Lactobacillus buchneri has recently been associated with anaerobic spoilage of fermented cucumbers due to its ability to metabolize lactic acid into acetic acid and 1,2-propanediol. However, we have limited knowledge of other chemical components in fermented cucumber that may be related to spoilage
PMID 26325599

Denitrification of overlying water by microbial electrochemical snorkel.

Yang Q1, Zhao H2, Liang H1.
Bioresource technology.Bioresour Technol.2015 Dec;197:512-4. doi: 10.1016/j.biortech.2015.08.127. Epub 2015 Sep 1.
A novel microbial electrochemical snorkel (MES) bioreactor was constructed by inserting an iron rod into the sediment of a simulated natural water body for the first time. Its nitrate removal performance and mechanism were investigated. The DNA high-throughput sequencing analysis indicates that deni
PMID 26362461

Bioaugmentation of nitrate-dependent anaerobic ferrous oxidation by heterotrophic denitrifying sludge addition: A promising way for promotion of chemoautotrophic denitrification.

Wang R1, Zheng P2, Zhang M1, Zhao HP1, Ji JY3, Zhou XX1, Li W1.
Bioresource technology.Bioresour Technol.2015 Dec;197:410-5. doi: 10.1016/j.biortech.2015.08.135. Epub 2015 Sep 2.
Nitrate-dependent anaerobic ferrous oxidation (NAFO) is a new and valuable bio-process for the treatment of wastewaters with low C/N ratio, and the NAFO process is in state of the art. The heterotrophic denitrifying sludge (HDS), possessing NAFO activity, was used as bioaugmentation to enhance NAFO
PMID 26348287

Japanese Journal

Dominant Obligate Anaerobes Revealed in Lower Respiratory Tract Infection in Horses by 16S rRNA Gene Sequencing

KINOSHITA Yuta,NIWA Hidekazu,KATAYAMA Yoshinari [他]
The journal of veterinary medical science 76(4), 587-591, 2014-04
NAID 40020088200

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Ohara-Nemoto Yuko,Rouf Shakh M. A.,Naito Mariko,Yanase Amie,Tetsuo Fumi,Ono Toshio,Kobayakawa Takeshi,Shimoyama Yu,Kimura Shigenobu,Nakayama Koji,Saiki Keitarou,Konishi Kiyoshi,Nemoto Takayuki K.
Journal of Biological Chemistry 289(9), 5436-5448, 2014-02-28
… Porphyromonas gingivalis, a Gram-negative asaccharolytic anaerobe, is one of the major causative organisms of chronic periodontitis. …
NAID 120005398095

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腸内細菌学雑誌 28(3), 121-128, 2014
自閉症スペクトラム障害（Autistic Spectrum Disorders（ASD））とは，子供の社会的な発達，伝達能力の発達，想像力の発達などの一連の発達障害で，5つのサブグループがある．遺伝子の変異あるいは欠失が原因とされる一つのサブグループであるRett disorder以外のASDの原因は不明である．原因不明のサブグループの中に18ヶ月くらいまでは正常に発達していた子供が，その後典型的 …
NAID 130004678112

Pulmonary Nocardia nova Infection after Allogeneic Hematopoietic Stem Cell Transplantation

, , , , , , , , , ,
Internal Medicine 53(12), 1391-1395, 2014
We herein report the case of a 68-year-old man with a history of allogeneic hematopoietic stem cell transplantation for acute myelocytic leukemia in whom graft-versus-host disease (GVHD) developed in …
NAID 130004466356