WordNet
- eukaryotic one-celled living organisms distinct from multicellular plants and animals: protozoa, slime molds, and eukaryotic algae (同)division Protista
- in some classifications considered a superphylum or a subkingdom; comprises flagellates; ciliates; sporozoans; amoebas; foraminifers (同)phylum Protozoa
- free-living or colonial organisms with diverse nutritional and reproductive modes (同)protistan
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出典(authority):フリー百科事典『ウィキペディア（Wikipedia）』「2014/05/02 00:29:48」(JST)
wiki en
| Protist Temporal range: Neoproterozoic – Recent |
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| Scientific classification | |
| Domain: | Eukarya |
Excluded groups
Many others; |
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Protists /ˈproʊtɨst/ are a large and diverse group of eukaryotic microorganisms, which belong to the kingdom Protista. There have been attempts to remove the kingdom from the taxonomy but it is still very much in use.[1][2][3] The use of Protoctista is also preferred by various organisations and institutions.[4][5][6] Molecular information has been used to redefine this group in modern taxonomy as diverse and often distantly related phyla. The group of protists is now considered to mean diverse phyla that are not closely related through evolution and have different life cycles, trophic levels, modes of locomotion and cellular structures.[7][8] Besides their relatively simple levels of organization, the protists do not have much in common.[9] They are unicellular, or they are multicellular without specialized tissues, and this simple cellular organization distinguishes the protists from other eukaryotes, such as fungi, animals and plants.
The term protista was first used by Ernst Haeckel in 1866. Protists were traditionally subdivided into several groups based on similarities to the "higher" kingdoms: the unicellular "animal-like" protozoa, the "plant-like" protophyta (mostly unicellular algae), and the "fungus-like" slime molds and water molds. These traditional subdivisions, largely based on superficial commonalities, have been replaced by classifications based on phylogenetics (evolutionary relatedness among organisms). However, the older terms are still used as informal names to describe the morphology and ecology of various protists.
Protists live in almost any environment that contains liquid water. Many protists, such as the algae, are photosynthetic and are vital primary producers in ecosystems, particularly in the ocean as part of the plankton. Other protists include pathogenic species such as the kinetoplastid Trypanosoma brucei, which causes sleeping sickness and species of the apicomplexan Plasmodium which cause malaria.
Contents
- 1 Classification
- 1.1 Historical classifications
- 1.2 Modern classifications
- 2 Metabolism
- 3 Reproduction
- 4 Role as pathogens
- 5 Fossil record
- 6 See also
- 7 References
- 8 Bibliography
- 8.1 General
- 8.2 Physiology and ecology
- 9 External links
Classification
Historical classifications
The first groups used to include microscopic organism were the Animalcules, and after the Infusoria.[10] In the 1817, when the German biologist Georg August Goldfuss introduced the word Protozoa to refer to organisms such as ciliates and corals.[11] This group was expanded in 1845 to include all unicellular animals, such as foraminifera and amoebae. The formal taxonomic category Protoctista was first proposed in the early 1860s by John Hogg, who argued that the protists should include what he saw as primitive unicellular forms of both plants and animals. He defined the Protoctista as a "fourth kingdom of nature", in addition to the then-traditional kingdoms of plants, animals and minerals.[11] The kingdom of minerals was later removed from taxonomy by Ernst Haeckel, leaving plants, animals, and the protists as a “kingdom of primitive forms”.[12]
In 1938, Herbert Copeland resurrected Hogg's label, arguing that Haeckel's term protista included anucleated microbes such as bacteria, which the term "Protoctista" (literally meaning "first established beings") did not. In contrast, Copeland's term included nucleated eukaryotes such as diatoms, green algae and fungi.[13] This classification was the basis for Whittaker's later definition of Fungi, Animalia, Plantae and Protista as the four kingdoms of life.[14] The kingdom Protista was later modified to separate prokaryotes into the separate kingdom of Monera, leaving the protists as a group of eukaryotic microorganisms.[15] These five kingdoms remained the accepted classification until the development of molecular phylogenetics in the late 20th century, when it became apparent that neither protists nor monera were single groups of related organisms (they were not monophyletic groups).[16]
Some protists, sometimes called ambiregnal protists, have been considered to be both protozoa and algae or fungi (e.g., slime molds and mixotrophic algae), and names for these have been published under either or both of the ICN and the ICZN.[17][18]
Modern classifications
Phylogenetic and symbiogenetic tree of living organisms, showing the origins of eukaryotes
Although systematists today do not treat protists as a formal taxon, the term protist is currently used in two ways. The most popular contemporary definition is a phylogenetic one that identifies a paraphyletic group: a protist is any eukaryote that is not an animal, (land) plant, or (true) fungus, excluding groups like the Microsporidia and Myxosporida. The other definition describes protists primarily by functional or biological criteria: protists are essentially those eukaryotes that are never multicellular,[19] that either exist as independent cells, or if they occur in colonies, do not show differentiation into tissues,[20] excluding so the brown algae and many red and green algae. The term protozoa is used to refer to heterotrophic species of protists that do not form filaments. These terms are not used in current taxonomy, and are retained only as convenient ways to refer to these organisms.[citation needed]
The taxonomy of protists is still changing. Newer classifications attempt to present monophyletic groups based on ultrastructure, biochemistry, and genetics. Because the protists as a whole are paraphyletic, such systems often split up or abandon the kingdom, instead treating the protist groups as separate lines of eukaryotes. The recent scheme by Adl et al. (2005)[20] is an example that does not bother with formal ranks (phylum, class, etc.) and instead lists organisms in hierarchical lists. This is intended to make the classification more stable in the long term and easier to update. Some of the main groups of protists, which may be treated as phyla, are listed in the taxobox, upper right.[21] Many are thought to be monophyletic, though there is still uncertainty. For instance, the excavates are probably not monophyletic and the chromalveolates are probably only monophyletic if the haptophytes and cryptomonads are excluded.[22]
Metabolism
Nutrition can vary according to the type of protist. Many protists are flagellate, for example, and filter feeding can take place where the flagella find prey. Other protists can engulf bacteria and other food particles, by extending their cell membrane around them to form a food vacuole and digest them internally, in a process termed phagocytosis.
| Nutritional type | Source of energy | Source of carbon | Examples |
|---|---|---|---|
| Phototrophs | Sunlight | Organic compounds or carbon fixation | Algae, Dinoflagellates or Euglena |
| Organotrophs | Organic compounds | Organic compounds | Apicomplexa, Trypanosomes or Amoebae |
Reproduction
Some protists reproduce sexually (gametes), while others reproduce asexually (binary fission).
Some species, for example Plasmodium falciparum, have extremely complex life cycles that involve multiple forms of the organism, some of which reproduce sexually and others asexually.[23] However, it is unclear how frequently sexual reproduction causes genetic exchange between different strains of Plasmodium in nature and most populations of parasitic protists may be clonal lines that rarely exchange genes with other members of their species.[24]
Eukaryotes emerged in evolution more than 1.5 billion years ago.[25] The earliest eukaryotes were likely protists. Although sexual reproduction is widespread among extant eukaryotes, it seemed unlikely until recently, that sex could be a primordial and fundamental characteristic of eukaryotes. A principal reason for this view was that sex appeared to be lacking in certain pathogenic protists whose ancestors branched off early from the eukaryotic family tree. However, several of these protists are now known to be capable of, or to recently have had the capability for, meiosis and hence sexual reproduction. For example, the common intestinal parasite Giardia lamblia was once considered to be a descendant of a protist lineage that predated the emergence of meiosis and sex. However, G. lamblia was recently found to have a core set of genes that function in meiosis and that are widely present among sexual eukaryotes.[26] These results suggested that G. lamblia is capable of meiosis and thus sexual reproduction. Furthermore, direct evidence for meiotic recombination, indicative of sex, was also found in G. lamblia.[27]
The pathogenic parasitic protists of the genus Leishmania have been shown to be capable of a sexual cycle in the invertebrate vector, likened to the meiosis undertaken in the trypanosomes.[28]
Trichomonas vaginalis, a parasitic protist, is not known to undergo meiosis, but when Malik et al.[29] tested for 29 genes that function in meiosis, they found 27 to be present, including 8 of 9 genes specific to meiosis in model eukaryotes. These findings suggest that T. vaginalis may be capable of meiosis. Since 21 of the 29 meiotic genes were also present in G. lamblia, it appears that most of these meiotic genes were likely present in a common ancestor of T. vaginalis and G. lamblia. These two species are descendants of protist lineages that are highly divergent among eukaryotes, leading Malik et al.[29] to suggest that these meiotic genes were likely present in a common ancestor of all eukaryotes.
Based on a phylogenetic analysis, Dacks and Roger proposed that facultative sex was present in the common ancestor of all eukaryotes.[30]
This view was further supported by a study of amoebae by Lahr et al.[31] Amoeba have generally been regarded as asexual protists. However these authors describe evidence that most amoeboid lineages are anciently sexual, and that the majority of asexual groups likely arose recently and independently.
Protists generally reproduce asexually under favorable environmental conditions, but tend to reproduce sexually under stressful conditions, such as starvation or heat shock.[32] Oxidative stress, which is associated with the production of reactive oxygen species leading to DNA damage, also appears to be an important factor in the induction of sex in protists.[32]
Role as pathogens
There are some protists that are significant pathogens of animals and others that are pathogens of plants; for example there are five species of the parasitic genus Plasmodium, which cause malaria in humans; and the oomycete Phytophthora infestans, which causes late blight in potatoes.[33] A more thorough understanding of protist biology may allow these diseases to be treated more efficiently.
Recent papers have proposed the use of viruses to treat infections caused by protozoa.[34][35]
Researchers from the Agricultural Research Service are taking advantage of protists as pathogens in an effort to control red imported fire ant (Solenopsis invicta) populations in Argentina. With the help of spore-producing protists such as Kneallhazia solenopsae (this is more widely recognized as belonging to the fungus kingdom now) the red fire ant populations can be reduced by 53–100%.[36] Researchers have also found a way to infect phorid flies with the protist without harming the flies. This is important because the flies act as a vector to infect the red fire ant population with the pathogenic protist.[37]
Fossil record
Many protists have no hard parts or don't produce resistant spores, and their fossils are extremely rare or unknown, as the apicomplexans,[38] most ciliates,[39] some green algae (the Klebsormidiales),[40] choanoflagellates,[41] oomycetes,[42] brown algae,[43] yellow-green algae,[44] excavates (e.g., euglenids).[45] Some of these have been found preserved in amber (fossilized tree resin) or under unusual conditions.
Others are relativelly common in the fossil record,[46] as the diatoms,[47] golden algae,[48] haptophytes (coccoliths),[49] silicoflagellates, tintinnids (ciliates), dinoflagellates,[50] green algae,[51] red algae,[52] heliozoans, radiolarians,[53] foraminiferans,[54] ebriids and testate amoebae (euglyphids, arcellaceans).[55] Some are even used as paleoecological indicators to reconstruct ancient environments.
More probable eukaryote fossils begin to appear at about 1.8 billion years ago, the acritarchs, spherical fossils of likely algal protists.[56]
See also
- Evolution of sexual reproduction
- Protistology
References
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- ^ Miloslavich, P.; Díaz, J. M.; Klein, E.; Alvarado, J. J.; Díaz, C.; Gobin, J.; Escobar-Briones, E.; Cruz-Motta, J. J.; Weil, E.; Cortés, J.; Bastidas, A. C.; Robertson, R.; Zapata, F.; Martín, A.; Castillo, J.; Kazandjian, A.; Ortiz, M. (2010). "Marine Biodiversity in the Caribbean: Regional Estimates and Distribution Patterns". PLoS ONE 5 (8): e11916. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0011916. PMC 2914069. PMID 20689856. edit
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| Wikimedia Commons has media related to Protista. |
Bibliography
General
- Haeckel, E. Das Protistenreich. Leipzig, 1878.
- Hausmann, K., N. Hulsmann, R. Radek. Protistology. Schweizerbart'sche Verlagsbuchshandlung, Stuttgart, 2003.
- Margulis, L., J.O. Corliss, M. Melkonian, D.J. Chapman. Handbook of Protoctista. Jones and Bartlett Publishers, Boston, 1990.
- Margulis, L., K.V. Schwartz. Five Kingdoms: An Illustrated Guide to the Phyla of Life on Earth, 3rd ed. New York: W.H. Freeman, 1998.
- Margulis, L., L. Olendzenski, H.I. McKhann. Illustrated Glossary of the Protoctista, 1993.
- Margulis, L., M.J. Chapman. Kingdoms and Domains: An Illustrated Guide to the Phyla of Life on Earth. Amsterdam: Academic Press/Elsevier, 2009.
- Schaechter, M. Eukaryotic microbes. Amsterdam, Academic Press, 2012.
Physiology and ecology
- Foissner, W.; D.L. Hawksworth. Protist Diversity and Geographical Distribution. Dordrecht: Springer, 2009
- Fontaneto, D. Biogeography of Microscopic Organisms. Is Everything Small Everywhere? Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2011.
- Levandowsky, M. Physiological Adaptations of Protists. In: Cell physiology sourcebook : essentials of membrane biophysics. Amsterdam; Boston: Elsevier/AP, 2012.
External links
| Wikispecies has information related to: Protista |
- Tree of Life: Eukaryotes
- A java applet for exploring the new higher level classification of eukaryotes
- Plankton Chronicles – Protists – Cells in the Sea – video
- Database of protist images
- Holt, Jack R. and Carlos A. Iudica. 2013. Diversity of Life. http://comenius.susqu.edu/biol/202/Taxa.htm. Last modified: 11/18/13.
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English Journal
- Extremophilic micro-algae and their potential contribution in biotechnology.
- Varshney P1, Mikulic P2, Vonshak A3, Beardall J2, Wangikar PP4.
- Bioresource technology.Bioresour Technol.2015 May;184:363-72. doi: 10.1016/j.biortech.2014.11.040. Epub 2014 Nov 15.
- Micro-algae have potential as sustainable sources of energy and products and alternative mode of agriculture. However, their mass cultivation is challenging due to low survival under harsh outdoor conditions and competition from other, undesired, species. Extremophilic micro-algae have a role to pla
- PMID 25443670
- A molecular phylogenetic investigation of bakuella, anteholosticha, and caudiholosticha (protista, ciliophora, hypotrichia) based on three-gene sequences.
- Lv Z1, Shao C, Yi Z, Warren A.
- The Journal of eukaryotic microbiology.J Eukaryot Microbiol.2015 May-Jun;62(3):391-9. doi: 10.1111/jeu.12194. Epub 2014 Dec 30.
- Traditionally classifications of the Urostyloida have been mainly based on morphology and morphogenesis. Recent molecular phylogenetic analyses have been largely based on single-gene data for a limited number of taxa. Consequently, incongruence has arisen between the morphological/morphogenetic and
- PMID 25399810
- Deep sequencing uncovers protistan plankton diversity in the Portuguese Ria Formosa solar saltern ponds.
- Filker S1, Gimmler A, Dunthorn M, Mahé F, Stoeck T.
- Extremophiles : life under extreme conditions.Extremophiles.2015 Mar;19(2):283-95. doi: 10.1007/s00792-014-0713-2. Epub 2014 Dec 4.
- We used high-throughput sequencing to unravel the genetic diversity of protistan (including fungal) plankton in hypersaline ponds of the Ria Formosa solar saltern works in Portugal. From three ponds of different salinity (4, 12 and 38 %), we obtained ca. 105,000 amplicons (V4 region of the SSU rDNA)
- PMID 25472012
Japanese Journal
- Molecular phylogeny of Acantharea (Actinopodea : Protista) based on small subunit rRNA gene sequences
- OKA A.
- Sci Rep Inst Geosci Univ Tsukuba, B 26, 13-22, 2005
- NAID 80017750279
- The Survey and Collection for the Preservation of Biological Resources in Republic of Korea(Part One Collection Building)
- Kim Chang-Hoe
- National Science Museum monographs 24, 123-128, 2004
- … Up to now a total of 29,828 species in Korea are reported: 18,029 species of animals, 8,271 species of plants, 1,625 species of fungi, 736 species of protista, and 1,167 species of prokaryotes. …
- NAID 110004708017
- 光による原生生物の行動制御に関する研究
- 伊東 明俊
- 総合研究所年報 (22), 99-104, 2002
- NAID 40006504726
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