Melopsittacus

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budgerigar

　

WordNet

1. a genus of Psittacidae (同)genus Melopsittacus
2. small Australian parakeet usually light green with black and yellow markings in the wild but bred in many colors (同)budgereegah, budgerygah, budgie, grass parakeet, lovebird, shell parakeet, Melopsittacus_undulatus

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1. セキセイインコ(オーストラリア原産のインコ)

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出典(authority):フリー百科事典『ウィキペディア（Wikipedia）』「2013/08/13 12:06:05」(JST)

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Budgerigar Temporal range: Paleocene–recent PreЄ Є O S D C P T J K Pg N Paleocene–recent
Blue cere indicates male
Flaking Brown cere indicates female in Breeding Condition
Conservation status
Least Concern (IUCN 3.1)
Scientific classification
Kingdom:	Animalia
Phylum:	Chordata
Class:	Aves
Order:	Psittaciformes
Superfamily:	Psittacoidea
Family:	Psittaculidae
Subfamily:	Loriinae
Tribe:	Melopsittacini
Genus:	Melopsittacus Gould, 1840
Species:	M. undulatus
Binomial name
Melopsittacus undulatus (Shaw, 1805)
The budgerigar's natural habitat is in red

The budgerigar (Melopsittacus undulatus) /ˈbʌdʒərɨɡɑr/, also known as common pet parakeet or shell parakeet and informally nicknamed the budgie, is a small, long-tailed, seed-eating parrot. Budgerigars are the only species in the Australian genus Melopsittacus, and are found wild throughout the drier parts of Australia where the species has survived harsh inland conditions for the last five million years. Budgerigars are naturally green and yellow with black, scalloped markings on the nape, back, and wings, but have been bred in captivity with colouring in blues, whites, yellows, greys, and even with small crests. Budgerigars are popular pets around the world due to their small size, low cost, and ability to mimic human speech. The origin of the budgerigar's name is unclear. The species was first recorded in 1805, and today is the most popular pet in the world after the domesticated dog and cat.

The budgerigar is closely related to the lories and the fig parrots. They are one of the parakeet species, a non-taxonomical term that refers to any of a number of small parrots with long, flat and tapered tails. In both captivity and the wild, budgerigars breed opportunistically and in pairs.

Biology

Evolutionary history

Evolutionary history

Lories and lorikeets   Budgerigar   Fig parrots, genera (Cyclopsitta and Psittaculirostris)

Phylogenetic chart

The budgerigar has been thought to be the link between the genera Neophema and Pezoporus based on the barred plumage. However, recent phylogenetic studies using DNA sequences place the budgerigar very close to the lories (tribe Loriini) and the fig parrots (tribe Cyclopsittini).

Anatomy and physiology

The anatomy of a male budgerigar

Wild budgerigars average 18 cm (7 in) long, weigh 30–40 grams (1.1–1.4 oz), and display a light green body colour (abdomen and rumps), while their mantles (back and wing coverts) display pitch-black mantle markings (blackish in fledgelings and immatures) edged in clear yellow undulations. The forehead and face is yellow in adults but with blackish stripes down to the cere (nose) in young individuals until they change into their adult plumage around three to four months of age. They display small, purple cheek patches and a series of three black spots across each side of their throats (called throat spots). The two outermost throat spots are situated at the base of each cheek patch. The tail is cobalt (dark-blue); and outside tail feathers display central yellow flashes. Their wings have greenish-black flight feathers and black coverts with yellow fringes along with central yellow flashes, which only become visible in flight or when the wings are outstretched. Bills are olive grey and legs blueish-grey, with zygodactyl toes.

Budgerigars in their natural habitat in Australia are noticeably smaller than those in captivity. This particular parrot species has been bred in many other colours and shades in captivity (e.g. blue, grey, grey-green, pieds, violet, white, yellow-blue), although they are mostly found in pet stores in blue, green, and yellow. Like most parrot species, budgerigar plumage fluoresces under ultraviolet light. This phenomenon is possibly related to courtship and mate selection.

The upper half of their beaks is much taller than the bottom half and covers the bottom when closed. The beak does not protrude much, due to the thick, fluffy feathers surrounding it, giving the appearance of a downward-pointing beak that lies flat against the face. The upper half acts as a long, smooth cover, while the bottom half is just about a half-sized cup-piece. These beaks allow the birds to eat plants, fruits, and vegetables. The beak of a budgerigar can clamp tighter than most other birds, keeping food or nesting supplies from falling out of its hold.^{[citation needed]}

The colour of the cere (the area containing the nostrils) differs between the sexes, being royal blue in males, pale brown to white (nonbreeding) or brown (breeding) in females, and pink in immatures of both sexes (usually of a more even purplish-pink colour in young males). Some female budgerigars develop brown cere only during breeding time, which later returns to the normal colour. Young females can often be identified by a subtle, chalky whiteness that starts around the nostrils. Males that are either Albino, Lutino, Dark-eyed Clear or Recessive Pied (Danishpied or harlequin) always retain the immature purplish-pink cere colour their entire lives.

 

Budgerigar flock in the wild (SW Queensland, Australia)

It is usually easy to tell the sex of a budgerigar over six months old, mainly by the cere colours, but behaviours and head shape also help indicate sex.

A mature male's cere is usually light to dark blue, but can be purplish to pink in some particular colour mutations, such as Dark-eyed Clears, Danish Pieds (Recessive Pieds) and Inos, which usually display much rounder heads. Males are typically cheerful, extroverted, highly flirtatious, peacefully social, and very vocal^{[citation needed]}.

Females' ceres are pinkish as immatures and switch from being beigish or whitish outside breeding condition into brown (often with a 'crusty' texture) in breeding condition and usually display flattened backs of heads (right above the nape region). Females are typically highly dominant and more socially intolerant.
When females get older, their ceres tend to be brown usually, females are often more bossy and rude with their own gender, but with males they get along better; usually when budgies of different gender are put together, they tend to be more kind to each other, some will not even fight or peck at each other for their life time.

Vision

Like many birds, budgerigars have tetrachromatic colour vision, but all four classes of cone cells operating simultaneously requires the full spectrum provided by sunlight. The ultraviolet spectrum brightens their feathers to attract mates. The throat spots in budgerigars reflect UV and can be used to distinguish individual birds.

Ecology

Female budgerigar at Alice Springs Desert Park

Budgerigars are nomadic birds found in open habitats, primarily in scrublands, open woodlands, and grasslands of Australia. The birds are normally found in small flocks, but can form very large flocks under favourable conditions. The nomadic movement of the flocks is tied to the availability of food and water. Drought can drive flocks into more wooded habitat or coastal areas. They feed on the seeds of spinifex, grass seeds, and sometimes ripening wheat.

Naturalised feral budgerigars have been recorded since the 1940s in the St. Petersburg, Florida, area of the United States, but are much less common now than they were in the early 1980s. Increased competition from European starlings and house sparrows is thought to be the primary cause of the population decline.

Budgerigars and humans

Etymology

Budgerigar at Fort Worth Zoo in Texas. The blue cere at the top of the beak shows that this is a male

Alternative common names include shell parrot, warbling grass parakeet, canary parrot, zebra parrot, flight bird, scallop parrot and the alternate spellings budgerygah and betcherrygah. Although more applicable to members of the genus Agapornis, the name lovebird has been applied to them from their habit of mutual preening.

Several possible origins for the English name "budgerigar" have been proposed:

• A mispronunciation or alteration of Gamilaraay gidjirrigaa [ɡ̊iɟiriɡaː], possibly influenced by the Australian slang word "budgery", meaning "good". This is supported by the American Heritage Dictionary.
• A compound of "budgery", "good" and gar "cockatoo". This is supported by the Oxford English Dictionary. The word "budgery", also spelt "boojery", was formerly in use in Australian English slang meaning "good".

The budgerigar was first described by George Shaw in 1805, and given its current binomial name by John Gould in 1840. The genus name Melopsittacus comes from Greek and means "melodious parrot". The species name undulatus is Latin for "undulated" or "wave-patterned". Gould noted the term betcherrygah was used by indigenous people of the Liverpool plains in New South Wales.

Aviculture

The budgerigar has been bred in captivity since the 1850s. Breeders have worked to produce a variety of colour, pattern, and feather mutations, including albino, blue, cinnamon-ino (lacewinged), clearwinged, crested, dark, greywinged, opaline, pieds, spangled, dilute (suffused), and violet.

English "budgie" (left), as compared to wild-type budgerigars

English or "show" budgerigars are about twice as large as their wild counterparts, and with a larger size and puffier head feathers have a boldly exaggerated look. The eyes and beak can be almost totally obscured by these fluffy head feathers. English budgerigars are typically more expensive than wild-type birds, and have shorter life span of about seven to nine years. Breeders of English budgerigars often exhibit their birds at animal shows. Most captive budgerigars in the pet trade are more similar in size and body conformation to wild budgerigars.

Budgerigars are social animals and require stimulation in the shape of toys and interaction with humans or with other budgerigars. Budgerigars, and especially females, will chew material such as wood. When a budgerigar feels threatened, it will try to perch as high as possible and to bring its feathers close against its body in order to appear thinner.

Tame budgerigars can be taught to speak, whistle, and play with humans. Both males and females sing and can learn to mimic sounds and words and do simple tricks, but singing and mimicry are more pronounced and better perfected in males. Females rarely learn to mimic more than a dozen words. Males can easily acquire vocabularies ranging from a few dozen to a hundred words. Pet males, especially those kept alone, are generally the best speakers.

Budgerigars will chew on anything they can find to keep their beaks trimmed. Mineral blocks (ideally enriched with iodine), cuttlebone, and soft wooden pieces are suitable for this activity. In captivity, budgerigars live an average of five to eight years, but life spans of 15–20 years have been reported. The life span depends on breed, lineage, and health, being highly influenced by exercise and diet. Budgerigars have been known to cause "bird fancier's lung" in sensitive people, a type of hypersensitivity pneumonitis.

Breeding

Head detail of a male budgerigar

Breeding in the wild generally takes place between June and September in northern Australia and between August and January in the south, although budgerigars are opportunistic breeders and respond to rains when grass seeds become most abundant. They show signs of affection to their flockmates by preening or feeding one another. Budgerigars feed one another by eating the seeds themselves, and then regurgitating it into their flockmate's mouth. Populations in some areas have increased as a result of increased water availability at farms. Nests are made in holes in trees, fence posts, or logs lying on the ground; the four to six eggs are incubated for 18–21 days, with the young fledging about 30 days after hatching.

In the wild, virtually all parrot species require a hollow tree or a hollow log as a nest site. Because of this natural behavior, budgerigars most easily breed in captivity when provided with a reasonable-sized nest box. The eggs are typically one to two centimetres long and are pearl white without any colouration if fertile. Female budgerigars can lay eggs without a male partner, but these unfertilised eggs will not hatch. When the female is laying eggs, her cere turns a crusty brown colour. A female budgerigar will lay her eggs on alternate days. After the first one, there is usually a two-day gap until the next. She will usually lay between four and eight eggs, which she will incubate (usually starting after laying her second or third) for about 21 days each. Females only leave their nests for very quick defecations, stretches and quick meals once they have begun incubating and are by then almost exclusively fed by their mate (usually at the nest's entrance). Females will not allow a male to enter the nest, unless he forces his way inside. Depending on the clutch size and the beginning of incubation, the age difference between the first and last hatchling can be anywhere from 9 to 16 days. At times, the parents may begin eating their own eggs due to feeling insecure in the nest box.

Chick health

Breeding difficulties arise for various reasons. Some chicks may die from diseases and attacks from adults. Other budgerigars (virtually always females) may fight over the nest box, attacking each other or a brood. Sometimes, budgerigars (mainly males) are not interested in the opposite gender, and will not reproduce with them; a flock setting—several pairs housed where they can see and hear each other—is necessary to stimulate breeding. Another problem may be the birds' beaks being under lapped, where the lower mandible is above the upper mandible.

Most health issues and physical abnormalities in budgerigars are genetic. Care should be taken that birds used for breeding are active, healthy, and unrelated. Budgerigars that are related or which have fatty tumours or other potential genetic health problems should not be allowed to breed. Parasites (lice, mites, worms) and pathogens (bacteria, fungi and viruses), are contagious and thus transmitted between individuals through either direct or indirect contact. Nest boxes should be cleaned between uses.

Splay leg is a relatively common problem in baby budgerigars; one the budgerigar's legs is bent outward, which prevents it from being able to stand properly and compete with the other chicks for food, and can also lead to difficulties in reproducing in adulthood. The condition is caused by young budgerigars slipping repeatedly on the floor of a nest box. It is easily avoided by placing a small quantity of a safe bedding or wood shavings in the bottom of the nest box. Alternatively, several pieces of paper may be placed in the box for the female to chew into bedding.

Development

Eggs take about 18–20 days before they start hatching. The hatchlings are altricial – blind, naked, unable to lift their head, and totally helpless, and their mother feeds them and keeps them warm constantly. Around 10 days of age, the chicks' eyes will open, and they will start to develop feather down. The appearance of down occurs at the age for closed banding of the chicks. Budgerigar's closed band rings must be neither larger nor smaller than 4.0 to 4.2 mm.

They develop feathers around three weeks of age. (One can often easily note the colour mutation of the individual birds at this point.) At this stage of the chicks' development, the male usually has begun to enter the nest to help his female in caring and feeding the chicks. Some budgerigar females, however, totally forbid the male from entering the nest and thus take the full responsibility of rearing the chicks until they fledge.

Depending on the size of the clutch and most particularly in the case of single mothers, it may then be wise to transfer a portion of the hatchlings (or best of the fertile eggs) to another pair. The foster pair must already be in breeding mode and thus either at the laying or incubating stages, or already rearing hatchlings.

As the chicks develop and grow feathers, they are able to be left on their own for longer periods of time. By the fifth week, the chicks are strong enough that both parents will be comfortable in staying out of the nest more. The youngsters will stretch their wings to gain strength before they attempt to fly. They will also help defend the box from enemies, mostly with their loud screeching. Young budgerigars typically fledge (leave the nest) around their fifth week of age and are usually completely weaned between six to eight weeks old. However, the age for fledging, as well as weaning, can vary slightly depending on whether its age and the number of surviving chicks. Generally speaking, the oldest chick is the first to be weaned. Though it is logically the last one to be weaned, the youngest chick is often weaned at a younger age than its older sibling(s). This can be a result of mimicking the actions of older siblings. Lone surviving chicks are often weaned at the youngest possible age as a result of having their parents' full attention and care.

Hand-reared budgies may take slightly longer to wean than parent-raised chicks. Hand feeding is not routinely done with budgerigars, due to their small size, and because young parent raised birds can be readily tamed.

Colour mutations

Main article: Budgerigar colour genetics

Adult females (top) display beige to brown ceres, while adult males (bottom) typically have blue ceres or purplish-pink in albinistic and recessive pied varieties.

All captive budgerigars are divided into two basic series of colours; namely, white-based (blue, grey and white) and yellow-based (green, grey-green and yellow). Presently, at least 32 primary mutations (including violet) occur, enabling hundreds of possible secondary mutations (stable combined primary mutations) and colour varieties (unstable combined mutations).

Mimicry

Main article: Talking bird

Male specimens of budgerigars are considered to be one of the top five talking champions amongst parrot species, alongside the African grey, the Amazon, and the Eclectus parrots, and the ring-necked parakeet.^{[citation needed]}

Puck, a male budgerigar owned by American Camille Jordan, holds the world record for the largest vocabulary of any bird, at 1,728 words. Puck died in 1994, with the record first appearing in the 1995 edition of Guinness World Records.

In 2001, recordings of a budgerigar called Victor got some attention from the media. Victor's owner, Ryan B. Reynolds of Canada, stated Victor was able to engage in contextual conversation and predict the future.

Though some believe the animal was able to predict his own death as was claimed, further study on the subject is difficult without the bird. The recordings still remain to be verified by scientific analysis. Critics argue Victor's speech in the recordings is not coherent enough to be determined as spoken in context.

See also

• Budgerigar colour genetics
• Whipper (budgerigar)
• Sparkie (budgerigar)
• Talking bird

References

Bibliography

• Pranty, B. 2001. The Budgerigar in Florida: Rise and fall of an exotic psittacid. North American Birds 55: 389-397.
• Forshaw, Joseph M. & Cooper, William T. (1978): Parrots of the World (2nd ed). Landsdowne Editions, Melbourne Australia ISBN 0-7018-0690-7
• Collar, N. J. (1997). Budgerigar (Melopsittacus undulatus). Pg. 384 in: del Hoyo, J., Elliott, A. & Sargatal, J. eds. (1997).
  Handbook of the Birds of the World. Vol. 4. Sandgrouse to Cuckoos. Lynx Edicions, Barcelona. ISBN 84-87334-22-9

Further reading

The dictionary definition of budgerigar at Wiktionary

• World Parrot Trust Parrot Encyclopedia — Species Profiles
• A True Ambassador: the Budgerigar Referenced article on budgerigars
• Common Budgie Mutations Illustrated list of common budgerigar mutations
• Budgie colors and mutations Budgerigar mutations with illustrations
• wild Budgerigar videos on the Internet Bird Collection
• Budgerigar call
• View the budgerigar genome in Ensembl

English Journal

• Relative contributions of pigments and biophotonic nanostructures to natural color production: a case study in budgerigar (Melopsittacus undulatus) feathers.

• D'Alba L, Kieffer L, Shawkey MD.SourceDepartment of Biology and Integrated Bioscience Program, University of Akron, Akron, OH 44325-3908, USA.
• The Journal of experimental biology.J Exp Biol.2012 Apr 15;215(Pt 8):1272-1277.
• Understanding the mechanistic bases of natural color diversity can provide insight into its evolution and inspiration for biomimetic optical structures. Metazoans can be colored by absorption of light from pigments or by scattering of light from biophotonic nanostructures, and these mechanisms have
• PMID 22442364

• Morphological and morphometric study of the pecten oculi in the budgerigar (Melopsittacus undulatus).

• Micali A, Pisani A, Ventrici C, Puzzolo D, Roszkowska AM, Spinella R, Aragona P.SourceDepartment of Biomorphology and Biotechnologies, Section of Histology and Embryology, University of Messina, Policlinico Universitario, Via Consolare Valeria 1, I-98125, Messina, Italy.
• Anatomical record (Hoboken, N.J. : 2007).Anat Rec (Hoboken).2012 Mar;295(3):540-50. doi: 10.1002/ar.22421. Epub 2012 Jan 20.
• The pecten oculi is a highly vascular and pigmented organ placed in the vitreous body of the avian eye. As no data are currently available on the morphological organization of the pecten in the Psittaciformes, the pecten oculi of the budgerigar (Melopsittacus undulatus) was studied. The eyes from ad
• PMID 22266789

Japanese Journal

• 症例報告 卵管の全周囲切除が奏功した卵管脱のセキセイインコ(Melopsittacus undulatus)の2症例

• 水上 昌也
• JSEPM (10), 43-47, 2008
• NAID 40016221942

• セキセイインコのペア形成時における音声学習

• 兼定 彩,藤原 宏子,佐藤 亮平,宮本 武典
• 日本女子大学紀要. 理学部 15, 27-33, 2007-03-31
• NAID 110006220026

Related Links

• Budgerigar - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

/ˈbʌdʒərɨɡɑr/), also known as common pet parakeet or shell parakeet informally nicknamed the budgie, is a small, long-tailed, seed-eating parrot, and the only species in the Australian genus Melopsittacus. Wild budgerigars are found ...

• ファイル:Melopsittacus undulatus Revivim 3.jpg - Wikipedia

Melopsittacus undulatus at Chai-Negev, Revivim, Israel. Source: Taken by Michael Baranovsky ... at [http://www.chai-negev.net/ Chai-Negev], Revivim, Israel. Source: Taken by Michael Baranovsky {{GFDL}} Category:Melopsittacus undulatus\ ...

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