LASER

レーザー

WordNet

1. an acronym for light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation; an optical device that produces an intense monochromatic beam of coherent light (同)optical maser

PrepTutorEJDIC

1. レーザー(強力な可視光線を発生させる;医療,通信,軍事用)

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出典(authority):フリー百科事典『ウィキペディア（Wikipedia）』「2012/11/01 11:21:25」(JST)

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レーザー（赤色、緑色、青色）

クラシックコンサートの演出で用いられた緑色レーザー

He-Ne レーザー

レーザー（laser）とは、光を増幅して放射するレーザー装置を指す。レーザー光は指向性や収束性に優れており、また、発生する電磁波の波長を一定に保つことができる。レーザーの名は、Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation（輻射の誘導放出による光増幅）の頭字語（アクロニム）から名付けられた。

レーザー光は可視光領域の電磁波であるとは限らない。紫外線やX線などのより短い波長、また赤外線のようなより長い波長のレーザー光を発生させる装置もある。ミリ波より波長の長い電磁波のものはメーザーと呼ぶ。

原理

レーザー光は光（電磁波）を増幅し、コヒーレントな光を発生させるレーザー発振器を用いて人工的に作られる光である。

レーザー発振器は、キャビティ（光共振器）と、その中に設置された媒質、および媒質をポンピング（電子をより高いエネルギー準位に持ち上げること）するための装置から構成される。キャビティは典型的には、2枚の鏡が向かい合った構造を持っている。波長がキャビティ長さの整数分の一となるような光は、キャビティ内をくり返し往復し、定常波を形成する。媒質はポンピングにより、吸収よりも誘導放出の方が優勢な、いわゆる反転分布状態を形成する。すると、キャビティ内の光は媒質を通過するたびに誘導放出により増幅され、特に光がキャビティに共振し定常波を形成している場合には再帰的に増幅が行われる。

キャビティを形成する鏡のうち一枚を半透鏡にしておけば、そこから一部の光を外部に取り出すことができ、レーザー光が得られる。外部に取り出したり、キャビティ内での吸収・散乱等によりキャビティ内から失われる光量と、誘導放出により増加する光量とが釣り合っていれば、レーザー光はキャビティから継続的に発振される。

媒質は反転分布を形成するために、三準位モデルや四準位モデルなどの量子力学的エネルギー構造を持っている必要がある。媒質のポンピングは、光励起、放電、化学反応、電子衝突等、さまざまな方法で行われる。光励起を用いるものの中には他のレーザー光源を用いる方法もある。また半導体レーザーでは、ポンピングは電流の注入により行われる。

1958年、C・T・タウンズ と A・L・ショウロウ によって理論的に実現の可能性が指摘され、1960年5月16日に、T・H・メイマンがルビー結晶によるレーザー発振を初めて実現した。

特徴

可干渉性（コヒーレンス）

レーザー光を特徴づける性質のうち最も重要なのは、その高いコヒーレンス（可干渉性）である。レーザー光のコヒーレンスは、空間的コヒーレンスと時間的コヒーレンスに分けて考えることが出来る。

光の空間的コヒーレンスは、光の波面の一様さを計る尺度である。レーザー光はその高い空間的コヒーレンスのゆえに、ほぼ完全な平面波や球面波を作ることができる。このためレーザー光は長距離を拡散せずに伝搬したり、非常に小さなスポットに収束したりすることが可能になる。この性質は、レーザーポインターや照準器、また光ディスクのピックアップ、加工用途、光通信など様々に応用する上で重要である。空間的にコヒーレントな光は、白熱灯などの通常光源と波長オーダーの大きさを持つピンホールを用いることでも作り出すことが出来る。しかし、この方法では光源から放たれた光のごく一部しか利用できないため、実用的な強度を得ることが難しい。空間的にコヒーレントな光を容易に実用的な強度で得られることがレーザーの最大の特長のひとつである。

一方、時間的コヒーレンスは、光電場の周期性がどれだけ長く保たれるかを表す尺度である。時間的コヒーレンスの高いレーザー光は、マイケルソン干渉計などで大きな光路差を与えて干渉させた場合でも、鮮明な干渉縞を得ることが出来る。干渉縞を得ることの出来る最大の光路差をコヒーレンス長と呼び、時間的コヒーレンスの目安となる。レーザーの時間的コヒーレンスは、レーザーの単色性と密接な関係がある。一般に、時間的コヒーレンスの高い光ほど単色性が良い。特に、完全な単色光の電場は一定の周波数の三角関数であらわされるので、そのコヒーレント長は無限大である。高い時間的コヒーレンスを持つように配慮して設計されたレーザーは、ナトリウムランプなどよりもはるかに良い単色性を示す。レーザーの時間的コヒーレンスはレーザージャイロのように干渉を利用した応用において重要である。また、レーザーの単色性は、レーザー冷却などの用途に重要である。

パルス発振

レーザーのもうひとつ重要な特徴は、ナノ秒～フェムト秒程度の、時間幅の短いパルス光を得ることが可能な点である。特殊な装置ではアト秒の時間幅も実現されている。レーザー以外の光パルス光源としてフラッシュランプ（キセノンランプ）、LEDなどがあるが、レーザーに比べて出力が低い。

パルスレーザーは短い時間幅の中にエネルギーを集中させることが出来るため、高いピーク出力が得ることができる。レーザー核融合用途などの特に大がかりなものでは、ペタワットクラスのレーザーもつかわれる。また時間幅の短いレーザーパルスは、時間とエネルギーの不確定性関係のため広いスペクトル幅を持つ。パルスレーザーは、時間分解分光や非線形光学、またレーザー核融合などの分野で重要な道具である。レーザーを用いた応用物理研究分野等では、ボーズアインシュタイン凝縮へパルスレーザーを使用することで、数論上の方程式を物理実験具現化することに成功している。フェムト秒のパルス光を発振させる為に連続光からパルス発振へ変換させるミラー（共振器内部の鏡）にSESAM半導体を用いたレーザーも使用されている。 高分離解析時間、高分解性能の利得を応用しながら必要な出力を保つ為に、フィードバック制御機能が追加されないシンプルな媒質として欧米ではSESAM半導体を用いたシンプルなレーザーへのさらなる応用と研究が期待されている。連続光を反射せず、ある程度保持して溜めてから出すというSESAM半導体の特性はパルスレーザーに物理的消耗変化として現れる。この場合、放熱管理がレーザー自体の寿命と利得を左右する。

歴史

基盤となる理論

1917年、アルベルト・アインシュタインの論文 Zur Quantentheorie der Strahlung（放射の量子論について）がレーザーとメーザーの理論的基礎を確立した。アインシュタインは、電磁放射の吸収、自然放出、誘導放出についての確率係数（アインシュタイン係数）に基づいて、マックス・プランクの輻射公式から新たな公式を導き出した。

1928年、Rudolf W. Ladenburg は誘導放出および負の吸収という現象が存在することを確認した。

1939年、Valentin A. Fabrikant は誘導放出を使って「短い」波長を増幅できる可能性を予言した。

1947年、ウィリス・ラムと R. C. Retherford は水素スペクトルに明らかな誘導放出を発見し、誘導放出について世界初のデモンストレーションを行った。

1950年、アルフレッド・カストレル（1966年ノーベル物理学賞受賞）は光ポンピング法を提案し、数年後に Brossel、Winter と共に実験で確認した。

メーザー

詳細は「メーザー」を参照

1953年、チャールズ・タウンズは、大学院生の James P. Gordon と Herbert J. Zeiger と共に世界初のマイクロ波増幅器を開発し、メーザーと名付けた。この装置はレーザーと同様の原理に基づくが、赤外線や可視光線ではなくマイクロ波を増幅するものである。ただし、タウンズのメーザーは連続出力ができなかった。

同じ頃、ソビエト連邦のニコライ・バソフとアレクサンドル・プロホロフが独自に量子振動について研究し、2つのエネルギー準位を使って連続出力可能なメーザーを開発した。

これらのメーザーシステムは基底状態に落ちることなく誘導放出でき、したがって反転分布になっている。

1955年、プロホロフとバソフは反転分布を作り出す手段として多準位系の光ポンピング法を示唆し、それが後にレーザーポンピングの主な手法となった。

1964年、タウンズ、バソフ、プロホロフは「量子エレクトロニクスの分野に基本的な貢献をし、メーザー・レーザーの原理に基づく発振器と増幅器をもたらした」としてノーベル物理学賞を受賞した。

タウンズは、ニールス・ボーア、ジョン・フォン・ノイマン、イジドール・イザーク・ラービ、ポリカプ・クッシュらがメーザーは理論的に不可能だと反対していたことを明かしている。

レーザー

1957年、ベル研究所に勤めていたチャールズ・タウンズとアーサー・ショーローは、赤外線レーザーを真剣に研究し始めた。研究が進むと彼らは赤外線をやめ、可視光線に集中するようになった。当初この概念は「光学メーザー」と呼ばれていた。

1958年、ベル研究所は光学メーザーについての特許を出願。同年、ショーローとタウンズはフィジカル・レビュー誌に光学メーザーの理論計算の原稿を送り、それが掲載された（Volume 112, Issue No. 6）。このとき取得された特許が、レーザーに関する基本特許となっている。

1958年、プロホロフも独自に開放共振器の使用を提案し、ソ連国内でそれを発表した。

この頃、コロンビア大学の大学院生ゴードン・グールドは、励起したタリウムのエネルギー準位についての学位論文を書いていた。グールドはタウンズと会って電磁放射の放出について話し合い、1957年11月に、"laser" や開放共振器のアイデアについてノートに書いていた。

ベル研究所では、ショーローとタウンズが開放共振器を使ったレーザーの設計で合意に達していた。このとき、彼らはプロホロフの発表も、グールドの未発表のアイデアも知らなかった。

1959年の学会で、ゴードン・グールドは論文 The LASER, Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation の中で初めて "LASER" という言葉を公けにした。グールドは、マイクロ波が "maser" なら、同様の概念には全て "-aser" を後ろにつけ、光 (light) なら "laser"、X線なら "xaser"（ゼーザー）、紫外線なら "uvaser" （ユヴェーザー）と呼ぶことを想定していた。しかし、レーザー (laser) 以外の用語は定着しなかった。

グールドのノートにはレーザーの用途として、分光法、干渉法、レーダー、原子核融合などが書かれていた。彼はその考えを発展させ、1959年4月に特許を出願した。しかし米国特許商標庁はグールドの出願を却下し、1960年にベル研究所に特許を与えた。そのため、28年におよぶ訴訟となった。グールドは1977年にマイナーな特許で勝利を勝ち取ったが、光ポンピングとガス放電を使ったレーザー装置についての特許をグールドに与えることを法廷が特許庁に命令したのは1987年のことだった。

1960年5月16日、カリフォルニアのヒューズ研究所のセオドア・メイマンが、コロンビア大学のタウンズやベル研究所のショーローやTRG (Technical Research Group) のグールドに先駆けて、最初のレーザー発生装置を開発した。メイマンのレーザー装置は、ポンピング用の閃光放電管で合成ルビーを励起させるルビーレーザーであり、694ナノメートルの波長の赤い光を発生させる。しかし3準位レーザーであるため、パルス発振しかできなかった。

直後にイラン人物理学者 Ali Javan と William R. Bennett、Donald Herriot が、ヘリウムとネオンを使った初のガスレーザーを開発した。Javenは1993年にアルバート・アインシュタイン賞を受賞した。

また、ボソフとJavenは量子振動子による半導体レーザーの概念を提案した。

1962年、Robert N. Hall がヒ化ガリウムを使った半導体レーザー素子を開発し、850ナノメートルの近赤外線レーザー発生に成功した。直後にニック・ホロニアックが可視光の半導体レーザーの実験に成功した。初期のガスレーザーと同様、初期の半導体レーザーはパルス発振しかできず、液体窒素で冷却する必要があった。

1970年、ソ連のジョレス・アルフョーロフ、林厳雄、ベル研究所の Morton Panish がそれぞれ独自に常温で連続発振できるヘテロ接合構造を使った半導体レーザー素子を開発した。

種類

媒体による分類

レーザーは媒体（誘導放出を起こす物質）によっていくつかの種類に分けられる。

固体レーザー

媒体が固体であるものを固体レーザーという。通常、結晶を構成する原子の一部が他の元素に置き換わった構造を持つ人工結晶が用いられ、代表的なものにクロムを添加したルビー結晶によるルビーレーザーや、YAG結晶中のイットリウムを他の希土類元素で置換した種々のYAGレーザーがある。ネオジム添加YAGを用いたNd:YAGレーザーは波長が1064nmの赤外線を発する。ただし非線形光学結晶を用いて高調波を発生させることによって、波長532nmの緑色の光（SHG）や355nmの紫外線（THG）なども出すことができる。

また、サファイアにチタンを添加した結晶を媒質に使用したチタンサファイアレーザーがあり、超短パルス発振が可能である。

固体レーザーの励起光源としてレーザーダイオードを用いたものをDPSSL（Diode Pump Solid State Laser、ダイオード励起固体レーザー）という。

液体レーザー

媒体が液体であるレーザーを液体レーザーといい、色素分子を有機溶媒（アルコールなど）に溶かした有機色素を媒質とした色素レーザーがよく利用されている。色素レーザーの利点は使用する色素や共振器の調節によって発振波長を自由に、かつ連続的に選択できることである。

ガスレーザー

媒体が気体のものはガスレーザーと呼ばれ、炭酸ガスレーザー（赤外）やヘリウムネオンレーザー（He-Ne。赤色）、アルゴンイオンレーザー（Ar-ion。主に青色または緑色）、エキシマレーザー（主に紫外）などがある。

半導体レーザー

媒体が半導体である物は固体レーザーとは区別され、半導体レーザーあるいはレーザーダイオード（LD）と呼ばれている。レーザーポインターやパソコン内でのCD・DVDの読み取りなどの低出力でもよいレーザーに主に使用されている。安価で小型なため、利用が広まっている。

自由電子レーザー

真空中で光速に近い自由電子に磁界を加え進路を変えるとき発生する放射光を利用するレーザーは、自由電子レーザーと呼ばれる。

金属蒸気レーザー

金属蒸気を電子線等で励起して誘導放出する。

化学レーザー

化学反応による誘導放出を利用するレーザーを化学レーザーと呼ぶ。酸素-ヨウ素化学レーザー(en)やフッ化水素レーザー等がある。高出力のレーザーを発振できる。

発振方式による分類

レーザーは光の強さの時間的な変化でも分けることができる。

断続的にレーザー光を出すパルスレーザーと、連続的にレーザー光を出すCWレーザー（Continuous wave laser）とに区別することができる。前者は、複数の波長で位相をそろえて同時に発振させるモード同期という手法を用いるか、またはQスイッチという構造を用いて、瞬間的に非常に強いパワーを出すことが可能である。後者はパルス動作と比べると瞬間的なパワーは低いが、高い時間的コヒーレンスを得ることが可能で、そのため干渉などの現象を観測しやすい。

波長による分類

レーザーは発振される光の波長によって分類することも出来る。

多くの場合、使用されるレーザー媒体によって、レーザーの発振波長はほぼ決まる。多くのレーザー媒体は、ごく限定された波長範囲でしか利得を持たないからである。ただし、色素レーザーやチタンサファイアレーザーなど、広い波長範囲で利得を持つ媒体も存在する。これらの場合は共振器のQ値の分光特性や、利得スペクトルの形状などにより発振波長が決まる。また自由電子レーザーでは、媒質となる電子ビームの利得波長を自由に選ぶことが出来るため、任意の波長で発振することができる。

赤外線レーザー

波長によっては、大気中での減衰が最も小さい

可視光線レーザー

当たった場所を視認することが出来るのでレーザーポインターなどに使用されている。

紫外線レーザー

X線レーザー

軌道電子の遷移を起源とするものをX線と呼ぶため、レーザーの原理上はガンマ線の領域であっても硬X線レーザーと呼ぶ。

大気中での伝送に適した波長

大気中に伝播するレーザー光は、気体分子による吸収や散乱により減衰される。気体分子による吸収の少ない波長は可視〜赤外領域の一部に存在し、大気の窓と呼ばれる。一方、気体分子による散乱は波長が長い光ほど少なくてすむ。このため、大気中で長距離を伝送する用途には、大気の窓の中に発振波長をもつ赤外線レーザーが用いられる。たとえば炭酸ガスレーザーは、大気中の伝送させる用途によく用いられるレーザーのひとつである。

X線の高出力レーザーを空気中に照射すると、気体分子をプラズマ化させ、プラズマから放射される光を見ることができる。このとき、レーザーのエネルギーは、空気をプラズマ化させることに使われて激しく減衰してしまい、長距離を伝搬させることは難しい。

アイセーフレーザー

1.4μmから2.6μmの波長のレーザー光は網膜まで達しにくい為このように呼称される。但し出力が高い場合の安全性はこの限りではない。

応用

レーザーは、多くの分野で利用されている。

• 医療分野
  • 歯科用レーザー
  • レーシック（眼科）
  • ホクロ・メラニン斑の除去（皮膚科）
  • レーザーメス
  • ハートレーザー
• 科学分野
  • 測量計（光波測距儀）、粒径分析、非破壊検査
  • LIDAR（レーザーレーダー）
  • レーザー走査顕微鏡
  • レーザー送電
  • レーザー分光
  • レーザー核融合
  • レーザー冷却
  • 宇宙船の推進（レーザー推進）
  • レーザー同位体分離（レーザーウラン濃縮を含む）
  • レーザーガイド星
• 情報・家電分野
  • 指示棒の代わりとしてのレーザーポインター（スクリーンが巨大だったり演者が離れていたりする場合は棒では届かない）
  • CD・DVD等（MO・MD）光学ドライブやレコードの読み取り（或いは書き込み）
  • 光ファイバーを用いた通信用光源
  • ページプリンタの感光体への書き込み
  • バーコードスキャナ
  • レーザーマウス
  • ソニー製デジタルカメラのサイバーショットの一部機種（F828やV1など）に装備されているAF補助光システムである、「ホログラフィックAF」
  • レーザーテレビ
• 工業分野
  • レーザー加工機（切断、穴あけ、彫刻 など）
  • レーザー溶接
  • レーザーマーキング
  • はんだ付け、ワイヤーストリッピング
  • レーザー水準器
  • レーザー測長器
• 軍事
  • 銃の照準器（レーザーサイト及び一部のドットサイト）
  • レーザー誘導（誘導爆弾）
  • 目潰し用レーザー兵器（規制が議論されている兵器）
  • 対空レーザー兵器（THEL）
  • 弾道ミサイル迎撃用空中発射レーザー（AL-1A, A-60）
• 娯楽
  • レーザーライトショー
  • ホログラフィー
• 建築
  • 避雷装置（レーザーで大気を電離して避雷針にする。レーザー誘雷）

安全基準とクラス分け

レーザー警告シンボル

レーザーは出力の低いものでも、直視すると失明の危険があり注意が必要である。国際機関である国際電気標準会議（International Electro-technical Commission、略称IEC）の60825-1「レーザー機器及びその使用者のための安全指針」により、レーザー機器の出力、レーザー光線の波長等による、クラス分けがなされており、クラス毎に労働衛生安全管理体制の整備が必要となる。

国内における安全基準

• JIS（日本工業規格）
  • JIS C 6801 「レーザー安全用語」
  • JIS C 6802 「レーザー製品の安全基準」

アメリカにおける安全基準

• ANSI（米国規格協会）
  • ANSI Z 136.1 「レーザーに関する安全な使用」
• FDA（米国食品医薬品局）
  • FDA 21CFR PART1040_10and1040.11 「保護と安全のための放射線規制法」

クラス分けと制約条件

上記JIS C 6802の平成17年改訂を元にしたクラス分け。

クラス1

合理的に予見可能な運転状況下で安全であるレーザー。どのような光学系（レンズや望遠鏡）で集光しても、眼に対して安全なレベルであり、クラス1であることを示すラベルを貼る以外は特に対策は要求されていない。

クラス2

可視光のみに規定され、眼の保護は「まばたき」などの嫌悪反応により行われることによりクラス1なみの安全が確保されるレーザー。

クラス1M

合理的に予見可能な運転状況下で安全である302.5 - 4000nmの波長範囲の光を放出するレーザー。光学系で覗かない限りは安全なレベルである。このレベルの光を屋外に放射することは、望遠鏡等を覗いている人がいないとは言えないので危険と考えるべきである。つまり屋内などの使用条件が限定された場所でのみ安全なレーザーとみなすべきである。

クラス2M

可視光のみに規定され、眼の保護は「まばたき」などの嫌悪反応により安全が確保されるレーザー。光学系で覗かない限りは安全なレベルである。

クラス3R

直接のビーム内観察は潜在的に危険であるが、その危険性はクラス3Bレーザーに対するものよりも低いレーザー。製造者や使用者に対する規制対策がクラス3Bレーザーに比し緩和されている。クラス1あるいはクラス2のAELの5倍以内である。鍵やインタロックを取り付ける必要がない点で、その上のクラスとは異なっている。

クラス3B

連続発振レーザーで0.5W以下、パルスレーザーで10~5Jm／m~2以下のもの。直接見ることは危険なレーザー。直視をしなければ安全なレベル。鍵やインタロックを取り付ける必要がある。使用中の警報表示等が必要。

クラス4

散乱された光を見ても危険なレーザー。皮膚に当たると火傷を生じたり、物に当たると火災を生じたりする恐れのあるものを含む。出射したビームは必ずブロックする等の対策が必要。鍵やインタロックを取り付ける必要がある。使用中の警報表示等が必要。

関連項目

• 化学レーザー
• 戦術高エネルギーレーザー
• AL-1
• 誘導放出
• メーザー
• 医療レーザー
• 航空レーザー測量

脚注・出典

外部リンク

• 社団法人レーザー学会
• 日本光学会 （社団法人応用物理学会 分科会）
• （百科事典）「Laser」 - スカラーペディアにある「レーザー」についての項目。（英語）

{{Link FA|bar}

wiki en

[Wiki en表示]

"Laser light" redirects here. For the song, see LaserLight.

For other uses, see Laser (disambiguation).

United States Air Force laser experiment

Red (635 nm), green (532 nm), and blue-violet (445 nm) lasers

A laser is a device that emits light (electromagnetic radiation) through a process of optical amplification based on the stimulated emission of photons. The term "laser" originated as an acronym for Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation. The emitted laser light is notable for its high degree of spatial and temporal coherence.

Spatial coherence typically is expressed through the output being a narrow beam which is diffraction-limited, often a so-called "pencil beam." Laser beams can be focused to very tiny spots, achieving a very high irradiance, or they can be launched into beams of very low divergence in order to concentrate their power at a large distance.

Temporal (or longitudinal) coherence implies a polarized wave at a single frequency whose phase is correlated over a relatively large distance (the coherence length) along the beam. A beam produced by a thermal or other incoherent light source has an instantaneous amplitude and phase which vary randomly with respect to time and position, and thus a very short coherence length.

Most so-called "single wavelength" lasers actually produce radiation in several modes having slightly different frequencies (wavelengths), often not in a single polarization. And although temporal coherence implies monochromaticity, there are even lasers that emit a broad spectrum of light, or emit different wavelengths of light simultaneously. There are some lasers which are not single spatial mode and consequently their light beams diverge more than required by the diffraction limit. However all such devices are classified as "lasers" based on their method of producing that light: stimulated emission. Lasers are employed in applications where light of the required spatial or temporal coherence could not be produced using simpler technologies.

Terminology

Laser beams in fog, reflected on a car windshield

The word laser started as an acronym for "light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation"; in modern usage "light" broadly denotes electromagnetic radiation of any frequency, not only visible light, hence infrared laser, ultraviolet laser, X-ray laser, and so on. Because the microwave predecessor of the laser, the maser, was developed first, devices of this sort operating at microwave and radio frequencies are referred to as "masers" rather than "microwave lasers" or "radio lasers". In the early technical literature, especially at Bell Telephone Laboratories, the laser was called an optical maser; this term is now obsolete.

A laser which produces light by itself is technically an optical oscillator rather than an optical amplifier as suggested by the acronym. It has been humorously noted that the acronym LOSER, for "light oscillation by stimulated emission of radiation," would have been more correct. With the widespread use of the original acronym as a common noun, actual optical amplifiers have come to be referred to as "laser amplifiers", notwithstanding the apparent redundancy in that designation.

The back-formed verb to lase is frequently used in the field, meaning "to produce laser light," especially in reference to the gain medium of a laser; when a laser is operating it is said to be "lasing." Further use of the words laser and maser in an extended sense, not referring to laser technology or devices, can be seen in usages such as astrophysical maser and atom laser.

Design

Components of a typical laser:
1. Gain medium
2. Laser pumping energy
3. High reflector
4. Output coupler

5. Laser beam

Main article: Laser construction

A laser consists of a gain medium, a mechanism to supply energy to it, and something to provide optical feedback. The gain medium is a material with properties that allow it to amplify light by stimulated emission. Light of a specific wavelength that passes through the gain medium is amplified (increases in power).

For the gain medium to amplify light, it needs to be supplied with energy. This process is called pumping. The energy is typically supplied as an electrical current, or as light at a different wavelength. Pump light may be provided by a flash lamp or by another laser.

The most common type of laser uses feedback from an optical cavity—a pair of mirrors on either end of the gain medium. Light bounces back and forth between the mirrors, passing through the gain medium and being amplified each time. Typically one of the two mirrors, the output coupler, is partially transparent. Some of the light escapes through this mirror. Depending on the design of the cavity (whether the mirrors are flat or curved), the light coming out of the laser may spread out or form a narrow beam. This type of device is sometimes called a laser oscillator in analogy to electronic oscillators, in which an electronic amplifier receives electrical feedback that causes it to produce a signal.

Most practical lasers contain additional elements that affect properties of the emitted light such as the polarization, the wavelength, and the shape of the beam.

Laser physics

See also: Laser science

Electrons and how they interact with electromagnetic fields are important in our understanding of chemistry and physics.

Stimulated emission

In the classical view, the energy of an electron orbiting an atomic nucleus is larger for orbits further from the nucleus of an atom. However, quantum mechanical effects force electrons to take on discrete positions in orbitals. Thus, electrons are found in specific energy levels of an atom, two of which are shown below:

When an electron absorbs energy either from light (photons) or heat (phonons), it receives that incident quantum of energy. But transitions are only allowed in between discrete energy levels such as the two shown above. This leads to emission lines and absorption lines.

When an electron is excited from a lower to a higher energy level, it will not stay that way forever. An electron in an excited state may decay to a lower energy state which is not occupied, according to a particular time constant characterizing that transition. When such an electron decays without external influence, emitting a photon, that is called "spontaneous emission". The phase associated with the photon that is emitted is random. A material with many atoms in such an excited state may thus result in radiation which is very spectrally limited (centered around one wavelength of light), but the individual photons would have no common phase relationship and would emanate in random directions. This is the mechanism of fluorescence and thermal emission.

An external electromagnetic field at a frequency associated with a transition can affect the quantum mechanical state of the atom. As the electron in the atom makes a transition between two stationary states (neither of which shows a dipole field), it enters a transition state which does have a dipole field, and which acts like a small electric dipole, and this dipole oscillates at a characteristic frequency. In response to the external electric field at this frequency, the probability of the atom entering this transition state is greatly increased. Thus, the rate of transitions between two stationary states is enhanced beyond that due to spontaneous emission. Such a transition to the higher state is called absorption, and it destroys an incident photon (the photon's energy goes into powering the increased energy of the higher state). A transition from the higher to a lower energy state, however, produces an additional photon; this is the process of stimulated emission.

Gain medium and cavity

A helium-neon laser demonstration at the Kastler-Brossel Laboratory at Univ. Paris 6. The pink-orange glow running through the center of the tube is from the electric discharge which produces incoherent light, just as in a neon tube. This glowing plasma is excited and then acts as the gain medium through which the internal beam passes, as it is reflected between the two mirrors. Laser radiation output through the front mirror can be seen to produce a tiny (about 1mm in diameter) intense spot on the screen, to the right. Although it is a deep and pure red color, spots of laser light are so intense that cameras are typically overexposed and distort their color.

Spectrum of a helium neon laser illustrating its very high spectral purity (limited by the measuring apparatus). The .002 nm bandwidth of the lasing medium is well over 10,000 times narrower than the spectral width of a light-emitting diode (whose spectrum is shown here for comparison), with the bandwidth of a single longitudinal mode being much narrower still.

The gain medium is excited by an external source of energy into an excited state. In most lasers this medium consists of population of atoms which have been excited into such a state by means of an outside light source, or an electrical field which supplies energy for atoms to absorb and be transformed into their excited states.

The gain medium of a laser is normally a material of controlled purity, size, concentration, and shape, which amplifies the beam by the process of stimulated emission described above. This material can be of any state: gas, liquid, solid, or plasma. The gain medium absorbs pump energy, which raises some electrons into higher-energy ("excited") quantum states. Particles can interact with light by either absorbing or emitting photons. Emission can be spontaneous or stimulated. In the latter case, the photon is emitted in the same direction as the light that is passing by. When the number of particles in one excited state exceeds the number of particles in some lower-energy state, population inversion is achieved and the amount of stimulated emission due to light that passes through is larger than the amount of absorption. Hence, the light is amplified. By itself, this makes an optical amplifier. When an optical amplifier is placed inside a resonant optical cavity, one obtains a laser oscillator.

In a few situations it is possible to obtain lasing with only a single pass of EM radiation through the gain medium, and this produces a laser beam without any need for a resonant or reflective cavity (see for example nitrogen laser). Thus, reflection in a resonant cavity is usually required for a laser, but is not absolutely necessary.

The optical resonator is sometimes referred to as an "optical cavity", but this is a misnomer: lasers use open resonators as opposed to the literal cavity that would be employed at microwave frequencies in a maser. The resonator typically consists of two mirrors between which a coherent beam of light travels in both directions, reflecting back on itself so that an average photon will pass through the gain medium repeatedly before it is emitted from the output aperture or lost to diffraction or absorption. If the gain (amplification) in the medium is larger than the resonator losses, then the power of the recirculating light can rise exponentially. But each stimulated emission event returns an atom from its excited state to the ground state, reducing the gain of the medium. With increasing beam power the net gain (gain minus loss) reduces to unity and the gain medium is said to be saturated. In a continuous wave (CW) laser, the balance of pump power against gain saturation and cavity losses produces an equilibrium value of the laser power inside the cavity; this equilibrium determines the operating point of the laser. If the applied pump power is too small, the gain will never be sufficient to overcome the resonator losses, and laser light will not be produced. The minimum pump power needed to begin laser action is called the lasing threshold. The gain medium will amplify any photons passing through it, regardless of direction; but only the photons in a spatial mode supported by the resonator will pass more than once through the medium and receive substantial amplification.

The light emitted

The light generated by stimulated emission is very similar to the input signal in terms of wavelength, phase, and polarization. This gives laser light its characteristic coherence, and allows it to maintain the uniform polarization and often monochromaticity established by the optical cavity design.

The beam in the cavity and the output beam of the laser, when travelling in free space (or a homogenous medium) rather than waveguides (as in an optical fiber laser), can be approximated as a Gaussian beam in most lasers; such beams exhibit the minimum divergence for a given diameter. However some high power lasers may be multimode, with the transverse modes often approximated using Hermite-Gaussian or Laguerre-Gaussian functions. It has been shown that unstable laser resonators (not used in most lasers) produce fractal shaped beams. Near the beam "waist" (or focal region) it is highly collimated: the wavefronts are planar, normal to the direction of propagation, with no beam divergence at that point. However due to diffraction, that can only remain true well within the Rayleigh range. The beam of a single transverse mode (gaussian beam) laser eventually diverges at an angle which varies inversely with the beam diameter, as required by diffraction theory. Thus, the "pencil beam" directly generated by a common helium-neon laser would spread out to a size of perhaps 500 kilometers when shone on the Moon (from the distance of the earth). On the other hand the light from a semiconductor laser typically exits the tiny crystal with a large divergence: up to 50°. However even such a divergent beam can be transformed into a similarly collimated beam by means of a lens system, as is always included, for instance, in a laser pointer whose light originates from a laser diode. That is possible due to the light being of a single spatial mode. This unique property of laser light, spatial coherence, cannot be replicated using standard light sources (except by discarding most of the light) as can be appreciated by comparing the beam from a flashlight (torch) or spotlight to that of almost any laser.

Quantum vs. classical emission processes

The mechanism of producing radiation in a laser relies on stimulated emission, where energy is extracted from a transition in an atom or molecule. This is a quantum phenomenon discovered by Einstein who derived the relationship between the A coefficient describing spontaneous emission and the B coefficient which applies to absorption and stimulated emission. However in the case of the free electron laser, atomic energy levels are not involved; it appears that the operation of this rather exotic device can be explained without reference to quantum mechanics.

Continuous and pulsed modes of operation

A laser can be classified as operating in either continuous or pulsed mode, depending on whether the power output is essentially continuous over time or whether its output takes the form of pulses of light on one or another time scale. Of course even a laser whose output is normally continuous can be intentionally turned on and off at some rate in order to create pulses of light. When the modulation rate is on time scales much slower than the cavity lifetime and the time period over which energy can be stored in the lasing medium or pumping mechanism, then it is still classified as a "modulated" or "pulsed" continuous wave laser. Most laser diodes used in communication systems fall in that category.

Continuous wave operation

Some applications of lasers depend on a beam whose output power is constant over time. Such a laser is known as continuous wave (CW). Many types of lasers can be made to operate in continuous wave mode to satisfy such an application. Many of these lasers actually lase in several longitudinal modes at the same time, and beats between the slightly different optical frequencies of those oscillations will in fact produce amplitude variations on time scales shorter than the round-trip time (the reciprocal of the frequency spacing between modes), typically a few nanoseconds or less. In most cases these lasers are still termed "continuous wave" as their output power is steady when averaged over any longer time periods, with the very high frequency power variations having little or no impact in the intended application. (However the term is not applied to mode-locked lasers, where the intention is to create very short pulses at the rate of the round-trip time).

For continuous wave operation it is required for the population inversion of the gain medium to be continually replenished by a steady pump source. In some lasing media this is impossible. In some other lasers it would require pumping the laser at a very high continuous power level which would be impractical or destroy the laser by producing excessive heat. Such lasers cannot be run in CW mode.

Pulsed operation

Pulsed operation of lasers refers to any laser not classified as continuous wave, so that the optical power appears in pulses of some duration at some repetition rate. This encompasses a wide range of technologies addressing a number of different motivations. Some lasers are pulsed simply because they cannot be run in continuous mode.

In other cases the application requires the production of pulses having as large an energy as possible. Since the pulse energy is equal to the average power divided by the repetition rate, this goal can sometimes be satisfied by lowering the rate of pulses so that more energy can be built up in between pulses. In laser ablation for example, a small volume of material at the surface of a work piece can be evaporated if it is heated in a very short time, whereas supplying the energy gradually would allow for the heat to be absorbed into the bulk of the piece, never attaining a sufficiently high temperature at a particular point.

Other applications rely on the peak pulse power (rather than the energy in the pulse), especially in order to obtain nonlinear optical effects. For a given pulse energy, this requires creating pulses of the shortest possible duration utilizing techniques such as Q-switching.

The optical bandwidth of a pulse cannot be narrower than the reciprocal of the pulse width. In the case of extremely short pulses, that implies lasing over a considerable bandwidth, quite contrary to the very narrow bandwidths typical of CW lasers. The lasing medium in some dye lasers and vibronic solid-state lasers produces optical gain over a wide bandwidth, making a laser possible which can thus generate pulses of light as short as a few femtoseconds (10⁻¹⁵ s).

Q-switching

Main article: Q-switching

In a Q-switched laser, the population inversion is allowed to build up by introducing loss inside the resonator which exceeds the gain of the medium; this can also be described as a reduction of the quality factor or 'Q' of the cavity. Then, after the pump energy stored in the laser medium has approached the maximum possible level, the introduced loss mechanism (often an electro- or acousto-optical element) is rapidly removed (or that occurs by itself in a passive device), allowing lasing to begin which rapidly obtains the stored energy in the gain medium. This results in a short pulse incorporating that energy, and thus a high peak power.

Mode-locking

Main article: Mode-locking

A mode-locked laser is capable of emitting extremely short pulses on the order of tens of picoseconds down to less than 10 femtoseconds. These pulses will repeat at the round trip time, that is, the time that it takes light to complete one round trip between the mirrors comprising the resonator. Due to the Fourier limit (also known as energy-time uncertainty), a pulse of such short temporal length has a spectrum spread over a considerable bandwidth. Thus such a gain medium must have a gain bandwidth sufficiently broad to amplify those frequencies. An example of a suitable material is titanium-doped, artificially grown sapphire (Ti:sapphire) which has a very wide gain bandwidth and can thus produce pulses of only a few femtoseconds duration.

Such mode-locked lasers are a most versatile tool for researching processes occurring on extremely short time scales (known as femtosecond physics, femtosecond chemistry and ultrafast science), for maximizing the effect of nonlinearity in optical materials (e.g. in second-harmonic generation, parametric down-conversion, optical parametric oscillators and the like) due to the large peak power, and in ablation applications.^{[citation needed]} Again, because of the extremely short pulse duration, such a laser will produce pulses which achieve an extremely high peak power.

Pulsed pumping

Another method of achieving pulsed laser operation is to pump the laser material with a source that is itself pulsed, either through electronic charging in the case of flash lamps, or another laser which is already pulsed. Pulsed pumping was historically used with dye lasers where the inverted population lifetime of a dye molecule was so short that a high energy, fast pump was needed. The way to overcome this problem was to charge up large capacitors which are then switched to discharge through flashlamps, producing an intense flash. Pulsed pumping is also required for three-level lasers in which the lower energy level rapidly becomes highly populated preventing further lasing until those atoms relax to the ground state. These lasers, such as the excimer laser and the copper vapor laser, can never be operated in CW mode.

History

Foundations

In 1917, Albert Einstein established the theoretical foundations for the laser and the maser in the paper Zur Quantentheorie der Strahlung (On the Quantum Theory of Radiation); via a re-derivation of Max Planck’s law of radiation, conceptually based upon probability coefficients (Einstein coefficients) for the absorption, spontaneous emission, and stimulated emission of electromagnetic radiation; in 1928, Rudolf W. Ladenburg confirmed the existences of the phenomena of stimulated emission and negative absorption; in 1939, Valentin A. Fabrikant predicted the use of stimulated emission to amplify “short” waves; in 1947, Willis E. Lamb and R. C. Retherford found apparent stimulated emission in hydrogen spectra and effected the first demonstration of stimulated emission; in 1950, Alfred Kastler (Nobel Prize for Physics 1966) proposed the method of optical pumping, experimentally confirmed, two years later, by Brossel, Kastler, and Winter.

Maser

Main article: Maser

Aleksandr Prokhorov

In 1953, Charles Hard Townes and graduate students James P. Gordon and Herbert J. Zeiger produced the first microwave amplifier, a device operating on similar principles to the laser, but amplifying microwave radiation rather than infrared or visible radiation. Townes's maser was incapable of continuous output.^{[citation needed]} Meanwhile, in the Soviet Union, Nikolay Basov and Aleksandr Prokhorov were independently working on the quantum oscillator and solved the problem of continuous-output systems by using more than two energy levels. These gain media could release stimulated emissions between an excited state and a lower excited state, not the ground state, facilitating the maintenance of a population inversion. In 1955, Prokhorov and Basov suggested optical pumping of a multi-level system as a method for obtaining the population inversion, later a main method of laser pumping.

Townes reports that several eminent physicists – among them Niels Bohr, John von Neumann, Isidor Rabi, Polykarp Kusch, and Llewellyn Thomas — argued the maser violated Heisenberg's uncertainty principle and hence could not work.[1] In 1964 Charles H. Townes, Nikolay Basov, and Aleksandr Prokhorov shared the Nobel Prize in Physics, “for fundamental work in the field of quantum electronics, which has led to the construction of oscillators and amplifiers based on the maser–laser principle”.

Laser

In 1957, Charles Hard Townes and Arthur Leonard Schawlow, then at Bell Labs, began a serious study of the infrared laser. As ideas developed, they abandoned infrared radiation to instead concentrate upon visible light. The concept originally was called an "optical maser". In 1958, Bell Labs filed a patent application for their proposed optical maser; and Schawlow and Townes submitted a manuscript of their theoretical calculations to the Physical Review, published that year in Volume 112, Issue No. 6.

LASER notebook: First page of the notebook wherein Gordon Gould coined the LASER acronym, and described the technologic elements for constructing the device.

Simultaneously, at Columbia University, graduate student Gordon Gould was working on a doctoral thesis about the energy levels of excited thallium. When Gould and Townes met, they spoke of radiation emission, as a general subject; afterwards, in November 1957, Gould noted his ideas for a “laser”, including using an open resonator (later an essential laser-device component). Moreover, in 1958, Prokhorov independently proposed using an open resonator, the first published appearance (the USSR) of this idea. Elsewhere, in the U.S., Schawlow and Townes had agreed to an open-resonator laser design – apparently unaware of Prokhorov’s publications and Gould’s unpublished laser work.

At a conference in 1959, Gordon Gould published the term LASER in the paper The LASER, Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation. Gould’s linguistic intention was using the “-aser” word particle as a suffix – to accurately denote the spectrum of the light emitted by the LASER device; thus x-rays: xaser, ultraviolet: uvaser, et cetera; none established itself as a discrete term, although “raser” was briefly popular for denoting radio-frequency-emitting devices.

Gould’s notes included possible applications for a laser, such as spectrometry, interferometry, radar, and nuclear fusion. He continued developing the idea, and filed a patent application in April 1959. The U.S. Patent Office denied his application, and awarded a patent to Bell Labs, in 1960. That provoked a twenty-eight-year lawsuit, featuring scientific prestige and money as the stakes. Gould won his first minor patent in 1977, yet it was not until 1987 that he won the first significant patent lawsuit victory, when a Federal judge ordered the U.S. Patent Office to issue patents to Gould for the optically pumped and the gas discharge laser devices. The question of just how to assign credit for inventing the laser remains unresolved by historians.

On May 16, 1960, Theodore H. Maiman operated the first functioning laser, at Hughes Research Laboratories, Malibu, California, ahead of several research teams, including those of Townes, at Columbia University, Arthur Schawlow, at Bell Labs, and Gould, at the TRG (Technical Research Group) company. Maiman’s functional laser used a solid-state flashlamp-pumped synthetic ruby crystal to produce red laser light, at 694 nanometres wavelength; however, the device only was capable of pulsed operation, because of its three-level pumping design scheme. Later in 1960, the Iranian physicist Ali Javan, and William R. Bennett, and Donald Herriott, constructed the first gas laser, using helium and neon that was capable of continuous operation in the infrared (U.S. Patent 3,149,290); later, Javan received the Albert Einstein Award in 1993. Basov and Javan proposed the semiconductor laser diode concept. In 1962, Robert N. Hall demonstrated the first laser diode device, made of gallium arsenide and emitted at 850 nm the near-infrared band of the spectrum. Later, in 1962, Nick Holonyak, Jr. demonstrated the first semiconductor laser with a visible emission. This first semiconductor laser could only be used in pulsed-beam operation, and when cooled to liquid nitrogen temperatures (77 K). In 1970, Zhores Alferov, in the USSR, and Izuo Hayashi and Morton Panish of Bell Telephone Laboratories also independently developed room-temperature, continual-operation diode lasers, using the heterojunction structure.

Recent innovations

Graph showing the history of maximum laser pulse intensity throughout the past 40 years.

Since the early period of laser history, laser research has produced a variety of improved and specialized laser types, optimized for different performance goals, including:

• new wavelength bands
• maximum average output power
• maximum peak pulse energy
• maximum peak pulse power
• minimum output pulse duration
• maximum power efficiency
• minimum cost

and this research continues to this day.

Lasing without maintaining the medium excited into a population inversion was discovered in 1992 in sodium gas and again in 1995 in rubidium gas by various international teams.^{[citation needed]} This was accomplished by using an external maser to induce "optical transparency" in the medium by introducing and destructively interfering the ground electron transitions between two paths, so that the likelihood for the ground electrons to absorb any energy has been cancelled.

Types and operating principles

For a more complete list of laser types see this list of laser types.

Wavelengths of commercially available lasers. Laser types with distinct laser lines are shown above the wavelength bar, while below are shown lasers that can emit in a wavelength range. The color codifies the type of laser material (see the figure description for more details).

Gas lasers

Main article: Gas laser

Following the invention of the HeNe gas laser, many other gas discharges have been found to amplify light coherently. Gas lasers using many different gases have been built and used for many purposes. The helium-neon laser (HeNe) is able to operate at a number of different wavelengths, however the vast majority are engineered to lase at 633 nm; these relatively low cost but highly coherent lasers are extremely common in optical research and educational laboratories. Commercial carbon dioxide (CO₂) lasers can emit many hundreds of watts in a single spatial mode which can be concentrated into a tiny spot. This emission is in the thermal infrared at 10.6 µm; such lasers are regularly used in industry for cutting and welding. The efficiency of a CO₂ laser is unusually high: over 10%. Argon-ion lasers can operate at a number of lasing transitions between 351 and 528.7 nm. Depending on the optical design one or more of these transitions can be lasing simultaneously; the most commonly used lines are 458 nm, 488 nm and 514.5 nm. A nitrogen transverse electrical discharge in gas at atmospheric pressure (TEA) laser is an inexpensive gas laser, often home-built by hobbyists, which produces rather incoherent UV light at 337.1 nm. Metal ion lasers are gas lasers that generate deep ultraviolet wavelengths. Helium-silver (HeAg) 224 nm and neon-copper (NeCu) 248 nm are two examples. Like all low-pressure gas lasers, the gain media of these lasers have quite narrow oscillation linewidths, less than 3 GHz (0.5 picometers), making them candidates for use in fluorescence suppressed Raman spectroscopy.

Chemical lasers

Chemical lasers are powered by a chemical reaction permitting a large amount of energy to be released quickly. Such very high power lasers are especially of interest to the military, however continuous wave chemical lasers at very high power levels, fed by streams of gasses, have been developed and have some industrial applications. As examples, in the Hydrogen fluoride laser (2700–2900 nm) and the Deuterium fluoride laser (3800 nm) the reaction is the combination of hydrogen or deuterium gas with combustion products of ethylene in nitrogen trifluoride.

Excimer lasers

Excimer lasers are a special sort of gas laser powered by an electric discharge in which the lasing medium is an excimer, or more precisely an exciplex in existing designs. These are molecules which can only exist with one atom in an excited electronic state. Once the molecule transfers its excitation energy to a photon, therefore, its atoms are no longer bound to each other and the molecule disintegrates. This drastically reduces the population of the lower energy state thus greatly facilitating a population inversion. Excimers currently used are all noble gas compounds; noble gasses are chemically inert and can only form compounds while in an excited state. Excimer lasers typically operate at ultraviolet wavelengths with major applicatons including semiconductor photolithography and LASIK eye surgery. Commonly used excimer molecules include ArF (emission at 193 nm), KrCl (222 nm), KrF (248 nm), XeCl (308 nm), and XeF (351 nm). The molecular fluorine laser, emitting at 157 nm in the vacuum ultraviolet is sometimes referred to as an excimer laser, however this appears to be a misnomer inasmuch as F₂ is a stable compound.

Solid-state lasers

A frequency-doubled green laser pointer, showing internal construction. Two AAA cells and electronics power the laser module (lower diagram) This contains a powerful 808 nm IR diode laser that optically pumps a Nd:YVO₄ crystal inside a laser cavity. That laser produces 1064 nm (infrared) light which is mainly confined inside the resonator. Also inside the laser cavity, however, is a non-linear KTP crystal which causes frequency doubling, resulting in green light at 532 nm. The front mirror is transparent to this visible wavelength which is then expanded and collimated using two lenses (in this particular design).

Solid-state lasers use a crystalline or glass rod which is "doped" with ions that provide the required energy states. For example, the first working laser was a ruby laser, made from ruby (chromium-doped corundum). The population inversion is actually maintained in the "dopant", such as chromium or neodymium. These materials are pumped optically using a shorter wavelength than the lasing wavelength, often from a flashtube or from another laser.

It should be noted that "solid-state" in this sense refers to a crystal or glass, but this usage is distinct from the designation of "solid-state electronics" in referring to semiconductors. Semiconductor lasers (laser diodes) are pumped electrically and are thus not referred to as solid-state lasers. The class of solid-state lasers would, however, properly include fiber lasers in which dopants in the glass lase under optical pumping. But in practice these are simply referred to as "fiber lasers" with "solid-state" reserved for lasers using a solid rod of such a material.

Neodymium is a common "dopant" in various solid-state laser crystals, including yttrium orthovanadate (Nd:YVO₄), yttrium lithium fluoride (Nd:YLF) and yttrium aluminium garnet (Nd:YAG). All these lasers can produce high powers in the infrared spectrum at 1064 nm. They are used for cutting, welding and marking of metals and other materials, and also in spectroscopy and for pumping dye lasers.

These lasers are also commonly frequency doubled, tripled or quadrupled, in so-called "diode pumped solid state" or DPSS lasers. Under second, third, or fourth harmonic generation these produce 532 nm (green, visible), 355 nm and 266 nm (UV) beams. This is the technology behind the bright laser pointers particularly at green (532 nm) and other short visible wavelengths.

Ytterbium, holmium, thulium, and erbium are other common "dopants" in solid-state lasers. Ytterbium is used in crystals such as Yb:YAG, Yb:KGW, Yb:KYW, Yb:SYS, Yb:BOYS, Yb:CaF2, typically operating around 1020–1050 nm. They are potentially very efficient and high powered due to a small quantum defect. Extremely high powers in ultrashort pulses can be achieved with Yb:YAG. Holmium-doped YAG crystals emit at 2097 nm and form an efficient laser operating at infrared wavelengths strongly absorbed by water-bearing tissues. The Ho-YAG is usually operated in a pulsed mode, and passed through optical fiber surgical devices to resurface joints, remove rot from teeth, vaporize cancers, and pulverize kidney and gall stones.

Titanium-doped sapphire (Ti:sapphire) produces a highly tunable infrared laser, commonly used for spectroscopy. It is also notable for use as a mode-locked laser producing ultrashort pulses of extremely high peak power.

Thermal limitations in solid-state lasers arise from unconverted pump power that manifests itself as heat. This heat, when coupled with a high thermo-optic coefficient (dn/dT) can give rise to thermal lensing as well as reduced quantum efficiency. These types of issues can be overcome by another novel diode-pumped solid-state laser, the diode-pumped thin disk laser. The thermal limitations in this laser type are mitigated by using a laser medium geometry in which the thickness is much smaller than the diameter of the pump beam. This allows for a more even thermal gradient in the material. Thin disk lasers have been shown to produce up to kilowatt levels of power.

Fiber lasers

Main article: Fiber laser

Solid-state lasers or laser amplifiers where the light is guided due to the total internal reflection in a single mode optical fiber are instead called fiber lasers. Guiding of light allows extremely long gain regions providing good cooling conditions; fibers have high surface area to volume ratio which allows efficient cooling. In addition, the fiber's waveguiding properties tend to reduce thermal distortion of the beam. Erbium and ytterbium ions are common active species in such lasers.

Quite often, the fiber laser is designed as a double-clad fiber. This type of fiber consists of a fiber core, an inner cladding and an outer cladding. The index of the three concentric layers is chosen so that the fiber core acts as a single-mode fiber for the laser emission while the outer cladding acts as a highly multimode core for the pump laser. This lets the pump propagate a large amount of power into and through the active inner core region, while still having a high numerical aperture (NA) to have easy launching conditions.

Pump light can be used more efficiently by creating a fiber disk laser, or a stack of such lasers.

Fiber lasers have a fundamental limit in that the intensity of the light in the fiber cannot be so high that optical nonlinearities induced by the local electric field strength can become dominant and prevent laser operation and/or lead to the material destruction of the fiber. This effect is called photodarkening. In bulk laser materials, the cooling is not so efficient, and it is difficult to separate the effects of photodarkening from the thermal effects, but the experiments in fibers show that the photodarkening can be attributed to the formation of long-living color centers.^{[citation needed]}

Photonic crystal lasers

Photonic crystal lasers are lasers based on nano-structures that provide the mode confinement and the density of optical states (DOS) structure required for the feedback to take place. They are typical micrometre-sized and tunable on the bands of the photonic crystals.

Semiconductor lasers

A 5.6 mm 'closed can' commercial laser diode, probably from a CD or DVD player

Semiconductor lasers are diodes which are electrically pumped. Recombination of electrons and holes created by the applied current introduces optical gain. Reflection from the ends of the crystal form an optical resonator, although the resonator can be external to the semiconductor in some designs.

Commercial laser diodes emit at wavelengths from 375 nm to 3500 nm. Low to medium power laser diodes are used in laser printers and CD/DVD players. Laser diodes are also frequently used to optically pump other lasers with high efficiency. The highest power industrial laser diodes, with power up to 10 kW (70dBm)^{[citation needed]}, are used in industry for cutting and welding. External-cavity semiconductor lasers have a semiconductor active medium in a larger cavity. These devices can generate high power outputs with good beam quality, wavelength-tunable narrow-linewidth radiation, or ultrashort laser pulses.

Vertical cavity surface-emitting lasers (VCSELs) are semiconductor lasers whose emission direction is perpendicular to the surface of the wafer. VCSEL devices typically have a more circular output beam than conventional laser diodes, and potentially could be much cheaper to manufacture. As of 2005, only 850 nm VCSELs are widely available, with 1300 nm VCSELs beginning to be commercialized, and 1550 nm devices an area of research. VECSELs are external-cavity VCSELs. Quantum cascade lasers are semiconductor lasers that have an active transition between energy sub-bands of an electron in a structure containing several quantum wells.

The development of a silicon laser is important in the field of optical computing. Silicon is the material of choice for integrated circuits, and so electronic and silicon photonic components (such as optical interconnects) could be fabricated on the same chip. Unfortunately, silicon is a difficult lasing material to deal with, since it has certain properties which block lasing. However, recently teams have produced silicon lasers through methods such as fabricating the lasing material from silicon and other semiconductor materials, such as indium(III) phosphide or gallium(III) arsenide, materials which allow coherent light to be produced from silicon. These are called hybrid silicon laser. Another type is a Raman laser, which takes advantage of Raman scattering to produce a laser from materials such as silicon.

Dye lasers

Dye lasers use an organic dye as the gain medium. The wide gain spectrum of available dyes, or mixtures of dyes, allows these lasers to be highly tunable, or to produce very short-duration pulses (on the order of a few femtoseconds). Although these tunable lasers are mainly known in their liquid form, researchers have also demonstrated narrow-linewidth tunable emission in dispersive oscillator configurations incorporating solid-state dye gain media. In their most prevalent form these solid state dye lasers use dye-doped polymers as laser media.

Free electron lasers

Free electron lasers, or FELs, generate coherent, high power radiation, that is widely tunable, currently ranging in wavelength from microwaves, through terahertz radiation and infrared, to the visible spectrum, to soft X-rays. They have the widest frequency range of any laser type. While FEL beams share the same optical traits as other lasers, such as coherent radiation, FEL operation is quite different. Unlike gas, liquid, or solid-state lasers, which rely on bound atomic or molecular states, FELs use a relativistic electron beam as the lasing medium, hence the term free electron.

Bio laser

Living cells can be genetically engineered to produce Green fluorescent protein (GFP). The GFP is used as the laser's "gain medium", where light amplification takes place. The cells are then placed between two tiny mirrors, just 20 millionths of a metre across, which acted as the "laser cavity" in which light could bounce many times through the cell. Upon bathing the cell with blue light, it could be seen to emit directed and intense green laser light.

Exotic laser media

In September 2007, the BBC News reported that there was speculation about the possibility of using positronium annihilation to drive a very powerful gamma ray laser. Dr. David Cassidy of the University of California, Riverside proposed that a single such laser could be used to ignite a nuclear fusion reaction, replacing the banks of hundreds of lasers currently employed in inertial confinement fusion experiments.

Space-based X-ray lasers pumped by a nuclear explosion have also been proposed as antimissile weapons. Such devices would be one-shot weapons.

Uses

Lasers range in size from microscopic diode lasers (top) with numerous applications, to football field sized neodymium glass lasers (bottom) used for inertial confinement fusion, nuclear weapons research and other high energy density physics experiments.

Main article: List of applications for lasers

When lasers were invented in 1960, they were called "a solution looking for a problem". Since then, they have become ubiquitous, finding utility in thousands of highly varied applications in every section of modern society, including consumer electronics, information technology, science, medicine, industry, law enforcement, entertainment, and the military.

The first use of lasers in the daily lives of the general population was the supermarket barcode scanner, introduced in 1974. The laserdisc player, introduced in 1978, was the first successful consumer product to include a laser but the compact disc player was the first laser-equipped device to become common, beginning in 1982 followed shortly by laser printers.

Some other uses are:

• Medicine: Bloodless surgery, laser healing, surgical treatment, kidney stone treatment, eye treatment, dentistry
• Industry: Cutting, welding, material heat treatment, marking parts, non-contact measurement of parts
• Military: Marking targets, guiding munitions, missile defence, electro-optical countermeasures (EOCM), alternative to radar, blinding troops.
• Law enforcement: used for latent fingerprint detection in the forensic identification field
• Research: Spectroscopy, laser ablation, laser annealing, laser scattering, laser interferometry, LIDAR, laser capture microdissection, fluorescence microscopy
• Product development/commercial: laser printers, optical discs (e.g. CDs and the like), barcode scanners, thermometers, laser pointers, holograms, bubblegrams.
• Laser lighting displays: Laser light shows
• Cosmetic skin treatments: acne treatment, cellulite and striae reduction, and hair removal.

In 2004, excluding diode lasers, approximately 131,000 lasers were sold with a value of US$2.19 billion. In the same year, approximately 733 million diode lasers, valued at $3.20 billion, were sold.

Examples by power

Laser application in astronomical adaptive optics imaging

Different applications need lasers with different output powers. Lasers that produce a continuous beam or a series of short pulses can be compared on the basis of their average power. Lasers that produce pulses can also be characterized based on the peak power of each pulse. The peak power of a pulsed laser is many orders of magnitude greater than its average power. The average output power is always less than the power consumed.

The continuous or average power required for some uses:

Power	Use
1–5 mW	Laser pointers
5 mW	CD-ROM drive
5–10 mW	DVD player or DVD-ROM drive
100 mW	High-speed CD-RW burner
250 mW	Consumer 16× DVD-R burner
400 mW	Burning through a jewel case including disk within 4 seconds
	DVD 24× dual-layer recording.
1 W	Green laser in current Holographic Versatile Disc prototype development
1–20 W	Output of the majority of commercially available solid-state lasers used for micro machining
30–100 W	Typical sealed CO2 surgical lasers
100–3000 W	Typical sealed CO2 lasers used in industrial laser cutting
100 kW	Claimed output of a CO2 laser being developed by Northrop Grumman for military (weapon) applications

Examples of pulsed systems with high peak power:

• 700 TW (700×10¹² W) – National Ignition Facility, a 192-beam, 1.8-megajoule laser system adjoining a 10-meter-diameter target chamber.
• 1.3 PW (1.3×10¹⁵ W) – world's most powerful laser as of 1998, located at the Lawrence Livermore Laboratory

Hobby uses

In recent years, some hobbyists have taken interests in lasers. Lasers used by hobbyists are generally of class IIIa or IIIb, although some have made their own class IV types. However, compared to other hobbyists, laser hobbyists are far less common, due to the cost and potential dangers involved. Due to the cost of lasers, some hobbyists use inexpensive means to obtain lasers, such as salvaging laser diodes from broken DVD players (red), Blu-ray players (violet), or even higher power laser diodes from CD or DVD burners.

Hobbyists also have been taking surplus pulsed lasers from retired military applications and modifying them for pulsed holography. Pulsed Ruby and pulsed YAG lasers have been used.

Safety

Warning symbol for lasers

Laser warning label

Main article: Laser safety

Even the first laser was recognized as being potentially dangerous. Theodore Maiman characterized the first laser as having a power of one "Gillette" as it could burn through one Gillette razor blade. Today, it is accepted that even low-power lasers with only a few milliwatts of output power can be hazardous to human eyesight, when the beam from such a laser hits the eye directly or after reflection from a shiny surface. At wavelengths which the cornea and the lens can focus well, the coherence and low divergence of laser light means that it can be focused by the eye into an extremely small spot on the retina, resulting in localized burning and permanent damage in seconds or even less time.

Lasers are usually labeled with a safety class number, which identifies how dangerous the laser is:

• Class I/1 is inherently safe, usually because the light is contained in an enclosure, for example in CD players.
• Class II/2 is safe during normal use; the blink reflex of the eye will prevent damage. Usually up to 1 mW power, for example laser pointers.
• Class IIIa/3R lasers are usually up to 5 mW and involve a small risk of eye damage within the time of the blink reflex. Staring into such a beam for several seconds is likely to cause damage to a spot on the retina.
• Class IIIb/3B can cause immediate eye damage upon exposure.
• Class IV/4 lasers can burn skin, and in some cases, even scattered light can cause eye and/or skin damage. Many industrial and scientific lasers are in this class.

The indicated powers are for visible-light, continuous-wave lasers. For pulsed lasers and invisible wavelengths, other power limits apply. People working with class 3B and class 4 lasers can protect their eyes with safety goggles which are designed to absorb light of a particular wavelength.

Certain infrared lasers with wavelengths beyond about 1.4 micrometres are often referred to as being "eye-safe". This is because the intrinsic molecular vibrations of water molecules very strongly absorb light in this part of the spectrum, and thus a laser beam at these wavelengths is attenuated so completely as it passes through the eye's cornea that no light remains to be focused by the lens onto the retina. The label "eye-safe" can be misleading, however, as it only applies to relatively low power continuous wave beams; any high power or Q-switched laser at these wavelengths can burn the cornea, causing severe eye damage.

As weapons

Lasers of all but the lowest powers can potentially be used as incapacitating weapons, through their ability to produce temporary or permanent vision loss in varying degrees when aimed at the eyes. The degree, character, and duration of vision impairment caused by eye exposure to laser light varies with the power of the laser, the wavelength(s), the collimation of the beam, the exact orientation of the beam, and the duration of exposure. Lasers of even a fraction of a watt in power can produce immediate, permanent vision loss under certain conditions, making such lasers potential non-lethal but incapacitating weapons. The extreme handicap that laser-induced blindness represents makes the use of lasers even as non-lethal weapons morally controversial, and weapons designed to cause blindness have been banned by the Protocol on Blinding Laser Weapons. Incidents of pilots being exposed to lasers while flying have prompted aviation authorities to implement special procedures to deal with such hazards.

Laser weapons capable of directly damaging or destroying a target in combat are still in the experimental stage. The general idea of laser-beam weaponry is to hit a target with a train of brief pulses of light. The rapid evaporation and expansion of the surface causes shockwaves that damage the target.^{[citation needed]} The power needed to project a high-powered laser beam of this kind is beyond the limit of current mobile power technology, thus favoring chemically powered gas dynamic lasers. Example experimental systems include MIRACL and the Tactical High Energy Laser.

The U.S. Air Force is working on the Boeing YAL-1, an airborne laser mounted in a Boeing 747. It is intended to be used to shoot down incoming ballistic missiles over enemy territory. On March 18, 2009 Northrop Grumman claimed that its engineers in Redondo Beach had successfully built and tested an electrically powered solid state laser capable of producing a 100-kilowatt beam, powerful enough to destroy an airplane. According to Brian Strickland, manager for the United States Army's Joint High Power Solid State Laser program, an electrically powered laser is capable of being mounted in an aircraft, ship, or other vehicle because it requires much less space for its supporting equipment than a chemical laser. However the source of such a large electrical power in a mobile application remains unclear.

Fictional predictions

See also: Raygun

Several novelists described devices similar to lasers, prior to the discovery of stimulated emission:

• A very early example is the Heat-Ray featured in H. G. Wells' novel The War of the Worlds (1898).
• A laser-like device was described in Alexey Tolstoy's science fiction novel The Hyperboloid of Engineer Garin in 1927.
• Mikhail Bulgakov exaggerated the biological effect (laser bio stimulation) of intense red light in his science fiction novel Fatal Eggs (1925), without any reasonable description of the source of this red light. (In that novel, the red light first appears occasionally from the illuminating system of an advanced microscope; then the protagonist Prof. Persikov arranges a special set-up for generation of the red light.)

See also

Bessel beam Coherent perfect absorber dazzler (weapon) Free-space optical communication Homogeneous broadening Induced gamma emission Injection seeder International Laser Display Association Laser accelerometer Lasers and aviation safety

Laser beam profiler Laser bonding Laser converting Laser cooling Laser engraving Laser medicine Laser scalpel 3D scanner Laser turntable Laser beam welding

List of laser articles List of light sources Mercury laser Nanolaser Reference beam Rytov number Sound Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation SASER Selective laser sintering Spaser Speckle pattern Tophat beam

References

Notes

Further reading

Books

• Bertolotti, Mario (1999, trans. 2004). The History of the Laser, Institute of Physics. ISBN 0-7503-0911-3
• Csele, Mark (2004). Fundamentals of Light Sources and Lasers, Wiley. ISBN 0-471-47660-9
• Koechner, Walter (1992). Solid-State Laser Engineering, 3rd ed., Springer-Verlag. ISBN 0-387-53756-2
• Siegman, Anthony E. (1986). Lasers, University Science Books. ISBN 0-935702-11-3
• Silfvast, William T. (1996). Laser Fundamentals, Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-55617-1
• Svelto, Orazio (1998). Principles of Lasers, 4th ed. (trans. David Hanna), Springer. ISBN 0-306-45748-2
• Taylor, Nick (2000). LASER: The inventor, the Nobel laureate, and the thirty-year patent war. New York: Simon & Schuster. ISBN 0-684-83515-0. 
• Wilson, J. & Hawkes, J.F.B. (1987). Lasers: Principles and Applications, Prentice Hall International Series in Optoelectronics, Prentice Hall. ISBN 0-13-523697-5
• Yariv, Amnon (1989). Quantum Electronics, 3rd ed., Wiley. ISBN 0-471-60997-8
• Bromberg, Joan Lisa (1991). The Laser in America, 1950–1970, MIT Press. ISBN 978-0-262-02318-4

Periodicals

• Applied Physics B: Lasers and Optics (ISSN 0946-2171)
• IEEE Journal of Lightwave Technology (ISSN 0733-8724)
• IEEE Journal of Quantum Electronics (ISSN 0018-9197)
• IEEE Journal of Selected Topics in Quantum Electronics (ISSN 1077-260X)
• IEEE Photonics Technology Letters (ISSN 1041-1135)
• Journal of the Optical Society of America B: Optical Physics (ISSN 0740-3224)
• Laser Focus World (ISSN 0740-2511)
• Optics Letters (ISSN 0146-9592)
• Photonics Spectra (ISSN 0731-1230)

External links

• Encyclopedia of laser physics and technology by Dr. Rüdiger Paschotta
• A Practical Guide to Lasers for Experimenters and Hobbyists by Samuel M. Goldwasser
• Homebuilt Lasers Page by Professor Mark Csele
• Powerful laser is 'brightest light in the universe' – The world's most powerful laser as of 2008 might create supernova-like shock waves and possibly even antimatter (New Scientist, April 9, 2008)
• Homemade laser project by Kip Kedersha
• "The Laser: basic principles" an online course by Prof. F. Balembois and Dr. S. Forget. Instrumentation for Optics, 2008
• Northrop Grumman's Press Release on the Firestrike 15kw tactical laser product.
• Website on Lasers 50th anniversary by APS, OSA, SPIE
• Advancing the Laser anniversary site by SPIE: Video interviews, open-access articles, posters, DVDs
• Bright Idea: The First Lasers
• Free software for Simulation of random laser dynamics
• Video Demonstrations in Lasers and Optics Produced by the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT). Real-time effects are demonstrated in a way that would be difficult to see in a classroom setting.
• Virtual Museum of Laser History, from the touring exhibit by SPIE

UpToDate Contents

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• 1. 医療用レーザーの基本原則 basic principles of medical lasers
• 2. 皮膚病変に対するレーザーおよびインテンスパルスライトの原理 principles of laser and intense pulsed light for cutaneous lesions
• 3. 肌の若返りのためのレーザーによる皮膚の再生 ablative laser resurfacing for skin rejuvenation
• 4. 皮膚血管病変に対するレーザーおよび光線療法 laser and light therapy for cutaneous vascular lesions
• 5. 肌の若返りを目的とした、非剥離法による皮膚の再生 nonablative skin resurfacing for skin rejuvenation

English Journal

• Detection efficiency calibration of single-photon silicon avalanche photodiodes traceable using double attenuator technique.

• López M1, Hofer H1, Kück S1.
• Journal of modern optics.J Mod Opt.2015 Dec 8;62(sup2):S21-S27. Epub 2015 Mar 27.
• A highly accurate method for the determination of the detection efficiency of a silicon single-photon avalanche diode (Si-SPAD) is presented. This method is based on the comparison of the detected count rate of the Si-SPAD compared to the photon rate determined from a calibrated silicon diode using
• PMID 25892852

• A master equation for a two-sided optical cavity.

• Barlow TM1, Bennett R1, Beige A1.
• Journal of modern optics.J Mod Opt.2015 Dec 8;62(sup2):S11-S20. Epub 2015 Jan 21.
• Quantum optical systems, like trapped ions, are routinely described by master equations. The purpose of this paper is to introduce a master equation for two-sided optical cavities with spontaneous photon emission. To do so, we use the same notion of photons as in linear optics scattering theory and
• PMID 25892851

• Effects of field plot size on prediction accuracy of aboveground biomass in airborne laser scanning-assisted inventories in tropical rain forests of Tanzania.

• Mauya EW1, Hansen EH1, Gobakken T1, Bollandsås OM1, Malimbwi RE2, Næsset E1.
• Carbon balance and management.Carbon Balance Manag.2015 May 7;10:10. eCollection 2015.
• BACKGROUND: Airborne laser scanning (ALS) has recently emerged as a promising tool to acquire auxiliary information for improving aboveground biomass (AGB) estimation in sample-based forest inventories. Under design-based and model-assisted inferential frameworks, the estimation relies on a model th
• PMID 25983857

Japanese Journal

• 'Open-loop' tracking interferometer for machine tool volumetric error measurement --Two-dimensional case

• Ibaraki Soichi,Sato Goh,Takeuchi Kunitaka
• Precision Engineering 38(3), 666-672, 2014-07
• … The tracking interferometer, or the laser tracker, is a laser interferometer with a steering mechanism to regulate the laser beam direction to follow a retroreflector ("target"). … In this paper, we propose the 'open-loop' tracking interferometer, where the laser beam is regulated toward the command target position. …
• NAID 120005439528

• 光反射モデルに基づいた工芸作品のCG再現

• 松田 宗,田中 法博,市川 拓磨,望月 宏祐,室屋 泰三,北村 仁美
• 情報処理学会研究報告. グラフィクスとCAD研究会報告 2014-CG-155(1), 1-7, 2014-06-21
• 分光的な光反射モデルに基づいた工芸作品の CG 再現手法を提案する.本研究では東京国立近代美術館に所蔵されている 「十二の鷹」 を対象とした.この工芸作品は明治期に鈴木長吉によって制作された金工作品である.最初に 「十二の鷹」 の一つの頭部をレーザレンジファインダで形状計測する.このとき欠損部分は複数のレンジ画像から合成して補完する.2 番目に金工作品の各材質をレンダリングするために分光的な光反射 …
• NAID 110009799570

• 最近の研究から 励起子ポラリトン系のBEC-BCS-LASERクロスオーバー理論

• 山口 真,小川 哲生
• 日本物理学会誌 69(6), 386-391, 2014-06
• NAID 40020079568

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