出典(authority):フリー百科事典『ウィキペディア（Wikipedia）』「2014/08/03 13:39:12」(JST)
| 旧約聖書の人物イスラエルについては「ヤコブ (旧約聖書)」を、古代イスラエルの民族については「イスラエル (民族)」をご覧ください。 |
| （国旗） | （国章） |
| 公用語 | ヘブライ語、アラビア語 | ||||||||||||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 首都 | エルサレム（イスラエルの主張） テルアビブ （国際連合の主張）註1 |
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| 最大の都市 | エルサレム | ||||||||||||||||||||
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| 建国 | 1948年5月14日 | ||||||||||||||||||||
| 通貨 | 新シェケル (₪)（ILS） | ||||||||||||||||||||
| 時間帯 | UTC +2（DST：+3） | ||||||||||||||||||||
| ISO 3166-1 | IL / ISR | ||||||||||||||||||||
| ccTLD | .il | ||||||||||||||||||||
| 国際電話番号 | 972 | ||||||||||||||||||||
イスラエル国（イスラエルこく、ヘブライ語: מְדִינַת יִשְׂרָאֵל メディナット・イスラエル、アラビア語: دولة إسرائيل ダウラト・イスラーイール、英語: State of Israel）、通称イスラエルは、中東のパレスチナに位置する国家。北にレバノン、北東にシリア、東にヨルダン、南にエジプトと接する。ガザ地区とヨルダン川西岸地区を支配するパレスチナ自治政府（パレスチナ国）とは南西および東で接する。地中海および紅海にも面している。首都はエルサレムであると主張しているが、国際連合などはテルアビブをイスラエルの首都とみなしている（エルサレム#首都問題を参照）。イスラエルはシオニズム運動を経て、1948年5月14日建国された。建国の経緯から、パレスチナ人およびアラブ諸国との間にパレスチナ問題を抱えている。
アブラハムの孫にあたるヤコブの別名イスラエルに由来する。ヤコブが神と組み合った際に与えられた「神に勝つ者」を意味する名前である[4]。ヤコブは古代イスラエルの王の祖先であり、伝統的にはユダヤ人の祖先と考えられている。この地域はイスラエルの地（エレツ・イスラエル）と呼ばれた。独立直前にはユダ（Judea）、エレツ・イスラエル、シオン（Zion）、新ユダ（New Judea）なども国名候補として存在した[5]。
詳細は「イスラエルの歴史」を参照
詳細は「古代イスラエル」を参照
古代にはこの地はカナンの地と呼ばれ、カナン人をはじめ様々な民族が住んでいた。ユダヤ人の祖先となるヘブライ人も移住してきたが、子孫たちはエジプトに移住しエジプト人の奴隷となっていった。長い期間を経てエジプトを脱出したヘブライ人（イスラエル人）は、この地を征服し紀元前11世紀頃イスラエル王国が成立した[6]。しかし紀元前930年ごろ内乱のため、イスラエル王国は南北に分裂した。北のイスラエル王国は紀元前722年にアッシリアに滅ぼされ、南のユダ王国は紀元前586年に新バビロニアに滅ぼされた[7][8]。新バビロニアもペルシア帝国に滅ぼされ、その後パレスチナの地はアレクサンダー大王の東方遠征により征服される。アレクサンダー大王の死後、マケドニアは分裂し、パレスチナはセレウコス朝（シリア王国）の支配下に入るがマカバイ戦争を経て、ユダヤ人の王朝であるハスモン朝が成立する[9]。紀元前1世紀にハスモン朝はローマ帝国の保護国となり、後にローマ帝国の属州ユダヤ属州となる[10]。66年には独立を目指し、ユダヤ戦争（第1次ユダヤ戦争）が勃発するが、70年にローマ帝国により鎮圧された[11]。132年にバル・コクバに率いられたバル・コクバの乱（第2次ユダヤ戦争）が起き、一時はユダヤ人による支配権を取り戻したが、135年に再びローマ帝国に鎮圧され、名称もシリア・パレスティナ属州に変わった[12][13][14]。離散ユダヤ人（ディアスポラ）は早い時期から存在したが、この時に数多くのユダヤ人がディアスポラとなっていった[15]。
636年にビザンツ帝国がイスラム帝国に敗北し、以後オスマン帝国滅亡までのほとんどをイスラム教国家の支配下に置かれることになる。1099年に第1回十字軍によりエルサレムが占領されキリスト教国であるエルサレム王国が成立した。しかし1187年、ヒッティーンの戦いでアイユーブ朝に破れエルサレムを再占領されると、1200年ごろにはエルサレム王国の支配地域は地中海沿いのみとなっていた。わずかな支配地域を維持していたエルサレム王国であったが1291年にマムルーク朝により完全に滅亡した。1517年にはオスマン帝国がマムルーク朝を滅ぼしこの地方を支配した[16]。
詳細は「シオニズム」を参照
1834年にセルビアに住むセファルディム系の宗教的指導者イェフダー・アルカライが小冊子を発行し、聖地での贖罪を前提とした帰還を唱えた[17]。こうした宗教的意味合いの強い宗教的シオニズム（英語版）とは別にモーゼス・ヘスは1862年、反ユダヤ主義への解決策としてユダヤ人の民族主義を復興し、ユダヤ人の国家を築くべきだと訴えた。これは世俗的（政治的）シオニズムと呼ばれる[18]。1882年に第一次アリヤー（ヘブライ語で「上がる」こと、シオン（エルサレム）への帰還の意）が始まる。東ヨーロッパから2万5千人[19]から3万5千人[20][21]のユダヤ人がオスマン帝国支配下のパレスチナに移住した。テオドール・ヘルツルは1894年に起きたユダヤ人が冤罪で逮捕されたドレフュス事件を新聞記者として取材し、ユダヤ人に対する差別に衝撃を受け、同化主義者から民族主義者に転じた[22][23]。この頃からシオニズムという言葉が現れるようになる[24]。ヘルツルはオスマン帝国のスルタンアブデュルハミト2世を含む、各国の要人たちにユダヤ人国家設立を請願し[25][26]、また1897年にスイスのバーゼルで第1回シオニスト会議を開催され、世界シオニスト機構が設立された[27]。この頃、東欧やロシアではユダヤ人が虐殺されるポグロムが繰り返し発生していた[28]。1904年から始まった第二次アリヤーでは4万人ほどが移住し[29][30]、1909年にはルーマニアからの移民がテルアビブを建設した[31]。初期にはウガンダもユダヤ人国家の候補地として挙がっていたが、「シオン無きシオニズム」はあり得ないとされ、パレスチナ以外の選択肢は存在しなくなった[32][33]。
詳細は「イギリス委任統治領パレスチナ」を参照
1914年第一次世界大戦が勃発し、オスマン帝国はドイツ、オーストリア＝ハンガリー帝国の三国同盟側で参戦する。イギリスは戦争を有利に進めるため、「三枚舌外交」と呼ばれる数々の密約を結んだ。フランス・ロシアとはサイクス・ピコ協定を結び、アラブ人とはフサイン＝マクマホン協定を結んだ。そしてユダヤ人に対してはバルフォア宣言を行った[34]。これは1917年11月2日、英国外相バルフォアがユダヤ人の民族郷土建設について支持を表明したもので、ロスチャイルド卿に宛てた書簡に記されていたものである[35]。1918年10月30日オスマン帝国は降伏し、イギリスの占領統治が始まった。1922年には国際連盟で定められた委任統治制度により、この地はイギリス委任統治領パレスチナとして運営されることとなった。この委任統治決議の文書にはバルフォア宣言を再確認する文言が含まれていた[36]。アラブ人はバルフォア宣言の撤回を要求し続け、イギリスの提案する立法評議会への協力やアラブ機関の設立などを頑なに拒否した[37]。その間にもユダヤ人は移民を進め、ユダヤ機関の設立、自警組織ハガナーの結成、ヘブライ大学の開校など、ユダヤ人国家建設に向けてパレスチナにおけるユダヤ人コミュニティー（イシューブ）を着実に大きくしていった[38]。
1929年、嘆きの壁事件が発生した。アラブ人によるユダヤ人襲撃が行われ、133名のユダヤ人が殺害され339名が負傷した。アラブ人にも110名の死者が出たが、そのほとんどはイギリスの警察や軍によるものだった[39]。この事件を受けイギリスは2つの調査委員会を派遣した。調査委員会はどちらも、事件の要因はユダヤ人移民のコミュニティーが大きくなり、アラブ人がそれに脅威を感じたこととし、ユダヤ人の移民と土地購入について再検討を勧告した。一時は勧告に従った白書が出るもののユダヤ側の反発にあい撤回され、方針が変わることはなかった[40][41]。
1936年、アラブ人によるユダヤ人襲撃と、その報復が引き金となりアラブ反乱（英語版）が発生する。イギリスはピール調査委員会を派遣し、パレスチナの分割を提案した。ユダヤ側は国家創設の足がかりとしてこれを受け入れたが、アラブ側はこれを拒否した[42]。調査委員会の活動が終わると、再びパレスチナ全土で反乱が起こり、1939年に収束するまでにアラブ人に大勢の死傷者と逮捕者を出した[43]。
1939年5月にイギリス政府の方針を大きく変えるマクドナルド白書が出される。この白書は移民および土地売買に関して制限を設けるものであった[44]。アラブの主張に沿った方針であったが、アラブ人はイギリスをもはや信用せず拒絶し、当然ユダヤ人も拒否しイギリス政府に対する不信を強めることになった[45]。ユダヤ人はアラブ反乱からさらなる防衛力の必要性を感じ、またイギリス政府の方針変更に武力で抵抗するためハガナーやイルグン、レヒといった武装組織を強化していった[46]。
第二次世界大戦が始まり、ナチスのホロコーストがイシューブに伝わり多くのユダヤ人を震撼させた。ユダヤ人にとってパレスチナへの避難は急を要したが、イギリスは移民制限を変えることはなかった。しかしながら、戦時中はユダヤ人の反英闘争はなりをひそめ、義勇兵としてイギリス軍とともに戦った[47][48]。戦争が終わるとイギリス政府はアメリカに共同調査委員会の設立を提案し、英米調査委員会が設立された。委員会は強制収容所にいる10万人のユダヤ人をパレスチナに移住させるようイギリス政府に勧告したが、イギリス政府はこの勧告を受け入れず移民制限を変更しなかった。これを受けキング・デイヴィッド・ホテル爆破事件などユダヤ人過激派の反英闘争が激化することとなった[49]。
詳細は「パレスチナ分割決議」および「第一次中東戦争」を参照
ついに、イギリスは委任統治を諦めパレスチナ問題について国際連合の勧告に委ねることにした。国連の調査委員会では、ユダヤ人の国家とアラブ人の国家を創設する分割案と連邦制国家とする案が出たが、最終的に分割案が国連総会で採択された[50][51]。イギリスは1948年5月15日をもって委任統治を終了するとした。イギリスは紛争への介入を止め、両陣営の相手に対する攻撃は活発となった。ベン・イェフダ通り爆破事件（死者ユダヤ人55名）とその報復で起こったレホヴォトの列車爆破事件（死者イギリス人28名）やデイル・ヤシーン事件（死者アラブ人100名以上）、ハダサー医療従事者虐殺事件（死者ユダヤ人70名以上）などユダヤ人・アラブ人双方による襲撃事件が多発した[52]。
緊迫した状況であったが、ユダヤ人は1948年5月14日イスラエル独立宣言を行った[53]。
これに対しアラブ諸国はパレスチナ人を支援するため軍隊を動員し5月15日、パレスチナに侵攻、第一次中東戦争が勃発した。装備が整っていなかったイスラエル軍は苦戦を強いられるもののアラブ諸国の軍を食い止め、両陣営は5月29日の国連の停戦呼びかけに応じて6月11日から4週間の停戦に至った[54]。イスラエルはこの期にハガナーを中心とした軍の再編成を行い、イスラエル国防軍を創設した。国連特使のフォルケ・ベルナドッテがパレスチナの問題解決のため新たな連邦案を提案したが、イスラエル・パレスチナ双方ともに受け入れることはなかった。彼は9月17日にイスラエルの過激派レヒによって暗殺された。イスラエルには非難が集まり、イルグン、レヒの解体につながった[55]。1949年2月24日、イスラエルはエジプトと休戦協定を締結した。続いて、レバノンと3月23日、トランス・ヨルダンと4月3日、シリアとは7月20日にそれぞれ休戦協定を結び、第一次中東戦争は終結した[56]。イスラエルの兵力は開戦当初3万人ほどであったが終戦時には11万人近くになっていた。また、戦争前の内戦状態から戦時中にかけ数十万人ものパレスチナ難民が発生することとなった[57]。こうした難民が放棄していった財産は1950年の不在者財産没収法によりイスラエルに没収された[58]。エジプトはガザ地区に軍隊を駐留させ、ヨルダンは1950年にヨルダン川西岸地区を領土に編入した[59]。
イスラエルは1949年5月11日国際連合の加盟を承認された[60]。
1956年10月29日、エジプトのナセル大統領のスエズ運河国有化宣言に対応して、英・仏・イスラエル連合軍がスエズ運河に侵攻し、第二次中東戦争が勃発した。エジプトの敗北は目前と思われたが、この侵攻はアメリカの猛烈な反発を招き、結局11月8日に停戦した[61]。
1960年5月11日、モサドはナチスのホロコーストに関与したアドルフ・アイヒマンの身柄を確保した。裁判はメディアによって大々的に報道された。1961年12月15日アイヒマンに死刑が宣告され、翌年5月31日刑が執行された[62][63]。
1967年5月、エジプトはティラン海峡を封鎖した。これに対しイスラエルは6月5日奇襲攻撃を仕掛け、エジプト軍航空機のほとんどを離陸前に破壊した。エジプトからシナイ半島とガザ地区を、同戦争に参戦したシリアからゴラン高原を、ヨルダンからエルサレム旧市街を含む東エルサレムとヨルダン川西岸を奪い取り、その領土は戦前の3.5倍にもなった。6月10日に戦争は終結した。第三次中東戦争はわずか6日間でイスラエルの圧倒的勝利に終わった[64][65]。1967年11月22日国際連合安全保障理事会はイスラエルが占領した領地からの撤退を求める内容を含んだ国連安保理決議242号を全会一致で採択した[66]。この決議は中東和平の基本的枠組みとなっていくが、条文が曖昧といった問題をはらんでいた。イスラエルはこの決議に対し、「全ての」占領地域から撤退するとは書かれていないと主張した[67]。
1950年代の終わり頃、ヤーセル・アラファート率いるファタハが結成された。またアラブ諸国主導でパレスチナ解放機構（PLO）が設立された。当初PLOは過激な武装闘争グループではなかったが、アラファートがトップに立つとその性格を過激なものに変えていった[68]。PLOはヨルダンを活動拠点としていたが、次第に関係が悪化し1970年9月17日ヨルダン軍はPLOを攻撃、内戦状態となった。これは黒い九月事件と呼ばれ、過激派組織「黒い九月」はここから名称をとっている。黒い九月は1972年にミュンヘンオリンピック事件を引き起こしている[69]。
1973年10月6日、エジプトとシリアはイスラエルに奇襲し、第四次中東戦争が始まった。開戦当初、エジプトとシリアは不意を突き、イスラエルに大きな損害を与えたが、その後の反攻でイスラエルは前線を押し戻した。10月22日には停戦を要求する国連安保理決議338号が採択され戦争は終結に向かった。イスラエル国内では先制されたことに対し軍と政府に批判が集まり、ゴルダ・メイアが辞任することになった[70]。
エジプトのサダト大統領はアラブの首脳として初めてイスラエルを訪問し、11月20日イスラエルの国会であるクネセトで演説を行った[71]。1978年9月5日からアメリカ、メリーランド州キャンプ・デービッドにおいて、アメリカのカーター大統領、エジプトのサダト大統領とイスラエルのベギン首相の三者会談が開かれ、キャンプ・デービッド合意が成立した。イスラエルの占領地からの撤退とパレスチナ人の自決権についての合意であり、サダトとベギンは平和貢献を認められ1978年ノーベル平和賞を共同受賞している。1979年3月にエジプト・イスラエル平和条約が締結された。当事者であるパレスチナ人は合意内容はイスラエルの主張寄りであり[72]、パレスチナ人のためのものではなくエジプトとイスラエルのための合意であると合意に反対した[73]。1981年10月6日、サダトはイスラム過激派により暗殺された。
1981年6月、イスラエルはイラクの核兵器開発を阻止すべく、イラクの原子炉を攻撃した（イラク原子炉爆撃事件）[74]。
1978年3月と1982年6月の二度にかけて、レバノンのベイルートに本部を移したPLOを駆逐し、内戦中であったレバノンの少数派キリスト教徒保護と親イスラエル政権の樹立を目指し、レバノン侵攻を開始。シャロン国防相に率いられたイスラエル軍とレバノンの同盟勢力ファランヘ党はPLOをベイルートから追放し、ファランヘ党のバシール・ジュマイエルがレバノンの大統領に選出された。しかしジュマイエルは就任直前に暗殺され、ファランヘ党員は報復のためサブラ・シャティーラ難民キャンプに侵入し、数百人とも3千人とも言われる非武装の難民を虐殺したサブラー・シャティーラ事件を引き起こした[75][76]。アリエル・シャロン国防相は「殺害を傍観した不作為の罪」を問われ、国防相を辞任した。
1987年12月、イスラエル軍の車両がアラブ人の労働者を乗せて2台の車と衝突し4人が死亡したことをきっかけに民衆蜂起（インティファーダ）が起こった。民衆はバリケードを築き、投石を行い、火炎瓶を投げた。イスラエル当局はこれを鎮圧し、死傷者も出たが、インティファーダは全占領地に広がった。インティファーダには大人だけでなく子供も参加した。武装した兵士に立ち向かう少年の映像が報道され、国際的な非難がイスラエルに集まった[77]。国連安保理は1987年12月22日イスラエルを非難する決議を採択した[78]。1988年7月ヨルダンはヨルダン川西岸地区の主権を放棄し、それに伴い1988年11月PLOはエルサエムを首都とするパレスチナ国の樹立を宣言した[79]。
1991年湾岸戦争が勃発し、イラクによるスカッドミサイルの攻撃を受けたが、イスラエルの報復攻撃は行われなかった[80]。
1992年、米ソ共催によるマドリード中東和平国際会議が開かれた。同年、パレスチナとの和平交渉に前向きな姿勢を見せるイツハク・ラビンが首相に選出された。またノルウェーの仲介により、パレスチナとの交渉が進められていった。1993年9月13日にオスロ合意が成された。PLOはイスラエルを国家として承認し、イスラエルもまたPLOをパレスチナ人の代表として認め、パレスチナ人の暫定的な自治を認めるものだった[81]。この功績からヤーセル・アラファート、イツハク・ラビンと外務大臣のシモン・ペレスはノーベル平和賞を共同受賞している。しかし、イスラエル・アラブ双方の過激派はこれを認めなかった。イスラエル人のバールーフ・ゴールドシュテインがヘブロン事件を起こし29人を殺害すると、報復にハマースが自爆テロを何度と無く繰り返し起こした[82]。このような状況下であったがラビンは更なる和平に向けてオスロIIに向けて邁進し、1995年9月調印を行った。オスロIIはイスラエル国内の批判も大きく、野党からはラビンを売国奴と罵る者もいた[83]。1995年11月4日平和集会に参加していたラビンはユダヤ人学生に射殺された[84]。
その後も自爆テロを含むテロ行為がハマースなどによって絶え間なく引き起こされた。2000年9月にはアリエル・シャロンのエルサレム、アル＝アクサー・モスク（神殿の丘）訪問をきっかけにアル・アクサ・インティファーダ（第2次インティファーダ）が起こった[85]。
2002年にテロリストの侵入を阻むため分離壁の建設を開始した。
2006年7月12日ヒズボラの攻撃に対し、報復として拠点を破壊すべくレバノンに侵攻した。2008年12月27日、ハマース掃討のためパレスチナ自治区ガザ地区に大規模な空爆を実行、翌年1月には地上からの侵攻も開始した。この攻撃で民間人にも犠牲者が出た[86]。
詳細は「イスラエルの政治」を参照
イスラエルは行政、司法、立法と国家元首である大統領からなる。議会制民主主義を採用し、行政府（政府）は、立法府（クネセト）の信任を受け、司法府（裁判所）は法により完全なる独立を保証されている。イスラエルは不文憲法であり、国家の政治システムを規定した「基本法」は通常の法律と同等に改正することができる[87]。選挙権は18歳以上に与えられ、被選挙権は21歳以上に与えられる。選挙投票日は休日となり、入院中の人間や受刑者にも投票権が与えられる。投票率は通常8割から9割程度である[88][89]。
イスラエルは建国宣言で「ユダヤ人の国家」（Jewish State）と規定されており、ユダヤ人の定義は「帰還法」（1970年改正）により「ユダヤ教徒もしくはユダヤ人の母親から生まれたもの」と定義している。同時にアラブ人の市民権なども認めており、ユダヤ人「のみ」の国家というわけではない[90]。ユダヤ教の教義に基づく安息日の労働を禁ずる法が存在し、教育に関する法ではユダヤ教文化を重視することが盛り込まれている[89]。1990年代に「基本法：人間の尊厳と自由」と「基本法：職業の自由」が制定された。また、1995年に最高裁が基本法は一般の法に優越するとの判断を下し、この時期を「憲法革命」と呼ぶ[89][91]。
詳細は「イスラエルの大統領」を参照
大統領の任務は儀式的性格が強く、新国会の開会式の開会宣言、外国大使の信任状受理、クネセトの採択ないしは批准した法、条約の署名、当該機関の推薦するイスラエルの大使、裁判官、イスラエル銀行総裁の任命などである。大統領はクネセトの投票で決定され、任期は当初5年であったが、1999年の法改正により7年となっており、再選は禁止されている[92][89]。
詳細は「クネセト」および「イスラエルの政党」を参照
イスラエルの国会（クネセト）は一院制。議員定数は120名で政党名簿比例代表（拘束名簿式）により選出される。その名称と定数は紀元前5世紀にエズラとネヘミヤによってエルサレムに招集されたユダヤの代表機関、クネセット・ハグドラ（大議会）に由来する[93]。
イスラエルの政府は伝統的に複数の政党による連立政権により運営されてきた。これは完全な比例代表制をとり最低得票率も低いため多数の政党が存在するためである[94]。左派である労働党は1973年の選挙までは第一党であり、120議席のうち50議席程度を占めていた。1977年の選挙で右派のリクードが第一党となり、その後も労働党とリクードによる二大政党時代が続いた[95]。しかし少数政党が乱立するようになり、2006年には中道のカディマが29議席という議席数ながらも第一党となり、労働党などと左派中道連立政権が発足した[96]。2009年・2013年の選挙ではリクードを中心とした政権が発足している[97]。
「イスラエルの首相」も参照
国家の最高行政機関である政府は、国家の安全保障を含む内外の諸問題を担当し、クネセトに対して責任を有し、その信任を受けねばならない。政府の政策決定権には極めて幅がある。法により他の機関に委任されていない問題について、行動をとる権利を認められている[98]。首相は日本と同様、議会で選出されているが、1996年から2001年までは首相公選制を採用し首相選挙を行っていた[95][99]。
司法の独立は法により完全に保証されている。最高裁判事3名、弁護士協会メンバー、政官界者（閣僚、国会議員など）で構成される指名委員会があり、判事はこの委員会の推薦により大統領が任命する。判事の任期は無期（70歳定年）[100]。最高裁判所、地方裁判所、治安判事裁判所、そして宗教裁判所が存在し、結婚および離婚に関する裁判は各宗教の宗教裁判所が扱っている[89]。
死刑は戦時の反逆罪および敵性行為に対する法律と、ナチスおよびその協力者を処罰する法律においてのみ存在する。なお、死刑判決は軍法会議においても下すことが可能である。アドルフ・アイヒマンとジョン・デミャニュクに死刑判決が下されたが、後者は後に無罪となっている[101]。また、テロ対策のため予防拘禁など、治安立法も数多く制定されている[102]。
「米以関係」、「パレスチナ問題」、および「日本とイスラエルの関係」も参照
イスラエルは建国直後の1949年に国際連合へ加盟している。1995年には北大西洋条約機構（NATO）のパートナー諸国である「地中海対話」（Mediterranean Dialogue）の加盟国となっている[103]。また2010年には経済協力開発機構（OECD）にも加盟している[104]。欧州連合の研究・技術開発フレームワーク・プログラムにも参加しており[105]、欧州原子核研究機構（CERN）には1991年からオブザーバー国として参加していたが2014年に正式にメンバー国となった[106]。欧州分子生物学機構（EMBO）[107]および欧州分子生物学研究所（EMBL）のメンバー国でもある[108]。
近隣諸国とは、建国直後から何度か戦争状態となり敵対関係だったが、1979年にエジプトと1994年にヨルダンと平和条約を結んでいる。しかし2006年のレバノン侵攻の際に行われたエジプトの世論調査ではイスラエルを敵性国家とみなす意見が92%にも上った[109]。イスラエルが「脅威」としてあげる国ではイランがある。イランとは核兵器開発問題、ヒズボラおよびハマースを支援している国家[110][111]として強い警戒を示し[112]、国連事務総長にイランの国連除名を要求したこともある[113]。また、イラン大統領のマフムード・アフマディーネジャードはホロコーストを認めない発言をするなどイスラエルに強硬な姿勢を示していた[114]。ただし、2009年には外相のアヴィグドール・リーバーマンはパキスタンおよびアフガニスタンをイランよりも戦略的脅威と見ているとの発言を行った[115]。アフガニスタンではガザ侵攻の際、「イスラエルに死を」という声を上げイスラエルとの戦闘を望む多くの若者が集まった[116]。
シリア・レバノンも紛争当事国であり関係修復には至っていない。2006年、レバノン首相のフアード・シニオラはレバノン侵攻を受けてイスラエルとの国交樹立はありえないと発言した[117]。またシリア騒乱時にはヒズボラへの武器輸送を阻むためイスラエルはシリアに空爆を行っている[118]。
トルコはイスラエルにとって主要兵器輸出国であり[119]、近隣のイスラム諸国の中では珍しく友好な関係を築いてきた。しかしガザ侵攻においてトルコのパレスチナ支援団体と武力衝突が発生しトルコ人活動家が9名死亡、外交関係は冷え切っていた。2013年にはイスラエルからの謝罪が行われ、両者の関係は修復したと見られている[120][121]。インドおよび中国にもイスラエルは兵器輸出または軍事技術の提供を行っている[122][123]。中国では国際的な非難のあったガザ侵攻について理解を示す報道が成されている[124]。
エチオピアにはベタ・イスラエルと呼ばれるユダヤ人が住んでおり、1991年にはソロモン作戦と呼ばれるイスラエルのへ移民も行われている。
日本は2006年、持続的な経済発展を通じてイスラエル・ヨルダン・パレスチナ自治政府間の協力・信頼関係を築き、ひいてはパレスチナの平和を形成するという「平和と繁栄の回廊」構想を提案している[125]。2008年には4者協議が東京で開催されている[126]。この後、2008年以降4者協議は開催されていなかったが2013年に再開した[127]。2014年5月には、イスラエルのベンヤミン・ネタニヤフ首相が日本を訪問、天皇皇后や安倍晋三首相と会談を行った。安倍とネタニヤフの会談では、安全保障分野での協力や、中東和平交渉に関して意見が交わされた[128]。
欧米諸国とは欧州連合の研究機関への参加など良好な関係を保っている。フランスは第三次中東戦争までは最大の兵器供給国であり、核開発の協力もなされていた[129][130]。ドイツとはホロコーストの記憶もあり外交関係は冷え切っていたが、ドイツの補償金と軍事支援を受け入れ、当時の西ドイツと1965年に国交を樹立している[131]。ただし、補償金の受け取りについては反対派がデモを起こし、国会を襲撃するなど受け取りの是非について激しい論争を呼んだ[132]。
ソビエト連邦はアメリカに次いで2番目（建国から2日後）にイスラエルを国家承認した国である[133]。1967年の第三次中東戦争でソ連とイスラエルは国交を断絶となったが、1991年に国交を回復した。ソビエト連邦の崩壊すると、1990年代の10年間ほどで80万人以上が旧ソ連からイスラエルに移住している[134]。ロシア系移民は独自のコミュニティーを形成し、クネセトに議員も送り込んでいる[135]。街ではロシア語表記が見かけられるだけでなく、ロシア語が通用することさえある[136]。
アメリカ合衆国は建国当初から最大の「盟友」であり、「特別な関係」とも言われる[137]。アメリカはイスラエルを「中東における最も信頼できるパートナー」と評し、国家承認も建国と同日に行っている[138]。エジプト・イスラエル平和条約をはじめ和平仲介も行っている。毎年30億ドル以上の対外軍事援助を行い、合同軍事演習も実施している。またイスラエルの最大の貿易相手国でもある[138]。イスラエルの経済発展においてアメリカの経済支援が果たした役目は大きく、2008年以降経済援助は行われておらず軍事援助のみとなっているが、それでもなおアメリカの2012年の国別対外援助費では2番目に大きい[139]。国連でイスラエルへの非難決議が提出されると拒否権を発動させることもあり、またイスラエルから中国への軍事技術提供問題やイスラエルの核兵器開発問題に対しては、見てみぬふりをしていると言われることもある[140]。このようなアメリカの親イスラエル政策の背景には在米ユダヤ人のロビー活動がある。在米ユダヤ人は540万人ほどでアメリカの総人口の2%以下である[141]。しかしユダヤ人は投票率が高く、結束力も強いため選挙に無視できない影響を与えている。またニューヨーク州などの都市部や政治中枢に近い地域ではユダヤ人比率が高く、大統領選挙においては重要な意味を持つ[142][143]。このように在米ユダヤ人は政治に対し強い影響を持ち、さらにクリスチャン・シオニストたちがそれを後押ししている[144]。しかし在米ユダヤ人は政治に対し強い影響力を持つことが、日本では書籍として販売されているようなユダヤ陰謀論と結び付けられてしまい、それが反ユダヤ主義につながっていくことに対し、強い警戒を持っている[145]。
イスラエルは元来、アメリカ合衆国との関係を最重要視してきたが、近年、アメリカ合衆国の国際的影響力に陰りが出てきたと判断して、日本、中国、インド、フランスなど多方面の外交に乗り出しつつある[146]。
国家を持たなかったことにより、600万人のユダヤ人が殺されたホロコーストの教訓から、イスラエルは「全世界に同情されながら滅亡するよりも、全世界を敵に回して戦ってでも生き残る」ということを国是にしているとされる[147]。
詳細は「イスラエル国防軍」を参照
1948年の建国と共に創設されたイスラエル国防軍（IDF）は、国の防衛の任にあたる。建国以来の度重なる周辺アラブ諸国との実戦経験を持つ。
文字通りの国民皆兵国家であり、満18歳で男子は3年、女子は2年の兵役に服さねばならないが、優秀な学生は徴兵が延期されることもある[148]。なお、その後も予備役がある。女性は結婚している者は兵役が免除される。また信仰上の理由により兵役免除も可能であるが、これも女性のみである[149]。少数派のドゥルーズ派の信徒とチェルケス人は兵役に服すが、ユダヤ人でないその他のマイノリティは男子でも兵役が免除されている[150][89]。また超正統派も兵役を免除されているが[151]、これには批判も多く1998年に最高裁は兵役免除は違法との判断を下している[152]。さまざまな理由から兵役を拒否する人間も増えてきており問題となっている[153][154]。
イスラエルは国土が縦深性に欠け、一部でも占領されれば国土や産業、国民にとって致命的なダメージを受ける。そのため、戦時には戦域を敵の領土に限定し早急に決着をつけることを戦略計画としている[155]。先制攻撃を仕掛け、敵の攻撃力を早期に無力化することを主眼においている。この姿勢は、イスラエルには国家の安寧を守るという前提があるにもかかわらず、イスラエルを好戦的な国家とみなす論者が多い一因となっている。なお、イスラエル国防軍の現在の任務には、パレスチナ自治機関と協調しつつヨルダン川西岸及びガザの治安を保持すること、国内及び国境周辺で生じるテロ対策も含まれている。
兵器の多くは、建国初期は西側諸国からの供給や中古兵器の再利用に頼っていたが、その後主力戦車メルカバや戦闘機クフィルなど特別のニーズに応じた兵器を国内で開発・生産しており、輸出も積極的に行っている。海外との軍事技術交流（下記の科学研究参照）も多い。なお、国産兵器は、メルカバに代表されるように人的資源の重要性から防御力・生存性に重点を置いたものが多い。
国連児童基金はパレスチナ人の子供達がイスラエル軍から軍事裁判にかけられ、拘留下において「広範囲にわたる計画的で制度化された」暴行・虐待を受けているとする報告書を発表した[156]。
「イスラエルの大量破壊兵器」も参照
イスラエルは核保有に関して肯定も否定もしていない。「イスラエルは最初に核を使用する国にはならないが、二番目に甘んじることも無い」という談話もあり、「曖昧政策」とも称されている[157]。この曖昧な態度は核兵器の有無を疑わせ、抑止効果を高めようとする狙いと、アメリカに対する配慮からである。核拡散防止条約（NPT）に加入していないイスラエルが核武装を公言すれば、イスラエルとアメリカのこれまでの関係が崩れるか、これまでインドやパキスタンを非難してきたアメリカがダブルスタンダードの謗りを受けることは免れないからである[158]。 しかし、核技術者モルデハイ・ヴァヌヌの内部告発などの状況証拠から、国際社会においては核保有はほぼ確実視されており、アメリカも核保有を事実上認めている。イスラエルがフランスの協力を得て核兵器を保有したのは1969年と見られ、アメリカ科学者連盟は、100発程度は保有しているのではないかと見ている[159][160]。
2006年12月5日、アメリカ上院軍事委員会公聴会で、次期国防長官に決定したロバート・ゲーツが「（イランが核兵器開発を進めるのは）核保有国に囲まれているからだ。東にパキスタン、北にロシア、西にイスラエル、ペルシャ湾には我々（アメリカ）がいる」と発言。アメリカ側が初めてイスラエルの核保有を公言したことになるため、注目された[161]。イスラエルはペレス特別副首相が「イスラエルは核保有をこれまで確認したことはない」と従来の見解を繰り返した。
しかし、12月11日、ドイツの衛星放送テレビ局「SAT1」のインタビューで、オルメルト首相は「イスラエルは、他国を脅かしたりしない。しかし、イランはイスラエルを地図上から消滅させると公言している。そのイランが核兵器を保有しようとしていて、フランス、アメリカ、ロシア、イスラエルと同じレベルで話し合えるはずがない」と、核保有を認めたと取れる発言を行った[162]。オルメルトは、翌日のドイツのメルケル首相との合同記者会見で核保有を否定したが、イランは非難声明を出した。
詳細は「イスラエルの地理」および「:en:Geography of Israel」を参照
北にレバノン、北東にシリア、東にヨルダン、南にエジプトと接する。ガザ地区とヨルダン川西岸地区を支配するパレスチナ自治政府（パレスチナ国）とは南西および東で接する。西に地中海があり、南は紅海につながっている。ヨルダンとの国境付近に、世界的にも高濃度の塩湖である死海がある。
イスラエルの支配地域は、22,072km²である。国土は狭く、南北に細長い。南北には470kmあるが、東西は一番離れた地点間でも135kmである。車での走行時間は、北のメトゥーラから最南端の町エイラットまでは約9時間かかるが、西の地中海から東の死海までならば90分ほどしかかからない[163]。ジュディアの丘陵にあるエルサレムから海岸沿いのテルアビブまで、また、標高835mにあるエルサレムから海抜下398mの死海までならば、1時間とかからない。
地中海沿岸の平野部は肥沃な農地地帯となっている。また、平野部に国民の大半が住んでおり、工業施設の大半も平野部に存在する。北部のガラリヤおよびゴラン地方は比較的豊富な雨量で常に緑が保たれている。南部のネゲブ砂漠は国土のかなりの割合を占めており、乾燥し切り立った山々が存在する[164]。
詳細は「イスラエルの行政区画」を参照
イスラエルは7つの地区に分かれ、その下に郡が存在する（エルサレム地区とテルアビブ地区には存在しない）。郡には地方政府が設置されている。
「イスラエルの地」を意味するエレツ・イスラエル（ארץ ישראל）は神がアブラハム、子のイサク、孫のヤコブと与えることを約束した「約束の地」を意味する。その範囲は創世記[165]、出エジプト記[166]、民数記[167]、エゼキエル書[168]に記されている。現在のイスラエル国の領土よりも広い範囲であるが大イスラエル主義者（英語版）においては、これらの地域をイスラエルが支配すべき領域と見なす[169]。第三次中東戦争において膨大な地域を占領すると大イスラエル主義は大いに広まった。イツハク・ラビン暗殺の理由も、オスロ合意は約束の地を売り渡す裏切り行為であると見られたからである[170]。
IMFの統計によると、2011年のイスラエルのGDPは2,582億ドル（約20兆円）で[3]、埼玉県とほぼ同じ経済規模である[171]。一人あたりの名目GDPは33,433米ドル（2012年）で、ニュージーランド、イタリアなどと同程度の高水準である。イスラエルはOECD加盟国であり、いわゆる先進国である[172]。貿易収支は慢性的な赤字となっている[173][174]。また、イスラエルは中東のシリコンバレーとも呼ばれ[175][176]、インテルやマイクロソフトなどの世界的に有名な企業の研究所が軒を連ねる。大企業は少ないがベンチャー企業は多いことでも知られ、失敗を恐れない企業家精神に富んだイスラエルの国民性が影響していると考えられている[177][178]。
イスラエルは人口800万人程度の小さな国ではあるが、農業、灌漑、そして様々なハイテク及び電子ベンチャー産業において最先端の技術力を持つ。建国からしばらくは、キブツやモシャブでの共同生活と、主導的立場にあった労働シオニズムの影響から社会主義的な経済体制であった[172]。建国当時は産業基盤もない上に周辺アラブ諸国との戦争状態にあるという悪条件であったが、ドイツの補償金やアメリカのユダヤ人社会から送られる寄付金など海外からの多額の資金援助を受けて経済を発展していった[179]。これが1980年代後半に入り、ヨーロッパ諸国及びアメリカとの自由貿易地域協定など自由主義経済へと転換していき、1990年代の加速度的な経済成長をもたらした。2001年から2002年にかけて、ITバブルの崩壊とパレスチナ情勢の悪化により経済成長率がマイナスに転じるも、2003年以降は堅実な成長を続け、2008年のリーマン・ショック以降もプラス成長を維持している。2010年にはOECDに加盟した。またイスラエル経済の発展にはアメリカ政府からの累計で300億ドル以上という多大な経済援助が大きく寄与している。しかし、この経済援助は2008年以降は行われていない[180]。
イスラエルの農業技術は先進的で、国土のほとんどが砂漠または半砂漠で降雨量も少ないといった農業には厳しい環境ながら、食糧のほとんどを自給でき農産物の輸出も行う農業大国である[181]。少ない水資源を有効に活用するため、水のリサイクルに力を入れ、リサイクル率は70％を超えているという。また水の利用効率が高い点滴灌漑を行っている。設備の制御は携帯電話などのモバイル機器からも可能であるという[182]。
ダイヤモンド産業はイスラエル経済を語る上で重要な位置を占める。イスラエルはダイヤモンドの流通拠点として世界的に有名であり、研磨ダイヤモンドの輸出額はイスラエルの総輸出額のうち約四分の一を占めている[174]。イスラエルはダイヤモンド産業を政府主導で基幹産業へと発展させてきた。産業の確立にはユダヤ系資本のデビアスが貢献したが、デビアスとは後に対立を引き起こしてもいる[183]。
また兵器産業も経済に大きな影響を与えている。高度な技術の民間転用がハイテク産業を急成長させ、また兵器の輸出によって直接的な収入源ともなっている。ストックホルム国際平和研究所（SIPRI）によればイスラエルは2008から2012年のデータにおいて兵器の輸出元として世界10位となっている[184]。またエルサレム・ポストは、2010年度の武器輸出額が72億ドルに上り、世界4位になったと報じた[185]。2010年の時点では兵器製造企業は約200社ほど存在する[186]。
イスラエルの鉱業を支えているのは、カリ塩とリン鉱石である。2003年の時点で、それぞれの世界シェアは5位（193万トン）、9位（102万トン）である。金属鉱物は採掘されていない。有機鉱物では亜炭、原油、天然ガスとも産出するものの、国内消費量の1%未満にとどまる。
イスラエルは、科学研究の水準が非常に高い。イスラエルは専門資格を持った人材資源が豊富であり、科学技術の研究開発に注がれる資金の額は、2007年度のデータではGDPとの比率でみると世界1位である[187]。また国際的な研究協力も重視し、欧米諸国のみならず各国と積極的に連携を行っている[188]。
医学とその周辺分野、並びに生物工学の分野では、極めて進んだ研究開発基盤を持ち、広範囲な研究に取り組んでいる。研究は、大学医学部・各種国立研究機関を始め、医薬、生物工学、食品加工、医療機器、軍需産業の各メーカーの研究開発部門でも活発に行われている。イスラエルの研究水準の高さは世界によく知られており、海外の医学、科学分野、軍事技術の研究諸機関との相互交流も盛んである。また、イスラエルでは医学上の様々な議題の国際会議が頻繁に開催されている。さらに、軍需製品の性能・品質は世界に見ても非常に高い。このような科学技術の発展には、ソ連崩壊による100万人近くの移民に多くの研究者・技術者が含まれていたことも大きく影響している[189][190]。
暗号理論の水準が高いとされ、インターネットのセキュリティーにおいて重要な役割を演じるファイアーウォールや公開鍵の開発において、イスラエルは、重要な役割を果たして来た。
また、宇宙開発技術も高く、独自に人工衛星も打ち上げている[191]。通常の人工衛星では地球の自転を利用して東向きに打ち上げられるが[192]、イスラエルの衛星は西方以外に他国が存在するため、すべて非効率的な西向きに打ち上げられている[191]。また、2003年、イスラエル初の宇宙飛行士として空軍パイロットのイラン・ラモーン大佐がアメリカのスペースシャトル・コロンビアで宇宙に飛び立ったが、大気圏再突入時の空中分解事故により亡くなった。
先進国とされているイスラエルだが、深刻な貧困問題を抱えている。イスラエルには1954年に制定された「国民健康法」に基づき、収入が最低基準以下の世帯と個人に対しては国民保険機構から補助金が支給されている。また、児童手当も支給されており、特に4人以上の子供がいる家庭には手厚い福祉が施されている[193]。しかしイスラエルは、かねてから所得格差が大きかったり、貧困に苦しむ国民が多いことが指摘されていた[194]。2010年12月22日の「ハアレツ」紙によると、イスラエルの全人口のうち、およそ177万人が貧困状態にあり、うち85万人は子供であると言う。貧困状態にある世帯の約75％は日々の食料にも事欠いているとされ、極めて深刻な実態が浮き彫りとなった。貧困状態にある子供たちの中には物乞いをしたり、親に盗みを働くよう強制される事例もあるという[195]。イスラエルの中央統計局と福祉省の調査によると、2011年に福祉省に助成を求めた世帯の割合は28%で、これは1998年と比べて75%の増加に当たるという[196]。
貧しい子供たちのために、無料給食や補講などを実施している学校「エル・ハ＝マーヤン」の運営母体である超正統派政党「シャス」のエリ・イシャイ党首は、「国民保険制度研究所さえ、政府の俸給を増やすことのみが貧困を解消する唯一の方法と断定した。このような他の政府機関からかけ離れた見通しが長きに渡ってなされているのは恥である」と述べた。また、中道左派政党「労働党」の議員であるシェリー・ヤシモビッチはイスラエル国内でのワーキングプアの増大を指摘している。また、左派政党「メレツ」のハイム・オロン党首は「政府は（資本主義における）結果的格差を肯定しているが、貧困の根本原因を取り除かなければならない」と指摘している[197]。
2011年7月30日には、イスラエル国内で住宅価格や生活費の高騰、貧富の格差に対して抗議する15万人規模のデモが起きている。左派系のみでなく、保守系の人々も多数参加した極めて大規模なものである[198]。8月6日には、最低賃金引上げなどを求め30万人規模のイスラエル建国至上最大の抗議運動が起きた[199]。
経済協力開発機構（OECD）が2013年にまとめた報告書では、イスラエルが全てのOECD加盟国の中で最も貧困率が高いことが記されている。また、同年10月に発表されたイスラエル中央統計局の報告書では、イスラエルの全人口のうち31％が貧困線以下の生活をしているという。また、同報告書ではイスラエルの子供の40％が貧困に直面しているとしている。また、2013年に入ってから多くのイスラエル人がアメリカ合衆国やドイツなどへ経済的理由から移住しているという。ヘブライ大学のモミー・ダハン教授は、この問題の背景として、イスラエル政府が社会保障や児童予算を削減し続けていることを指摘している[200]。
2013年のイスラエル中央統計局のデータでは、総人口は802万人である。そのうちユダヤ人が604万人（75.3％）、アラブ人が166万人（20.7％）、その他32万人（4.0％）となっている[201]。アラブ人の大半はムスリムで[202]、2009年のデータではアラブ人の78％がムスリムである[203]。なお、イスラエルでは1970年に改正された帰還法により、ユダヤ人の定義をユダヤ教を信仰しているか、母親がユダヤ人のものとしている。イスラエルは移民国家であり、出身地ごとに欧米系をアシュケナジム、アジア・アフリカ系をセファルディム、オリエント系をミズラヒムと呼び[204]、同じユダヤ人でも異なる人種の場合もある（ユダヤ人も参照）。
1990年から2009年までの統計によればユダヤ人の人口は減少傾向にあり、対してアラブ人は増加傾向にあるという。これはユダヤ人移民の減少によるものとイスラエル中央統計局は推測している[203]。
公用語はヘブライ語、アラブ語が採用されている[205]。
イスラエルは宗教の自由を認めている[206]。2004年のデータではユダヤ教徒が523.8万人（76.2％）、ムスリムが110.7万人（16.1％）、キリスト教徒が14.4万人（2.1％）、ドゥルーズ派が11.3万人（1.6％）、その他26.5万人（3.9％）となっている[207]。信仰のあり方についても多様で、戒律を厳しく守ろうとするユダヤ教徒は20%、ある程度個人の自由で守るものが多数派で60％、全く守ろうとしないものも20%いる[208]。
「ウルパン」も参照
現代イスラエルの公用語のひとつであるヘブライ語は、古代ヘブライ語を元に20世紀になって復元されたものである。全くの文章語となっていた言語が復元されて公用語にまでなったのは、これが唯一のケースである。
上記の理由から、現代ヘブライ語の方言はない、とされる。あるとすれば、他国からの移住者のネイティブ言語の影響による「なまり」や、各コミュニティーでの伝統的な（聖書やラビ文学の朗読、礼拝などに用いる音声言語化された文語としての）ヘブライ語の発音などだろう。
イスラエル中北部やヨルダン川西岸地区に多く住むアラブ人はアラビア語の「ヨルダン定住方言」（アラビア語方言学の名称と思われるが、多分に反シオニズム的表現であると思われる。「パレスチナ方言」、「イスラエル方言」という表現も可能である）を、イスラエル南部に多いアラブ人は「ネゲヴ・ベドウィン方言」を、エルサレムのアラブ人は「エルサレム方言」を、ゴラン高原の住民は「ハウラン方言」を話し、すべてシリアからシナイ半島にかけて話される「シリア・パレスチナ方言」の一部であるとされる。
また、西岸地区ではサマリア語の新聞も出されている。
テルアビブ市内にはヘブライ語に並んでロシア語の看板なども多く見られる。
ユダヤ人は主に出身地ごとに大まかなグループに分類される。
その他、ユダヤ教に改宗した人々（ブラック・ジュー、ミゾ）などもユダヤ教徒として住んでいる。
21世紀に入って以降、アフリカのエリトリア、スーダン、南スーダンなどからシナイ半島を経由してイスラエルに不法入国する人々が後を絶たない。2012年現在、アフリカ系移民の人口は約6万人と推測されている。これは、母国での深刻な貧困や紛争などから逃れるためという側面があるが、イスラエル国内ではこの不法移民の扱いについて大きな議論を呼んでいる。「ユダヤ人国家」を穢されると懸念する右派勢力は移民排斥を訴え、特に過激なグループ（カハネ主義者）たちは不法移民の滞在するアパートに放火したり、移民に暴力を振るうなどしている。しかし、一方でホロコーストを経験した国として、移民には寛容であるべきという意見もある[209]。
一部のユダヤ人による、アラブ系イスラエル人への襲撃事件が相次いでいる[210]。
国土が狭いイスラエルでは、車、バス、トラックなどが主な交通機関である。近年、車の急速な増大に対応し、辺鄙な地域への交通の便を図るため、道路網の拡充が図られた。多車線のハイウェーは目下300キロの運営だが、2004年の時点で、南のベエルシェバから北のロシュハニクラ、ロシュピナまでハイウェー網が整備されつつある。さらに、人口稠密地にはバイパスが設けられた。緑色のエゲッドバスは、イスラエル全土を網羅しており、後部にトイレがある。運賃はエルサレム-エイラット間で70NIS（約2000円）。主要道路には、公道1号線（東西）、公道90号線（南北）などがある。
イスラエルは2011年から国家プロジェクトとして電気自動車の導入を推進している。イスラエルは国土が小さい上、主要な石油原産国である近隣アラブ諸国との関係から電気自動車の導入に積極的である[211]。
イスラエル鉄道は、エルサレム、テルアビブ、ハイファ、ナハリヤの間で旅客運送を行っている。貨物運送としては、アシュドッド港、アシュケロン市、ベエルシェバ市、ディモナの南部の鉱山採掘場など、より南部にまで及んでいる。貨物鉄道の利用は年々増加し、乗客の利用も近年増えている。
テルアビブとハイファでは、道路の交通渋滞を緩和するため、既存の路線を改善した高速鉄道サービスが導入されつつある。また、2004年10月より、ベングリオン空港とテルアビブ市内を結ぶ空港連絡鉄道が運行されている。
国際線を運航する航空会社として国営航空会社のエルアル・イスラエル航空とアルキア航空、イスラエアーがあり、テルアビブのベン・グリオン国際空港をハブとしてヨーロッパやアジア、アメリカ諸国に路線を設けている。
健康保険は1995年に、国民新保健医療法（NHCL）が成立し18歳以上の全国民に加入を義務付ける国民皆保険となっている[212][213]。社会福祉支出はOECDの2012年のにデータによると、2007年と比べ21.2%増加しているものの、GDP比15.8％でOECD諸国平均21.9%より低い値となっている[214]。相対的貧困率は2012年のデータで20.9%とOECD諸国で最も貧困率が高い[214]。しかし、2012年の人間開発指数は0.900の「非常に高い」となっており世界16位である[215]。
聖書には「産めよ、増えよ、地に満ちて地を従わせよ」という言葉もあり[216]、子供に対しては特別の配慮が払われている。出産に関しては不妊治療が45歳まで健康保険の対象項目となっており、大きな病院には大抵の場合体外受精科が存在する[217]。実際に体外受精は広く行われており、ヨーロッパ生殖医学学会（ESHRE）が刊行する Human Reproduction Update の2002年号では、イスラエルの体外受精実施件数は100万人あたり1,657件と報告している。2位のアイスランドの899件を大きく引き離している[218][219]。女性一人あたりの平均出産数（合計特殊出生率）はOECDの調査によれば2011年のデータでは3.0となり、OECD諸国平均の1.7を大きく上回っている[214]。一般家庭には児童手当も支払われている[220]。また児童虐待について、NICHDプロトコルを用いた司法面接を1998年に国家で採用している[221]。
出生時平均余命はOECDの2013年に公表されたデータによれば、2011年度は81.8歳となっており、先進国の中でも9位となっている[222]。また、 国連開発計画の2012年のデータによれば81.9歳で、世界で7位となっている[223]。
長寿国であるため高齢者問題も大きな課題となってきている。特に旧ソ連からはソ連崩壊に伴い、100万人近くが移民してきたが、そのうち12%以上が65歳以上の高齢者であったという[224]。高齢者は公共交通の割引や減税を受けられ、また高齢者介護を理由に有給休暇を認める法律も制定されている[212]。終末期医療については2006年に法律が制定され、尊厳死が認められている[212]。2008年の時点では65歳以上の高齢者の割合は10.0％となっている。しかしこれはOECD諸国平均の14.4%よりは低い数値である[225]。
詳細は「イスラエルの教育」を参照
イスラエルは「ジューイッシュ・マザー（ユダヤ人の母）」という言葉が教育ママを意味するとおり、教育が重視されている。これにはユダヤ人が歴史的に教育熱心であったという背景もある[226]。イスラエルの教育は小学校6年、中学校3年、高等学校3年の6-3-3制である。義務教育は5歳から始まり、義務教育期間は5歳から18歳までである[227]。1949年に義務教育に関する法が施行された時点では5歳から15歳までであったが、法改正により18歳までとなっている[228]。この期間延長は徐々に移行が進んでおり、イスラエル政府は2014年か2015年には全国に適用させる予定としている[229]。義務教育期間と高等学校までの学費は無料である[230]。18歳になると通常は、兵役に就き、その後進学する者は大学に入学することになる。兵役後も海外旅行などで見聞を広めてから大学に進学するものも多い[231]。そのため、大学生の平均年齢は高くなっている。大学（ウニバルシタ）はすべて公立であり、比較的安価で高等教育を受けることができる。ほとんどの大学生はダブルメジャー（2つの専攻）で、平均3年で学位を取得する。また、専門学校（ミクララ）が各地に存在する。教育水準は高いが、欧米との結びつきが強いためか、優秀な研究者がイスラエルを離れ海外移住することも多く、この頭脳流出は大きな問題となっている[232]。
イスラエルは宗教婚のみ認めており、民事婚は認めていない。ユダヤ教はもちろんイスラム教など各宗教ごとに宗教裁判所が存在し、婚姻などを管轄している[233]。ユダヤ教においては超正統派が婚姻を司っており、宗教法により異教徒間の結婚は認められない。そのためユダヤ教徒以外のものと結婚する場合やその他の事情がある場合は、海外で結婚し、帰国後に結婚証明書を役所に提出するという国外結婚の形をとる[234]。国外結婚はキプロスで行うものが最も多く、毎年1000組ほどが結婚を行うという[235]。
結婚の際、伝統的には女性は婚姻に際して夫の姓を称する（夫婦同姓）が、いつでも自己の未婚時の姓又は従前の夫の姓を夫の姓に付加（結合姓）することができ、また、未婚時の姓または従前の姓のみを称する（夫婦別姓）こともできる。
詳細は「イスラエルのスポーツ」を参照
イスラエルでもスポーツは盛んであるが、サッカーが最もメジャーなスポーツである（国内リーグはイスラエル・プレミアリーグである）。イスラエルにはプロレスリング・プロボクシングがない（イスラエル人のキックボクサー、総合格闘家はいる）。かつては競馬もなかったが、2006年10月に初めて開催された。金銭を賭けることは禁止されているため、入場者は馬が走る姿や馬術競技を観戦するだけの純粋なスポーツとして今のところ行われている。2007年6月24日に同国初のプロ野球「イスラエルベースボールリーグ」の開幕戦が行われたが、1年ともたず中止になった。
イスラエルサッカー協会は、現在は欧州サッカー連盟 (UEFA) に加盟している。イスラエルは地勢的にはアジアの国であり、1954年5月8日に他の12か国と共にアジアサッカー連盟 (AFC) を設立したが、すぐには加盟せず、2年後の1956年にAFCに加盟した（なお、AFCは政治的配慮により現在もなお、イスラエルをAFC創立メンバーとしては認めていない）[236][237]。だが、イスラエル＝アラブ紛争（パレスチナ問題および中東戦争等）により周辺アラブ諸国との関係が悪化し、アラブ諸国（ほかにインドネシアや北朝鮮や中国）を中心としたボイコット（対戦拒否、大会参加拒否）が激化。1973年10月に第四次中東戦争が起こると、もはや対戦不可能な状態に陥った。そして、1974年9月14日、イランアジア大会の開催期間中にイランの首都テヘランで開催されたAFC総会でAFCから除名された[238]。AFC除名以降は、地域連盟未所属のまま活動し、FIFAワールドカップアジア・オセアニア予選へ組み込まれたり、オセアニアサッカー連盟 (OFC) の暫定メンバーとなるなどの紆余曲折を経て、1992年にUEFAに加盟した[239]。これはイスラエルオリンピック委員会についても同様で、かつてはアジア競技連盟（後のアジアオリンピック評議会）に所属していたものの、その後ヨーロッパオリンピック委員会に加入した。
電話および携帯電話が広く利用されている。国際電話番号は972。
イスラエルのインターネット普及率は高く、主な場所で無線LANが利用できる場所もある。インターネットカフェも普及しており、店内は禁煙の所が多い。日本の漫画喫茶のように雑然としておらず、端末ごとに整然と区画されている。
| ウィキメディア・コモンズには、イスラエルに関連するメディアおよびカテゴリがあります。 |
| ウィクショナリーにイスラエルの項目があります。 |
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Coordinates: 31°N 35°E / 31°N 35°E / 31; 35
State of Israel
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| Anthem: "Hatikvah" (Hebrew) "The Hope" |
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| Capital and largest city |
Jerusalem (disputed) 31°47′N 35°13′E / 31.783°N 35.217°E / 31.783; 35.217 |
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| Official languages |
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| Ethnic groups (2013) |
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| Demonym | Israeli | |||||
| Government | Unitary parliamentary republic | |||||
| - | President | Reuven Rivlin | ||||
| - | Prime Minister | Benjamin Netanyahu | ||||
| Legislature | Knesset | |||||
| Independence from British Mandatory Palestine | ||||||
| - | Declared | 14 May 1948 | ||||
| - | Recognition | 1 May 1949 | ||||
| Area | ||||||
| - | Total | 20,770 / 22,072 (153rd) km2 8,019 / 8,522 sq mi |
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| - | Water (%) | 2.12 (440 km2 / 170 mi2) | ||||
| Population | ||||||
| - | 2014 estimate | 8,146,300[1] (96th) | ||||
| - | 2008 census | 7,412,200[2] (99th) | ||||
| - | Density | 387.63/km2 (34th) 1,004.00/sq mi |
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| GDP (PPP) | 2014 estimate | |||||
| - | Total | $286.840 billion[3] | ||||
| - | Per capita | $35,658[3] (25) | ||||
| GDP (nominal) | 2014 estimate | |||||
| - | Total | $305. 707 billion [3] | ||||
| - | Per capita | $38,004[3] (25) | ||||
| Gini (2008) | 39.2[4] medium · 66th |
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| HDI (2013) | 0.888[5] very high · 19th |
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| Currency | Israeli new shekel (₪) (ILS) |
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| Time zone | Israel Standard Time (UTC+2) | |||||
| - | Summer (DST) | Israel Summer Time (UTC+3) | ||||
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| Drives on the | right | |||||
| Calling code | +972 | |||||
| ISO 3166 code | IL | |||||
| Internet TLD | .il | |||||
Israel /ˈɪzreɪəl/, officially the State of Israel (Hebrew: מְדִינַת יִשְׂרָאֵל, Medīnat Yisrā'el, IPA: [mediˈnat jisʁaˈʔel] ( listen); Arabic: دولة إِسرائيل, Dawlat Isrāʼīl, IPA: [dawlat ʔisraːˈʔiːl]) is a country in Western Asia, situated at the southeastern shore of the Mediterranean Sea. It shares land borders with Lebanon to the north, Syria in the northeast, Jordan on the east, the Palestinian territories (or State of Palestine) comprising the West Bank and Gaza Strip on the east and southwest respectively, Egypt and the Gulf of Aqaba in the Red Sea to the south, and it contains geographically diverse features within its relatively small area.[6][7] In its Basic Laws, Israel defines itself as a Jewish and Democratic State; it is the world's only Jewish-majority state.[8]
On 29 November 1947, the United Nations General Assembly recommended the adoption and implementation of the partition plan of Mandatory Palestine. On 14 May 1948, David Ben-Gurion, the Executive Head of the World Zionist Organization[9] and president of the Jewish Agency for Palestine, declared "the establishment of a Jewish state in Eretz Israel, to be known as the State of Israel," a state independent upon the termination of the British Mandate for Palestine, 15 May 1948.[10][11][12] Neighboring Arab armies invaded Palestine on the next day and fought the Israeli forces.[13] Israel has since fought several wars with neighboring Arab states,[14] in the course of which it has occupied the West Bank, Sinai Peninsula (between 1967 and 1982), part of South Lebanon (between 1982 and 2000), Gaza Strip and the Golan Heights. It annexed portions of these territories, including East Jerusalem, but the border with the West Bank is disputed.[15][16][17][18][19] Israel has signed peace treaties with Egypt and Jordan, but efforts to resolve the Israeli–Palestinian conflict have so far not resulted in peace.
Israel's financial center is Tel Aviv,[20] while Jerusalem is the region's most populous city and its designated capital, although Israeli sovereignty over Jerusalem is not recognized internationally.[21][note 1][22]
The population of Israel, as defined by the Israel Central Bureau of Statistics, was estimated in 2014 to be 8,146,300 people. 6,110,600 citizens, or 75.3% of Israelis, are Jewish, 61% of whom are of Mizrahi Jewish ancestry.[23] The country's second largest group of citizens are designated as Arabs, with 1,686,000 people (including the Druze and most East Jerusalem Arabs).[1][24] The great majority of Israeli Arabs are settled Muslims, with smaller but significant numbers of semi-settled Negev Bedouins; the rest are Christians and Druze. Other minorities include Maronites, Samaritans, Dom people, Black Hebrew Israelites, other Sub-Saharan Africans,[25] Armenians, Circassians, Roma and others. Israel also hosts a significant population of non-citizen foreign workers and asylum seekers from Africa and Asia.
Israel is a representative democracy with a parliamentary system, proportional representation and universal suffrage.[26][27] The Prime Minister serves as head of government and the Knesset serves as Israel's unicameral legislative body. Israel is a developed country and an OECD member,[28] with the 43rd-largest economy in the world by nominal gross domestic product as of 2012. Israel has the highest standard of living in the Middle East and the fifth highest in Asia,[29] and among the highest life expectancies in the world.[30]
Upon independence in 1948, the country formally adopted the name "State of Israel" (Medinat Yisrael) after other proposed historical and religious names including Eretz Israel ("the Land of Israel"), Zion, and Judea, were considered and rejected.[31] In the early weeks of independence, the government chose the term "Israeli" to denote a citizen of Israel, with the formal announcement made by Minister of Foreign Affairs Moshe Sharett.[32]
The names Land of Israel and Children of Israel have historically been used to refer to the biblical Kingdom of Israel and the entire Jewish nation respectively.[33] The name "Israel" in these phrases refers to the patriarch Jacob (Standard Yisraʾel, Isrāʾīl; Septuagint Greek: Ἰσραήλ Israēl; "struggle with God"[34]) who, according to the Hebrew Bible was given the name after he successfully wrestled with the angel of the Lord.[35] Jacob's twelve sons became the ancestors of the Israelites, also known as the Twelve Tribes of Israel or Children of Israel. Jacob and his sons had lived in Canaan but were forced by famine to go into Egypt for four generations until Moses, a great-great grandson of Jacob,[36] led the Israelites back into Canaan during the "Exodus". The earliest archaeological artifact to mention the word "Israel" is the Merneptah Stele of ancient Egypt (dated to the late 13th century BCE).[37]
The area is also known as the Holy Land, being holy for all Abrahamic religions including Judaism, Christianity, Islam and the Bahá'í Faith. From 1920 the whole region was known as Palestine (under British Mandate) until the Israeli Declaration of Independence of 1948. Through the centuries, the territory was known by a variety of other names, including Judea, Samaria, Southern Syria, Syria Palaestina, Kingdom of Jerusalem, Iudaea Province, Coele-Syria, Retjenu, and Canaan.
The notion of the "Land of Israel", known in Hebrew as Eretz Yisrael, has been important and sacred to the Jewish people since Biblical times. According to the Torah, God promised the land to the three Patriarchs of the Jewish people.[38][39] On the basis of scripture, the period of the three Patriarchs has been placed somewhere in the early 2nd millennium BCE,[40] and the first Kingdom of Israel was established around the 11th century BCE. Subsequent Israelite kingdoms and states ruled intermittently over the next four hundred years, and are known from various extra-biblical sources.[41][42][43][44]
The northern Kingdom of Israel, as well as Philistine city-states, fell in 722 BCE, though the southern Kingdom of Judah and several Phoenician city-states continued their existence as the region came under Assyrian rule. With the emergence of Babylonians, Judah was eventually conquered as well in the year 586 BCE.
With successive Persian rule, the region, divided between Syria-Coele province and later the autonomous Yehud Medinata, was gradually developing back into urban society, largely dominated by Judeans. The Greek conquests largely skipped the region without any resistance or interest. Incorporated into Ptolemaic and finally Seleucid Empires, southern Levant was heavily hellenized, building the tensions between Judeans and Greeks. The conflict erupted in 167 BCE with the Maccabean Revolt, which succeeded in establishing an independent Hasmonean Kingdom in Judah, which later expanded over much of modern Israel, as the Seleucids gradually lost control in the region.
The Roman Empire invaded the region in 63 BCE, first taking control of Syria, and then intervening in the Hasmonean civil war. The struggle between pro-Roman and pro-Parthian factions in Judea eventually led to the installation of Herod the Great and consolidation of the Herodian Kingdom as a vassal Judean state of Rome.
With the decline of Herodians, Judea, transformed into a Roman province, became the site of a violent struggle of Jews against Greco-Romans, culminating in the Jewish-Roman Wars, ending in wide-scale destruction, expulsions, and genocide. Jewish presence in the region significantly dwindled after the failure of the Bar Kokhba revolt against the Roman Empire in 132 CE.[46] Nevertheless, there was a continuous small Jewish presence and Galilee became its religious center.[47][48] The Mishnah and part of the Talmud, central Jewish texts, were composed during the 2nd to 4th centuries CE in Tiberias and Jerusalem.[49] The region came to be populated predominantly by Greco-Romans on the coast and Samaritans in the hill-country. Christianity was gradually evolving over Roman paganism, when the area under Byzantine rule was transformed into Deocese of the East, as Palaestina Prima and Palaestina Secunda provinces. Through the 5th and 6th centuries, dramatic events of Samaritan Revolts reshaped the land, with massive destruction to Byzantine Christian and Samaritan societies and a resulting decrease of the population. After the Persian conquest and the installation of a short-lived Jewish Commonwealth in 614 CE, the Byzantine Empire reinstalled its rule in 625 CE, resulting in further decline and destruction.
In 635 CE, the region, including Jerusalem, was conquered by Arabs. It remained under Muslim control and predominately Muslim occupancy for the next 1300 years under various caliphates.[51] Control of the region transferred between the Umayyads,[51] Abbasids,[51] and Crusaders throughout the next six centuries,[51] before the area was conquered in 1260 by the Mamluk Sultanate.[52]
In 1516, the region was conquered by the Ottoman Empire; it remained under Turkish rule until the end of the First World War, when Britain defeated the Ottoman forces and set up a military administration across the former Ottoman Syria. In 1920 the territory was divided under the mandate system, and the area which included modern day Israel was named Mandatory Palestine.[52][53][54]
Since the Diaspora, some Jews have aspired to return to "Zion" and the "Land of Israel",[55] though the amount of effort that should be spent towards such an aim was a matter of dispute.[56][57] The hopes and yearnings of Jews living in exile were articulated in the Hebrew Bible,[58] and are an important theme of the Jewish belief system.[56] After the Jews were expelled from Spain in 1492, some communities settled in Palestine.[59] During the 16th century, Jewish communities struck roots in the Four Holy Cities—Jerusalem, Tiberias, Hebron, and Safed—and in 1697, Rabbi Yehuda Hachasid led a group of 1,500 Jews to Jerusalem.[60] In the second half of the 18th century, Eastern European opponents of Hasidism, known as the Perushim, settled in Palestine.[61][62][63]
The first wave of modern Jewish migration to Ottoman-ruled Palestine, known as the First Aliyah, began in 1881, as Jews fled pogroms in Eastern Europe.[64] Although the Zionist movement already existed in practice, Austro-Hungarian journalist Theodor Herzl is credited with founding political Zionism,[65] a movement which sought to establish a Jewish state in the Land of Israel, by elevating the Jewish Question to the international plane.[66] In 1896, Herzl published Der Judenstaat (The State of the Jews), offering his vision of a future Jewish state; the following year he presided over the first World Zionist Congress.[67]
The Second Aliyah (1904–14), began after the Kishinev pogrom; some 40,000 Jews settled in Palestine, although nearly half of them left eventually.[64] Both the first and second waves of migrants were mainly Orthodox Jews,[68] although the Second Aliyah included socialist groups who established the kibbutz movement.[69] During World War I, British Foreign Secretary Arthur Balfour sent the Balfour Declaration of 1917 that stated that Britain intended for the creation of a Jewish homeland within the Palestinian Mandate.[70][71]
The Jewish Legion, a group primarily of Zionist volunteers, assisted in the British conquest of Palestine in 1917. Arab opposition to British rule and Jewish immigration led to the 1920 Palestine riots and the formation of a Jewish militia known as the Haganah (meaning "The Defense" in Hebrew), from which the Irgun and Lehi, or Stern Gang, paramilitary groups later split off.[72] In 1922, the League of Nations granted Britain a mandate over Palestine under terms similar to the Balfour Declaration.[73] The population of the area at this time was predominantly Arab and Muslim, with Jews accounting for about 11%,[74] Christians 9.5%.[75]
The Third (1919–1923) and Fourth Aliyahs (1924–1929) brought an additional 100,000 Jews to Palestine.[64] Finally, the rise of Nazism and the increasing persecution of Jews in the 1930s led to the Fifth Aliyah, with an influx of a quarter of a million Jews. This was a major cause of the Arab revolt of 1936–1939 and led the British to introduce restrictions on Jewish immigration to Palestine with the White Paper of 1939. With countries around the world turning away Jewish refugees fleeing the Holocaust, a clandestine movement known as Aliyah Bet was organized to bring Jews to Palestine.[64] By the end of World War II, the Jewish population of Palestine had increased to 33% of the total population.[76]
After World War II, Britain found itself in fierce conflict with the Jewish community, as the Haganah joined Irgun and Lehi in an armed struggle against British rule.[77] At the same time, hundreds of thousands of Jewish Holocaust survivors and refugees sought a new life far from their destroyed communities in Europe. The Yishuv attempted to bring these refugees to Palestine but many were turned away or rounded up and placed in detention camps in Atlit and Cyprus by the British. In 1947, the British government announced it would withdraw from Mandatory Palestine, stating it was unable to arrive at a solution acceptable to both Arabs and Jews.
On 15 May 1947, the General Assembly of the newly formed United Nations resolved that a committee, United Nations Special Committee on Palestine (UNSCOP), be created "to prepare for consideration at the next regular session of the Assembly a report on the question of Palestine".[78] In the Report of the Committee dated 3 September 1947 to the UN General Assembly,[79] the majority of the Committee in Chapter VI proposed a plan to replace the British Mandate with "an independent Arab State, an independent Jewish State, and the City of Jerusalem ... the last to be under an International Trusteeship System".[80] On 29 November 1947, the General Assembly adopted a resolution recommending the adoption and implementation of the Plan of Partition with Economic Union as Resolution 181 (II).[81] The Plan attached to the resolution was essentially that proposed by the majority of the Committee in the Report of 3 September 1947.
The Jewish Agency, which was the recognized representative of the Jewish community, accepted the plan, but the Arab League and Arab Higher Committee of Palestine rejected it.[82] On 1 December 1947, the Arab Higher Committee proclaimed a three-day strike, and Arab bands began attacking Jewish targets.[83] The Jews were initially on the defensive as civil war broke out, but gradually moved onto the offensive.[84] The Palestinian Arab economy collapsed and 250,000 Palestinian-Arabs fled or were expelled.[85]
On 14 May 1948, the day before the expiration of the British Mandate, David Ben-Gurion, the head of the Jewish Agency, declared "the establishment of a Jewish state in Eretz-Israel, to be known as the State of Israel".[86][87] The only reference in the text of the Declaration to the borders of the new state is the use of the term, Eretz-Israel.[88]
The following day, the armies of four Arab countries—Egypt, Syria, Transjordan and Iraq—entered what had been British Mandatory Palestine, launching the 1948 Arab–Israeli War;[89][90] Saudi Arabia sent a military contingent to operate under Egyptian command; Yemen declared war but did not take military action.[91] In the introduction to the cablegram[92] from the Secretary-General of the League of Arab States to the UN Secretary-General of 15 May 1948, the Arab League gave reasons for its intervention, "On the occasion of the intervention of Arab States in Palestine to restore law and order and to prevent disturbances prevailing in Palestine from spreading into their territories and to check further bloodshed". After a year of fighting, a ceasefire was declared and temporary borders, known as the Green Line, were established.[93] Jordan annexed what became known as the West Bank, including East Jerusalem, and Egypt took control of the Gaza Strip. The United Nations estimated that more than 700,000 Palestinians were expelled or fled during the conflict from what would become Israel.[94]
Israel was admitted as a member of the United Nations by majority vote on 11 May 1949.[96] In the early years of the state, the Labor Zionist movement led by Prime Minister David Ben-Gurion dominated Israeli politics.[97][98] One such policy, the One Million Plan, led to an an influx of Holocaust survivors and Jews from Arab and Muslim lands, many of whom faced persecution and expulsion from their original countries.[99] Consequently, the population of Israel rose from 800,000 to two million between 1948 and 1958.[100] During this period, food, clothes and furniture had to be rationed in what became known as the Austerity Period. Between 1948 and 1970, approximately 1,151,029 Jewish refugees relocated to Israel.[101] Some arrived as refugees with no possessions and were housed in temporary camps known as ma'abarot; by 1952, over 200,000 immigrants were living in these tent cities.[102] The need to solve the crisis led Ben-Gurion to sign a reparations agreement with West Germany that triggered mass protests by Jews angered at the idea that Israel could accept monetary compensation for the Holocaust.[103]
The immigrants came to Israel for differing reasons. Some believed in the Zionist ideology, while others moved to escape persecution. There were others that did it for the promise of a better life in Israel and a small number that were expelled from their homelands, such as British and French Jews in Egypt after the Suez Crisis.[104] The refugees were often treated differently according to where they were from. Jews of European descent were considered critical to the strengthening and peopling of Israel, so they were generally allowed to enter Israel first and thus were given abandoned Arab houses to live in. On the other hand, Jews from Middle Eastern and North African countries were viewed by many Ashkenazi Jews as lazy, poor, culturally and religiously backward, and a threat to established communal life in Israel and remained in transit camps for longer periods of time.[105] During the 1950s, the standard of living gap between Ashkenazi and Mizrahi Jews widened so much that tensions developed between the two groups. This tension first moved to hostility during the Wadi Salib riots in 1959; other instances of domestic turmoil would occur over the following decades.[106]
Immigration to Israel during the late 1940s and early 1950s was aided by the Israeli Immigration Department and the non-government sponsored Organization for Illegal Immigration, called Mossad le-aliyah bet. Both groups facilitated regular immigration logistics like arranging transportation, but the latter also engaged in clandestine operations in countries, particularly in the Middle East and Eastern Europe, where the lives of Jews were believed to be in danger and exit from those places was difficult. The Organization for Illegal Immigration continued to take part in immigration efforts until its disbanding in 1953.[107]
In the 1950s, Israel was frequently attacked by Palestinian fedayeen, mainly from the Egyptian-occupied Gaza Strip,[108] leading to several Israeli counter-raids. In 1950 Egypt closed the Suez Canal to Israeli shipping and tensions mounted as armed clashes took place along Israel's borders. In 1956, Israel joined a secret alliance with Great Britain and France aimed at regaining control of the Suez Canal, which the Egyptians had nationalized (see the Suez Crisis). Israel overran the Sinai Peninsula but was pressured to withdraw by the United Nations in return for guarantees of Israeli shipping rights in the Red Sea and the Canal.[109][110]
In the early 1960s, Israel captured Nazi war criminal Adolf Eichmann in Argentina and brought him to Israel for trial.[111] The trial had a major impact on public awareness of the Holocaust.[112] Eichmann remains the only person executed after conviction by an Israeli civilian court.[113]
Territory held by Israel:
Since 1964, Arab countries, concerned over Israeli plans to divert waters of the Jordan River into the coastal plain,[114] had been trying to divert the headwaters to deprive Israel of water resources, provoking tensions between Israel on the one hand, and Syria and Lebanon on the other.
According to the United Nations, since the Israeli occupation of the West Bank and Gaza Strip in 1967, disputes over Palestinian water rights has been one of the most difficult conflicts to resolve through negotiations. Water resources have been confiscated for Israeli settlements in the Ghor, Palestinian pumps on the Jordan River destroyed or confiscated, and Palestinians prevented from using water from the Jordan River system or drilling new irrigation wells. However, Israel provided fresh water and allowed wells for irrigation at the Jewish settlements in the West Bank and Gaza Strip. A final agreement over water rights has been postponed until final status arrangement negotiations between the two sides.[115]
Arab nationalists led by Egyptian President Gamal Abdel Nasser refused to recognize Israel, and called for its destruction.[14][116][117] By 1966, Israeli-Arab relations had deteriorated to the point of actual battles taking place between Israeli and Arab forces.[118] In 1967, Egypt expelled UN peacekeepers, stationed in the Sinai Peninsula since 1957, and announced a partial blockade of Israel's access to the Red Sea. In May 1967 a number of Arab states began to mobilize their forces.[119] Israel saw these actions as a casus belli. On 5 June 1967, Israel launched a pre-emptive strike against Egypt, Jordan, Syria and Iraq. In a Six-Day War, Israeli military superiority was clearly demonstrated against their more numerous Arab foes. Israel succeeded in capturing the West Bank, the Gaza Strip, Sinai Peninsula and the Golan Heights.[120] Jerusalem's boundaries were enlarged, incorporating East Jerusalem, and the 1949 Green Line became the administrative boundary between Israel and the occupied territories.
Following the war, Israel faced much internal resistance from the Palestinians and Egyptian hostilities in the Sinai. Most important among the various Palestinian and Arab groups was the Palestinian Liberation Organization (PLO), established in 1964, which initially committed itself to "armed struggle as the only way to liberate the homeland".[121][122] In the late 1960s and early 1970s, Palestinian groups launched a wave of attacks[123][124] against Israeli and Jewish targets around the world,[125] including a massacre of Israeli athletes at the 1972 Summer Olympics in Munich. The Israeli government responded with an assassination campaign against the organizers of the massacre, a bombing and a raid on the PLO headquarters in Lebanon.
On 6 October 1973, as Jews were observing Yom Kippur, the Egyptian and Syrian armies launched a surprise attack against Israeli forces in the Sinai Peninsula and Golan Heights. The war ended on 26 October with Israel successfully repelling Egyptian and Syrian forces but suffering significant losses.[126] An internal inquiry exonerated the government of responsibility for failures before and during the war, but public anger forced Prime Minister Golda Meir to resign.[127]
In July 1976 Israeli commandos carried out a rescue mission which succeeded in rescuing 102 hostages who were being held by Palestinian guerillas at Entebbe International Airport close to Kampala, Uganda.
The 1977 Knesset elections marked a major turning point in Israeli political history as Menachem Begin's Likud party took control from the Labor Party.[128] Later that year, Egyptian President Anwar El Sadat made a trip to Israel and spoke before the Knesset in what was the first recognition of Israel by an Arab head of state.[129] In the two years that followed, Sadat and Begin signed the Camp David Accords (1978) and the Israel–Egypt Peace Treaty (1979).[130] Israel withdrew from the Sinai Peninsula and agreed to enter negotiations over an autonomy for Palestinians in the West Bank and the Gaza Strip.[131]
On 11 March 1978, a PLO guerilla raid from Lebanon led to the Coastal Road Massacre, in which 38 Israeli civilians were killed and 71 injured. Israel responded by launching an invasion of southern Lebanon to destroy the PLO bases south of the Litani River. Most PLO fighters withdrew, but Israel was able to secure southern Lebanon until a UN force and the Lebanese army could take over. The PLO soon resumed its policy of attacks against Israel. In the next few years, the PLO infiltrated the south and kept up a sporadic shelling across the border. Israel carried out numerous retaliatory attacks by air and on the ground.
Meanwhile, Begin's government provided incentives for Israelis to settle in the occupied West Bank, increasing friction with the Palestinians in that area.[132] The Basic Law: Jerusalem, the Capital of Israel, passed in 1980, was believed by some to reaffirm Israel's 1967 annexation of Jerusalem by government decree, and reignited international controversy over the status of the city. No Israeli legislation has defined the territory of Israel and no act specifically included East Jerusalem therein.[133] The position of the majority of UN member states is reflected in numerous resolutions declaring that actions taken by Israel to settle its citizens in the West Bank, and impose its laws and administration on East Jerusalem, are illegal and have no validity.[134] In 1981 Israel annexed the Golan Heights, although annexation was not recognized internationally.[135]
On 7 June 1981, the Israeli air force destroyed Iraq's sole nuclear reactor, which was under construction just outside Baghdad. Following a series of PLO attacks in 1982, Israel invaded Lebanon that year to destroy the bases from which the PLO launched attacks and missiles into northern Israel.[136] In the first six days of fighting, the Israelis destroyed the military forces of the PLO in Lebanon and decisively defeated the Syrians. An Israeli government inquiry – the Kahan Commission – would later hold Begin, Sharon and several Israeli generals as indirectly responsible for the Sabra and Shatila massacre. In 1985, Israel responded to a Palestinian terrorist attack in Cyprus by bombing the PLO headquarters in Tunis. Israel withdrew from most of Lebanon in 1986, but maintained a borderland buffer zone in southern Lebanon until 2000.
The First Intifada, a Palestinian uprising against Israeli rule,[137] broke out in 1987, with waves of uncoordinated demonstrations and violence occurring in the occupied West Bank and Gaza. Over the following six years, the Intifada became more organised and included economic and cultural measures aimed at disrupting the Israeli occupation. More than a thousand people were killed in the violence.[138] Responding to continuing PLO guerilla raids into northern Israel, Israel launched another punitive raid into southern Lebanon in 1988. Amid rising tensions over the Kuwait crisis, Israeli border guards fired into a rioting Palestinian crowd near the Al-Aqsa mosque in Jerusalem. 20 people were killed and some 150 injured. During the 1991 Gulf War, the PLO supported Saddam Hussein and Iraqi Scud missile attacks against Israel. Despite public outrage, Israel heeded US calls to refrain from hitting back and did not participate in that war.[139][140]
In 1992, Yitzhak Rabin became Prime Minister following an election in which his party called for compromise with Israel's neighbors.[141][142] The following year, Shimon Peres on behalf of Israel, and Mahmoud Abbas for the PLO, signed the Oslo Accords, which gave the Palestinian National Authority the right to govern parts of the West Bank and the Gaza Strip.[143] The PLO also recognized Israel's right to exist and pledged an end to terrorism.[144] In 1994, the Israel–Jordan Treaty of Peace was signed, making Jordan the second Arab country to normalize relations with Israel.[145] Arab public support for the Accords was damaged by the continuation of Israeli settlements[146] and checkpoints, and the deterioration of economic conditions.[147] Israeli public support for the Accords waned as Israel was struck by Palestinian suicide attacks.[148] Finally, while leaving a peace rally in November 1995, Yitzhak Rabin was assassinated by a far-right-wing Jew who opposed the Accords.[149]
At the end of the 1990s, Israel, under the leadership of Benjamin Netanyahu, withdrew from Hebron,[150] and signed the Wye River Memorandum, giving greater control to the Palestinian National Authority.[151] Ehud Barak, elected Prime Minister in 1999, began the new millennium by withdrawing forces from Southern Lebanon and conducting negotiations with Palestinian Authority Chairman Yasser Arafat and U.S. President Bill Clinton at the 2000 Camp David Summit. During the summit, Barak offered a plan for the establishment of a Palestinian state, but Yasser Arafat rejected it.[152] After the collapse of the talks and a controversial visit by Likud leader Ariel Sharon to the Temple Mount, the Second Intifada began, which was allegedly pre-planned by Yasser Arafat.[153][154][155] Sharon became prime minister in a 2001 special election. During his tenure, Sharon carried out his plan to unilaterally withdraw from the Gaza Strip and also spearheaded the construction of the Israeli West Bank barrier,[156] defeating the Intifada.[157][158][159][160][161][162][163][164][165][166][167][168]
In July 2006, a Hezbollah artillery assault on Israel's northern border communities and a cross-border abduction of two Israeli soldiers precipitated the month-long Second Lebanon War.[169][170] On 6 September 2007, Israeli Air Force destroyed a nuclear reactor in Syria. In May 2008, Israel confirmed it had been discussing a peace treaty with Syria for a year, with Turkey as a go-between.[171] However, at the end of the year, Israel entered another conflict as a ceasefire between Hamas and Israel collapsed. The Gaza War lasted three weeks and ended after Israel announced a unilateral ceasefire.[172][173] Hamas announced its own ceasefire, with its own conditions of complete withdrawal and opening of border crossings. Despite neither the rocket launchings nor Israeli retaliatory strikes having completely stopped, the fragile ceasefire remained in order.[174] In what it said was a response to more than a hundred Palestinian rocket attacks on southern Israeli cities,[175] Israel began an operation in Gaza on 14 November 2012, lasting eight days.[176][177][178] In 2014 there is conflict 2014 Israel–Gaza conflict.
Israel is at the eastern end of the Mediterranean Sea, bounded by Lebanon to the north, Syria to the northeast, Jordan and the West Bank to the east, and Egypt and the Gaza strip to the southwest. It lies between latitudes 29° and 34° N, and longitudes 34° and 36° E.
The sovereign territory of Israel, excluding all territories captured by Israel during the 1967 Six-Day War, is approximately 20,770 square kilometers (8,019 sq mi) in area, of which two percent is water.[6] However Israel is so narrow that the exclusive economic zone in the Mediterranean is double the land area of the country.[179] The total area under Israeli law, including East Jerusalem and the Golan Heights, is 22,072 square kilometers (8,522 sq mi),[180] and the total area under Israeli control, including the military-controlled and partially Palestinian-governed territory of the West Bank, is 27,799 square kilometers (10,733 sq mi).[181] Despite its small size, Israel is home to a variety of geographic features, from the Negev desert in the south to the inland fertile Jezreel Valley, mountain ranges of the Galilee, Carmel and toward the Golan in the north. The Israeli Coastal Plain on the shores of the Mediterranean is home to 57 percent of the nation's population.[182][183][184] East of the central highlands lies the Jordan Rift Valley, which forms a small part of the 6,500-kilometer (4,039 mi) Great Rift Valley.
The Jordan River runs along the Jordan Rift Valley, from Mount Hermon through the Hulah Valley and the Sea of Galilee to the Dead Sea, the lowest point on the surface of the Earth.[185] Further south is the Arabah, ending with the Gulf of Eilat, part of the Red Sea. Unique to Israel and the Sinai Peninsula are makhteshim, or erosion cirques.[186] The largest makhtesh in the world is Ramon Crater in the Negev,[187] which measures 40 by 8 kilometers (25 by 5 mi).[188] A report on the environmental status of the Mediterranean basin states that Israel has the largest number of plant species per square meter of all the countries in the basin.[189]
Temperatures in Israel vary widely, especially during the winter. The more mountainous regions can be windy, cold, and sometimes snowy; Jerusalem usually receives at least one snowfall each year.[190] Meanwhile, coastal cities, such as Tel Aviv and Haifa, have a typical Mediterranean climate with cool, rainy winters and long, hot summers. The area of Beersheba and the Northern Negev has a semi-arid climate with hot summers, cool winters and fewer rainy days than the Mediterranean climate. The Southern Negev and the Arava areas have desert climate with very hot and dry summers, and mild winters with few days of rain. The highest temperature in the continent of Asia (53.7 °C or 128.7 °F) was recorded in 1942 at Tirat Zvi kibbutz in the northern Jordan river valley.[191]
From May to September, rain in Israel is rare.[192][193] With scarce water resources, Israel has developed various water-saving technologies, including drip irrigation.[194] Israelis also take advantage of the considerable sunlight available for solar energy, making Israel the leading nation in solar energy use per capita (practically every house uses solar panels for water heating).[195]
Four different phytogeographic regions exist in Israel, due to the country's location between the temperate and the tropical zones, bordering the Mediterranean Sea in the west and the desert in the east. For this reason the flora and fauna of Israel is extremely diverse. There are 2,867 known species of plants found in Israel. Of these, at least 253 species are introduced and non-native.[196] There are 380 Israeli nature reserves.[197]
Anemone coronaria - Israel's national flower
Nubian Ibex in the Negev
Pine forest at Eshtaol planted by Jewish National Fund
Spring blossom of Chrysanthemum coronarium in Rishon LeZion's lake
Cyclamen persicum and Oxalis pes-caprae
Buffaloes in the Hulah Valley Reservation, Northern Israel
Jerusalem Mountains
Nahal Arugot
Tahana waterfall in Nahal Ayun
Mount Arbel, Lower Galilee
Rosh HaNikra grottoes
Gulf of Eilat
Israel operates under a parliamentary system as a democratic republic with universal suffrage.[6] A member of parliament supported by a parliamentary majority becomes the prime minister—usually this is the chair of the largest party. The prime minister is the head of government and head of the cabinet.[198][199] Israel is governed by a 120-member parliament, known as the Knesset. Membership of the Knesset is based on proportional representation of political parties,[200] with a 2% electoral threshold, which in practice has resulted in coalition governments.
Parliamentary elections are scheduled every four years, but unstable coalitions or a no-confidence vote by the Knesset can dissolve a government earlier. The Basic Laws of Israel function as an uncodified constitution. In 2003, the Knesset began to draft an official constitution based on these laws.[6][201] The president of Israel is head of state, with limited and largely ceremonial duties.[198]
In 2014, Israel proper was ranked 96th of 180 according to Reporters Without Borders' Press Freedom Index, 2nd below Kuwait (at 91) in the Middle East and North Africa region.[202] The 2013 Freedom in the World annual survey and report by U.S.-based Freedom House, which attempts to measure the degree of democracy and political freedom in every nation, ranked Israel as the Middle East and North Africa's only free country.[203]
Israel has a three-tier court system. At the lowest level are magistrate courts, situated in most cities across the country. Above them are district courts, serving both as appellate courts and courts of first instance; they are situated in five of Israel's six districts. The third and highest tier is the Supreme Court, located in Jerusalem; it serves a dual role as the highest court of appeals and the High Court of Justice. In the latter role, the Supreme Court rules as a court of first instance, allowing individuals, both citizens and non-citizens, to petition against the decisions of state authorities.[204][205] Although Israel supports the goals of the International Criminal Court, it has not ratified the Rome Statute, citing concerns about the ability of the court to remain free from political impartiality.[206]
Israel's legal system combines three legal traditions: English common law, civil law, and Jewish law.[6] It is based on the principle of stare decisis (precedent) and is an adversarial system, where the parties in the suit bring evidence before the court. Court cases are decided by professional judges rather than juries.[204] Marriage and divorce are under the jurisdiction of the religious courts: Jewish, Muslim, Druze, and Christian. A committee of Knesset members, Supreme Court justices, and Israeli Bar members carries out the election of judges.[207] Administration of Israel's courts (both the "General" courts and the Labor Courts) is carried by the Administration of Courts, situated in Jerusalem. Both General and Labor courts are paperless courts: the storage of court files, as well as court decisions, are conducted electronically. Israel's Basic Law: Human Dignity and Liberty seeks to defend human rights and liberties in Israel.
The State of Israel is divided into six main administrative districts, known as mehozot (מחוזות; singular: mahoz) – Center, Haifa, Jerusalem, North, Southern, and Tel Aviv Districts, as well as the Judea and Samaria Area in the West Bank. All of the Judea and Samaria Area and parts of the Jerusalem and North districts are not recognized internationally as part of Israel. Districts are further divided into fifteen sub-districts known as nafot (נפות; singular: nafa), which are themselves partitioned into fifty natural regions.[208]
| District | Main city | Sub-district | Population |
|---|---|---|---|
| North | Nazareth Illit | Acre, Karmiel, Kiryat Shmona, Nazareth, Nazareth Illit, Qatsrin, Safed, Tiberias | 1,242,100 |
| Haifa | Haifa | Haifa, Hadera | 880,000 |
| Center | Ramla | Herzliya, Kfar Saba, Modi'in, Netanya, Petah Tikva, Ra'anana, Ramla, Rehovot, Rishon LeZion | 1,770,200 |
| Tel Aviv | Tel Aviv | Bat Yam, Bnei Brak, Giv'atayim, Holon, Ramat Gan, Tel Aviv | 1,227,000 |
| Jerusalem | Jerusalem | Jerusalem, Mevaseret Zion | 910,300 (Including approximately 200,000 Israeli settlers and 208,000 Palestinians.[209][210][211]) |
| South | Beersheba | Ashdod, Ashkelon, Beersheba, Eilat, Kiryat Gat, Sderot | 1,053,600 |
| Judea and Samaria (West Bank) | Ariel | Ariel, Beitar Illit, Ma'ale Adumim, Modi'in Illit | 375,000 Israeli citizens[212] |
For statistical purposes, the country is divided into three metropolitan areas: Tel Aviv metropolitan area (population 3,206,400), Haifa metropolitan area (population 1,021,000), and Beer Sheva metropolitan area (population 559,700).[213] Israel's largest municipality, both in population and area,[214] is Jerusalem with 773,800 residents in an area of 126 square kilometres (49 sq mi) (in 2009). Israeli government statistics on Jerusalem include the population and area of East Jerusalem, which is widely recognized as part of the Palestinian territories under Israeli occupation.[215] Tel Aviv, Haifa, and Rishon LeZion rank as Israel's next most populous cities, with populations of 393,900, 265,600, and 227,600 respectively.[214]
In 1967, as a result of the Six-Day War, Israel took control of the West Bank, including East Jerusalem, the Gaza Strip and the Golan Heights. Israel also took control of the Sinai Peninsula, but returned it to Egypt as part of the 1979 Israel–Egypt Peace Treaty.[216] Between 1982 and 2000, Israel occupied part of southern Lebanon, in what was known as the Security Zone.
Following Israel's capture of these territories and until this day, settlements (Jewish civilian communities) and military installations were built within each of them. Israel applied civilian law to the Golan Heights and East Jerusalem, incorporating them into its sovereign territory and granting their inhabitants permanent residency status and the choice to apply for citizenship. In contrast, the West Bank has remained under military occupation, and Palestinians in this area cannot become citizens. The Gaza Strip is independent of Israel with no Israeli military or civilian presence, but Israel continues to maintain control of its airspace and waters. The UN Security Council has declared the annexation of the Golan Heights and East Jerusalem to be "null and void" and continues to view the territories as occupied.[217][218] The International Court of Justice, principal judicial organ of the United Nations, asserted, in its 2004 advisory opinion on the legality of the construction of the Israeli West Bank barrier, that the lands captured by Israel in the Six-Day War, including East Jerusalem, are occupied territory.[219]
The status of East Jerusalem in any future peace settlement has at times been a difficult hurdle in negotiations between Israeli governments and representatives of the Palestinians, as Israel views it as its sovereign territory, as well as part of its capital. Most negotiations relating to the territories have been on the basis of United Nations Security Council Resolution 242, which emphasises "the inadmissibility of the acquisition of territory by war", and calls on Israel to withdraw from occupied territories in return for normalization of relations with Arab states, a principle known as "Land for peace".[220][221][222]
The West Bank was annexed by Jordan in 1950, following the Arab rejection of the UN decision to create two states in Palestine. Only Britain recognized this annexation and Jordan has since ceded its claim to the territory to the PLO. The West Bank was occupied by Israel in 1967 during the Six-Day War. The population are mainly Palestinians, including refugees of the 1948 Arab-Israeli War.[223] From their occupation in 1967 until 1993, the Palestinians living in these territories were under Israeli military administration. Since the Israel–PLO letters of recognition, most of the Palestinian population and cities have been under the internal jurisdiction of the Palestinian Authority, and only partial Israeli military control, although Israel has on several occasions redeployed its troops and reinstated full military administration during periods of unrest. In response to increasing attacks as part of the Second Intifada, the Israeli government started to construct the Israeli West Bank barrier.[224] When completed, approximately 13% of the Barrier will be constructed on the Green Line or in Israel with 87% inside the West Bank.[225][226]
The Gaza Strip was occupied by Egypt from 1948 to 1967 and then by Israel after 1967. In 2005, as part of Israel's unilateral disengagement plan, Israel removed all of its settlers and forces from the territory. Israel does not consider the Gaza Strip to be occupied territory and declared it a "foreign territory". That view has been disputed by numerous international humanitarian organizations and various bodies of the United Nations.[227][228][229][230][231] Following June 2007, when Hamas assumed power in the Gaza Strip,[232] Israel tightened its control of the Gaza crossings along its border, as well as by sea and air, and prevented persons from entering and exiting the area except for isolated cases it deemed humanitarian.[232] Gaza has a border with Egypt and an agreement between Israel, the European Union and the PA governed how border crossing would take place (it was monitored by European observers).[233] Egypt adhered to this agreement under Mubarak and prevented access to Gaza until April 2011 when it announced it was opening its border with Gaza.
Israel maintains diplomatic relations with 157 countries and has 100 diplomatic missions around the world.[234] Only three members of the Arab League have normalized relations with Israel: Egypt and Jordan signed peace treaties in 1979 and 1994, respectively, and Mauritania opted for full diplomatic relations with Israel in 1999. Despite the peace treaty between Israel and Egypt, Israel is still widely considered an enemy country among Egyptians.[235] Under Israeli law, Lebanon, Syria, Saudi Arabia, Iraq, Iran, Sudan, and Yemen are enemy countries[236] and Israeli citizens may not visit them without permission from the Ministry of the Interior.[237]
The Soviet Union and the United States were the first two countries to recognize the State of Israel, having declared recognition roughly simultaneously, although the initial recognition by the United States on 14 May 1948 was only to recognise the provisional government as the de facto authority of the new State of Israel.[238] The United States regards Israel as its "most reliable partner in the Middle East,"[239] based on "common democratic values, religious affinities, and security interests".[240] The United States has provided $68 billion in military assistance and $32 billion in grants to Israel since 1967, under the Foreign Assistance Act (period beginning 1962),[241] more than any other country for that period until 2003.[241][242][243] Their bilateral relations are multidimensional and the United States is the principal proponent of the Arab-Israeli peace process. The United States and Israeli views differ on some issues, such as the Golan Heights, Jerusalem, and settlements.[244]
India established full diplomatic ties with Israel in 1992 and has fostered a strong military, technological and cultural partnership with the country since then.[245] According to an international opinion survey conducted in 2009 on behalf of the Israeli Foreign Ministry, India is the most pro-Israel country in the world.[246][247] India is the largest customer of Israeli military equipment and Israel is the second-largest military partner of India after the Russian Federation.[248] India is also the third-largest Asian economic partner of Israel[249] and the two countries enjoy military as well as extensive space technology ties.[250][251] India became the top source market for Israel from Asia in 2010 with 41,000 tourist arrivals in that year.[252]
Germany's strong ties with Israel include cooperation on scientific and educational endeavors and the two states remain strong economic and military partners.[253][254] Under the reparations agreement, by 2007[update] Germany had paid 25 billion euros in reparations to the Israeli state and individual Israeli holocaust survivors.[255] The UK has kept full diplomatic relations with Israel since its formation having had two visits from heads of state in 2007. Relations between the two countries were also made stronger by former prime minister Tony Blair's efforts for a two state resolution. The UK is seen as having a "natural" relationship with Israel on account of the British Mandate for Palestine.[256] Iran had diplomatic relations with Israel under the Pahlavi dynasty[257] but withdrew its recognition of Israel during the Islamic Revolution.[258]
Although Turkey and Israel did not establish full diplomatic relations until 1991,[260] Turkey has cooperated with the State since its recognition of Israel in 1949. Turkey's ties to the other Muslim-majority nations in the region have at times resulted in pressure from Arab and Muslim states to temper its relationship with Israel.[261] Relations between Turkey and Israel took a downturn after the Gaza War and Israel's raid of the Gaza flotilla.[262] IHH, which organized the flotilla, is a Turkish charity that has been challenged on ties to Hamas.[263][264][265][266][267]
Relation between Israel and Greece have improved since 1995 due to the decline of Israeli-Turkish relations.[268] The two countries have a defense cooperation agreement and in 2010, the Israeli Air Force hosted Greece’s Hellenic Air Force in a joint exercise at the Uvda base. The joint Cyprus-Israel oil and gas explorations centered on the Leviathan gas field are also an important factor for Greece, given its strong links with Cyprus.[269] Israel is the second largest importer of Greek products in the Middle East.[270] In 2010, the Greek Prime minister George Papandreou made an official visit to Israel after many years, in order to improve bilateral relations between the two countries.[271]
Israel and Cyprus have a number of bilateral agreements and many official visits have taken place between the two countries. The countries have ties on energy, agricultural, military and tourism matters. The prospects of joint exploitation of oil and gas fields off Cyprus, as well as cooperation in the world's longest sub-sea electric power cable has strengthened relations between the countries.[272][273][274]
Azerbaijan is one of the few majority Muslim countries to develop bilateral strategic and economic relations with Israel. The relationship includes cooperation in trade and security matters and cultural and educational exchanges. Azerbaijan supplies Israel with a substantial amount of its oil needs, and Israel has helped modernize the Armed Forces of Azerbaijan. In the spring of 2012, the two countries reportedly concluded an arms deal worth $1.6 billion.[275][276] In 2005, Azerbaijan was Israel's fifth largest trading partner.[277][278]
In Africa, Ethiopia is Israel's main and closest ally in the continent due to common political, religious and security interests.[279] Israel provides expertise to Ethiopia on irrigation projects and thousands of Ethiopian Jews (Beta Israel) live in Israel.
As a result of the 2009 Gaza War, Mauritania, Qatar, Bolivia, and Venezuela suspended political and economic ties with Israel.[263][280]
Israel is included in the European Union's European Neighbourhood Policy (ENP) which aims at bringing the EU and its neighbours closer.
Israel has a history of providing emergency aid and humanitarian response teams to disasters across the world. For the past 26 years, Israel has sent out 15 aid missions to countries struck by natural disasters.[281] In Haiti, immediately following the devastating 2010 earthquake, Israel was the first country to set up a field hospital. Israel sent over 200 medical doctors and personnel to start treating injured Haitians at the scene.[282][283] At the end of its humanitarian mission, the Israeli delegation treated more than 1,110 patients, conducted 319 successful surgeries, delivered 16 births and rescued or assisted in the rescue of 4 individuals.[284] Despite radiation concerns, Israel was one of the first countries to send a medical delegation to Japan following the devastating earthquake and tsunami disaster.[285] Israel sent a medical team and set up a field clinic in tsunami-stricken city of Kurihara, which included a pediatric ward, surgical ward, maternity and gynecological wards and intensive care unit.[286] Overall, medical care was given to more than 2,300 people in afflicted areas, and 220 were saved from certain death.
Israel's humanitarian efforts officially began in 1958, with the establishment of MASHAV, the Israeli Ministry of Foreign Affairs Agency for International Development Cooperation.[287] MASHAV has provided humanitarian aid to over 140 countries, trained thousands in capacity building skills, distributed food to poverty-stricken countries, built medical treatment facilities and provided medical training across the world.[288] There are additional Israeli humanitarian and emergency response that are work with the Israel government, including IsraAid, The Fast Israeli Rescue and Search Team (FIRST), Israeli Flying Aid (IFA), Save a Child's Heart (SACH) and LATET.[289]
Israel has the highest ratio of defense spending to GDP and as a percentage of the budget of all developed countries.[290][291] The Israel Defense Forces is the sole military wing of the Israeli security forces, and is headed by its Chief of General Staff, the Ramatkal, subordinate to the Cabinet. The IDF consist of the army, air force and navy. It was founded during the 1948 Arab–Israeli War by consolidating paramilitary organizations—chiefly the Haganah—that preceded the establishment of the state.[292] The IDF also draws upon the resources of the Military Intelligence Directorate (Aman), which works with the Mossad and Shabak.[293] The Israel Defense Forces have been involved in several major wars and border conflicts in its short history, making it one of the most battle-trained armed forces in the world.[294][295]
Most Israelis are drafted into the military at the age of 18. Men serve three years and women two to three years.[296] Following mandatory service, Israeli men join the reserve forces and usually do up to several weeks of reserve duty every year until their forties. Most women are exempt from reserve duty. Arab citizens of Israel (except the Druze) and those engaged in full-time religious studies are exempt from military service, although the exemption of yeshiva students has been a source of contention in Israeli society for many years.[297][298] An alternative for those who receive exemptions on various grounds is Sherut Leumi, or national service, which involves a program of service in hospitals, schools and other social welfare frameworks.[299] As a result of its conscription program, the IDF maintains approximately 176,500 active troops and an additional 445,000 reservists.[300]
The nation's military relies heavily on high-tech weapons systems designed and manufactured in Israel as well as some foreign imports. Since 1967, the United States has been a particularly notable foreign contributor of military aid to Israel: the US is expected to provide the country with $3.15 billion per year from 2013–2018.[301][302] The Arrow missile is one of the world's few operational anti-ballistic missile systems.[303] Israel's Iron Dome anti-missile air defense system gained worldwide acclaim after intercepting hundreds of Qassam, 122 mm Grad and Fajr-5 artillery rockets fire by Palestinian militants from the Gaza Strip.[304][305]
Since the Yom Kippur War, Israel has developed a network of reconnaissance satellites.[306] The success of the Ofeq program has made Israel one of seven countries capable of launching such satellites.[307] Since its establishment, Israel has spent a significant portion of its gross domestic product on defense. In 1984, for example, the country spent 24%[308] of its GDP on defense. By 2006, that figure had dropped to 7.3%.[6]
Israel is widely believed to possess nuclear weapons[309] as well as chemical and biological weapons of mass destruction.[310] Israel has not signed the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons[311] and maintains a policy of deliberate ambiguity toward its nuclear capabilities.[312] Since the Gulf War in 1991, when Israel was attacked by Iraqi Scud missiles, all homes in Israel are required to have a reinforced security room, Merkhav Mugan, impermeable to chemical and biological substances.[313]
Israel is consistently rated very low in the Global Peace Index, ranking 145th out of 153 nations for peacefulness in 2011.[314]
Israel is one of the world's largest arms exporters, reaching the world's 4th largest arms-exporter in 2007.[315] The majority of Israel's arms exports are unreported for security reasons.[316]
Arrow 3 launch in January 2014.
Dolphin submarines are believed to be armed with nuclear Popeye Turbo missiles, offering nuclear second strike capability.[317]
The Python missile series, are considered among the most crucial weapons in Israel's military history.[318]
IAI Harop. Israel is the world's largest exporter of both military and civilian drones.[319]
Iron Dome is the world's first operational anti-artillery rocket defense system.
The Spike missile is one of the most widely exported ATGMs in the world.[320]
Israeli Air Force F-16A Netz 107 with 6.5 kill marks of other aircraft and one bombing mark of an Iraqi nuclear reactor.
IDF Caterpillar D9 armored bulldozer is used for combat engineering and counter-terrorism operations.
An Israel Defense Forces soldier of the unisex Caracal Battalion armed with CTAR-21 with Meprolight 21 reflex sight.
Israel is considered one of the most advanced countries in Southwest Asia in economic and industrial development. In 2010, it joined the OECD.[28][321] The country is ranked 3rd in the region and 38th worldwide on the World Bank's Ease of Doing Business Index[322] as well as in the World Economic Forum's Global Competitiveness Report.[323] It has the second-largest number of startup companies in the world (after the United States)[324] and the largest number of NASDAQ-listed companies outside North America.[325]
In 2010, Israel ranked 17th among the world's most economically developed nations, according to IMD's World Competitiveness Yearbook. The Israeli economy was ranked as the world's most durable economy in the face of crises, and was also ranked first in the rate of research and development center investments.[326]
The Bank of Israel was ranked first among central banks for its efficient functioning, up from 8th place in 2009. Israel was also ranked as the worldwide leader in its supply of skilled manpower.[326] The Bank of Israel holds $78 billion of foreign-exchange reserves.[327]
Despite limited natural resources, intensive development of the agricultural and industrial sectors over the past decades has made Israel largely self-sufficient in food production, apart from grains and beef. Imports to Israel, totaling $77.59 billion in 2012, include raw materials, military equipment, investment goods, rough diamonds, fuels, grain, consumer goods.[6] Leading exports include electronics, software, computerized systems, communications technology, medical equipment, pharmaceuticals, fruits, chemicals, military technology, and cut diamonds;[328] in 2012, Israeli exports reached $64.74 billion.[6]
Israel is a leading country in the development of solar energy.[330][331] Israel is a global leader in water conservation and geothermal energy,[332] and its development of cutting-edge technologies in software, communications and the life sciences have evoked comparisons with Silicon Valley.[333][334] According to the OECD, Israel is also ranked 1st in the world in expenditure on Research and Development (R&D) as a percentage of GDP.[335] Intel[336] and Microsoft[337] built their first overseas research and development centers in Israel, and other high-tech multi-national corporations, such as IBM, Google, Apple, HP, Cisco Systems, and Motorola, have opened R&D facilities in the country.
In July 2007, American business magnate and investor Warren Buffett's holding company Berkshire Hathaway bought an Israeli company, Iscar, its first non-U.S. acquisition, for $4 billion.[338] Since the 1970s, Israel has received military aid from the United States, as well as economic assistance in the form of loan guarantees, which now account for roughly half of Israel's external debt. Israel has one of the lowest external debts in the developed world, and is a net lender in terms of net external debt (the total value of assets vs. liabilities in debt instruments owed abroad), which in June 2012[update] stood at a surplus of US$60 billion.[339]
Days of working time in Israel are Sunday through Thursday (for a five-day workweek), or Friday (for a six-day workweek). In observance of Shabbat, in places where Friday is a work day and the majority of population is Jewish, Friday is a "short day", usually lasting till 14:00 in the winter, or 16:00 in the summer. Several proposals have been raised to adjust the work week with the majority of the world, and make Sunday a non-working day, while extending working time of other days, and/or replacing Friday with Sunday as a work day.[340]
Israel has nine public universities that are subsidized by the state.[341][342][343] The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Israel's second-oldest university after the Technion,[344][345] houses the Jewish National and University Library, the world's largest repository of books on Jewish subjects.[346] The Technion, the Hebrew University, and the Weizmann Institute consistently ranked among world's 100 top universities by the prestigious ARWU academic ranking.[347][348][349] Other major universities in the country include Tel Aviv University (TAU), Bar-Ilan University, the University of Haifa, The Open University, and Ben-Gurion University of the Negev. Ariel University, in the West Bank, is the newest university institution, upgraded from college status, and the first in over thirty years. Israel's seven research universities (excluding the Open University) are consistently ranked among top 500 in the world.[350] Israel has produced six Nobel Prize-winning scientists since 2002[351][351][352] and has been frequently ranked as one of the countries with the highest ratios of scientific papers per capita in the world.[353][354][355]
Israel has embraced solar energy; its engineers are on the cutting edge of solar energy technology[331] and its solar companies work on projects around the world.[330][357] Over 90% of Israeli homes use solar energy for hot water, the highest per capita in the world.[195][358] According to government figures, the country saves 8% of its electricity consumption per year because of its solar energy use in heating.[359] The high annual incident solar irradiance at its geographic latitude creates ideal conditions for what is an internationally renowned solar research and development industry in the Negev Desert.[330][331][357]
Israel is one of the world's technological leaders in water technology. In 2011, its water technology industry was worth around $2 billion a year with annual exports of products and services in the tens of millions of dollars. The ongoing shortage of water in the country has spurred innovation in water conservation techniques, and a substantial agricultural modernization, drip irrigation, was invented in Israel. Israel is also at the technological forefront of desalination and water recycling. The Ashkelon seawater reverse osmosis (SWRO) plant, the largest in the world, was voted 'Desalination Plant of the Year' in the Global Water Awards in 2006. Israel hosts an annual Water Technology Exhibition and Conference (WaTec) that attracts thousands of people from across the world.[361][362] By the end of 2013, 85 percent of the country's water consumption will be from reverse osmosis.[dated info] As a result of innovations in reverse osmosis technology, Israel is set to become a net exporter of water in the coming years.[363]
Israel has led the world in stem-cell research papers per capita since 2000.[364] In addition, Israeli universities are among 100 top world universities in mathematics (Hebrew University, TAU and Technion), physics (TAU, Hebrew University and Weizmann Institute of Science), chemistry (Technion and Weizmann Institute of Science), computer science (Weizmann Institute of Science, Technion, Hebrew University, TAU and BIU) and economics (Hebrew University and TAU).[365]
Israel had a modern electric car infrastructure involving a countrywide network of recharging stations to facilitate the charging and exchange of car batteries. It was thought that this would have lowered Israel's oil dependency and lowered the fuel costs of hundreds of Israel's motorists that use cars powered only by electric batteries.[366][367][368] The Israeli model was being studied by several countries and being implemented in Denmark and Australia.[369] However, Israel's trailblazing electric car company Better Place shut down in 2013.[370]
The Israeli Space Agency coordinates all Israeli space research programs with scientific and commercial goals. In 2012 Israel was ranked ninth in the world by the Futron's Space Competitiveness Index.[371] Israel is one of only seven countries that both build their own satellites and launch their own launchers. The Shavit is a space launch vehicle produced by Israel to launch small satellites into low earth orbit.[372] It was first launched in 1988, making Israel the eighth nation to have a space launch capability. Shavit rockets are launched from the spaceport at the Palmachim Airbase by the Israeli Space Agency. Since 1988 Israel Aerospace Industries have indigenously designed and built at least 13 commercial, research and spy satellites.[373] Some of Israel's satellites are ranked among the world's most advanced space systems.[374] In 2003, Ilan Ramon became Israel's first astronaut, serving as payload specialist of STS-107, the fatal mission of the Space Shuttle Columbia.
Israel has 18,096 kilometers (11,244 mi) of paved roads,[375] and 2.4 million motor vehicles.[376] The number of motor vehicles per 1,000 persons was 324, relatively low with respect to developed countries.[376] Israel has 5,715 buses on scheduled routes,[377] operated by several carriers, the largest of which is Egged, serving most of the country. Railways stretch across 949 kilometers (590 mi) and are operated solely by government-owned Israel Railways[378] (All figures are for 2008). Following major investments beginning in the early to mid-1990s, the number of train passengers per year has grown from 2.5 million in 1990, to 35 million in 2008; railways are also used to transport 6.8 million tons of cargo, per year.[378]
Israel is served by two international airports, Ben Gurion International Airport, the country's main hub for international air travel near Tel Aviv-Yafo, Ovda Airport in the south, as well as several small domestic airports.[379] Ben Gurion, Israel's largest airport, handled over 12.1 million passengers in 2010.[380]
On the Mediterranean coast, Haifa Port is the country's oldest and largest port, while Ashdod Port is one of the few deep water ports in the world built on the open sea.[379] In addition to these, the smaller Port of Eilat is situated on the Red Sea, and is used mainly for trading with Far East countries.[379]
Tourism, especially religious tourism, is an important industry in Israel, with the country's temperate climate, beaches, archaeological, other historical and biblical sites, and unique geography also drawing tourists. Israel's security problems have taken their toll on the industry, but the number of incoming tourists is on the rebound.[381] In 2013, a record of 3.54 million tourists visited Israel with the most popular site of attraction being the Western Wall with 68% of tourists visiting there.[382][383] Israel has the highest number of museums per capita in the world.[384]
In early 2014, Israel's population was an estimated 8,146,300 people, of whom 6,110,600 are Jews.[1] Arab citizens of Israel comprise 20.7% of the country's total population.[24] Over the last decade, large numbers of migrant workers from Romania, Thailand, China, Africa and South America have settled in Israel. Exact figures are unknown, as many of them are living in the country illegally,[385] but estimates run in the region of 203,000.[386] By June 2012, approximately 60,000 African migrants had entered Israel.[387] About 92% of Israelis live in urban areas.[388]
Retention of Israel's population since 1948 is about even or greater, when compared to other countries with mass immigration.[389] Emigration from Israel (yerida) to other countries, primarily the United States and Canada, is described by demographers as modest,[390] but is often cited by Israeli government ministries as a major threat to Israel's future.[391][392]
In 2009[update], over 300,000 Israeli citizens lived in West Bank settlements[393] such as Ma'ale Adumim and Ariel, and communities that predated the establishment of the State but were re-established after the Six-Day War, in cities such as Hebron and Gush Etzion. 20,000 Israelis live in Golan Heights settlements.[135] In 2011, there were 250,000 Jews living in East Jerusalem.[394] The total number of Israeli settlers is over 500,000 (6.5% of the Israeli population). Approximately 7,800 Israelis lived in settlements in the Gaza Strip, until they were evacuated by the government as part of its 2005 disengagement plan.[395]
Israel was established as a homeland for the Jewish people and is often referred to as a Jewish state. The country's Law of Return grants all Jews and those of Jewish lineage the right to Israeli citizenship.[396] Over three quarters, or 75.5%, of the population are Jews from a diversity of Jewish backgrounds. Around 4% of Israelis (300,000), ethnically defined as "others", are Russian-descendants of Jewish origin or family who are not Jewish according to rabbinical law, but were eligible for Israeli citizenship under the Law of Return.[397][398][399] Approximately 73% of Israeli Jews are Israeli-born, 18.4% are immigrants from Europe and the Americas, and 8.6% are immigrants from Asia and Africa (including the Arab World).[400][401] Jews from Europe and the former Soviet Union and their Israeli-born descendants, including Ashkenazi Jews, constitute approximately 50% of Jewish Israelis. Jews who left or fled Arab and Muslim countries and their descendants, including both Mizrahi and Sephardi Jews,[402] form most of the rest of the Jewish population.[403][404][405] Jewish intermarriage rates run at over 35% and recent studies suggest that the percentage of Israelis descended from both Sephardi and Ashkenazi Jews increases by 0.5 percent every year, with over 25% of school children now originating from both communities.[406]
Largest cities or towns of Israel |
|||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Rank | Name | District | Pop. | ||||||
Jerusalem |
1 | Jerusalem | Jerusalem | 796,200* | Haifa |
||||
| 2 | Tel Aviv | Tel Aviv | 404,500 | ||||||
| 3 | Haifa | Haifa | 269,300 | ||||||
| 4 | Rishon LeZion | Central | 231,700 | ||||||
| 5 | Ashdod | Southern | 211,400 | ||||||
| 6 | Petah Tikva | Central | 210,800 | ||||||
| 7 | Beersheba | Southern | 195,800 | ||||||
| 8 | Netanya | Central | 188,200 | ||||||
| 9 | Holon | Tel Aviv | 182,000 | ||||||
| 10 | Bnei Brak | Tel Aviv | 161,100 | ||||||
* This number includes occupied East-Jerusalem and West-Bank areas.
Israel has two official languages, Hebrew and Arabic.[6] Hebrew is the primary language of the state and is spoken by the majority of the population, and Arabic is spoken by the Arab minority. Many Israelis communicate reasonably well in English, as many television programs are broadcast in this language and English is taught from the early grades in elementary school. As a country of immigrants, many languages can be heard on the streets. Due to mass immigration from the former Soviet Union and Ethiopia (some 130,000 Ethiopian Jews live in Israel),[408][409] Russian and Amharic are widely spoken.[410] Between 1990 and 1994, the Russian immigration increased Israel's population by twelve percent.[411] More than one million Russian-speaking immigrants arrived in Israel from the former Soviet Union states between 1990 and 2004.[412] French is spoken by around 700,000 Israelis,[413] mostly originating from France and North Africa (see Maghrebi Jews).
Israel and the Palestinian territories comprise the major part of the Holy Land, a region of significant importances to all Abrahamic religions – Jews, Christians, Muslims and Baha'is.
The religious affiliation of Israeli Jews varies widely: a social survey for those over the age of 20 indicates that 55% say they are "traditional", while 20% consider themselves "secular Jews", 17% define themselves as "Religious Zionists"; 8% define themselves as "Haredi Jews".[415] While the ultra-Orthodox, or Haredim, represented only 5% of Israel's population in 1990,[416] they are expected to represent more than one-fifth of Israel's Jewish population by 2028.[417]
Making up 16% of the population, Muslims constitute Israel's largest religious minority. About 2% of the population are Christian and 1.5% are Druze.[418] The Christian population primarily comprises Palestinian Christians, but also includes post-Soviet immigrants and the Foreign Laborers of multinational origins and followers of Messianic Judaism, considered by most Christians and Jews to be a form of Christianity.[419] Members of many other religious groups, including Buddhists and Hindus, maintain a presence in Israel, albeit in small numbers.[420] Out of more than one million immigrants from the former Soviet Union in Israel, about 300,000 are considered not Jewish by the Orthodox rabbinate.[421]
The city of Jerusalem is of special importance to Jews, Muslims and Christians as it is the home of sites that are pivotal to their religious beliefs, such as the Israeli-controlled Old City that incorporates the Western Wall and the Temple Mount, the Al-Aqsa Mosque and the Church of the Holy Sepulchre.[422]
Other locations of religious importance in Israel are Nazareth (holy in Christianity as the site of the Annunciation of Mary), Tiberias and Safed (two of the Four Holy Cities in Judaism), the White Mosque in Ramla (holy in Islam as the shrine of the prophet Saleh), and the Church of Saint George in Lod (holy in Christianity and Islam as the tomb of Saint George or Al Khidr).
A number of other religious landmarks are located in the West Bank, among them Joseph's tomb in Shechem, the birthplace of Jesus and Rachel's Tomb in Bethlehem, and the Cave of the Patriarchs in Hebron.
The administrative center of the Bahá'í Faith and the Shrine of the Báb are located at the Bahá'í World Centre in Haifa and the leader of the faith is buried in Acre. Apart from maintenance staff, there is no Bahá'í community in Israel, although it is a destination for pilgrimages. Bahá'í staff in Israel do not teach their faith to Israelis following strict policy.[423][424][425]
Israel has a school life expectancy of 15.5 years[426] and a literacy rate of 97.1% according to the United Nations.[427] The State Education Law, passed in 1953, established five types of schools: state secular, state religious, ultra orthodox, communal settlement schools, and Arab schools. The public secular is the largest school group, and is attended by the majority of Jewish and non-Arab pupils in Israel. Most Arabs send their children to schools where Arabic is the language of instruction.[428]
Education is compulsory in Israel for children between the ages of three and eighteen.[429][430] Schooling is divided into three tiers – primary school (grades 1–6), middle school (grades 7–9), and high school (grades 10–12) – culminating with Bagrut matriculation exams. Proficiency in core subjects such as mathematics, the Hebrew language, Hebrew and general literature, the English language, history, Biblical scripture and civics is necessary to receive a Bagrut certificate.[341] In Arab, Christian and Druze schools, the exam on Biblical studies is replaced by an exam on Muslim, Christian or Druze heritage.[431] Christian Arabs are one of the most educated groups in Israel.[432] Maariv have describe the Christian Arabs sectors as "the most successful in education system",[432] since Christian Arabs fared the best in terms of education in comparison to any other group receiving an education in Israel.[433]
In 2003, over half of all Israeli twelfth graders earned a matriculation certificate.[434] The Hebrew University of Jerusalem and Tel Aviv University are ranked among the world's top 100 universities by Times Higher Education magazine.[435] Israel ranks third in the world in the number of academic degrees per capita (20 percent of the population).[436][437]
Israel's diverse culture stems from the diversity of the population: Jews from diaspora communities around the world have brought their cultural and religious traditions back with them, creating a melting pot of Jewish customs and beliefs.[438] Israel is the only country in the world where life revolves around the Hebrew calendar. Work and school holidays are determined by the Jewish holidays, and the official day of rest is Saturday, the Jewish Sabbath.[439] Israel's substantial Arab minority has also left its imprint on Israeli culture in such spheres as architecture,[440] music,[441] and cuisine.[442]
Israeli literature is primarily poetry and prose written in Hebrew, as part of the renaissance of Hebrew as a spoken language since the mid-19th century, although a small body of literature is published in other languages, such as English. By law, two copies of all printed matter published in Israel must be deposited in the National Library of Israel at the Hebrew University of Jerusalem. In 2001, the law was amended to include audio and video recordings, and other non-print media.[444] In 2011, 86 percent of the 6,302 books transferred to the library were in Hebrew.[445]
The Hebrew Book Week is held each June and features book fairs, public readings, and appearances by Israeli authors around the country. During the week, Israel's top literary award, the Sapir Prize, is presented.
In 1966, Shmuel Yosef Agnon shared the Nobel Prize in Literature with German Jewish author Nelly Sachs.[446] Leading Israeli poets have been Yehuda Amichai, Nathan Alterman and Rachel Bluwstein. Internationally famous contemporary Israeli novelists include Amos Oz, Etgar Keret and David Grossman. The Israeli-Arab satirist Sayed Kashua (who writes in Hebrew) is also internationally known.
Israel has also been the home of two leading Palestinian poets and writers: Emile Habibi, whose novel The Secret Life of Saeed the Pessoptimist, and other writings, won him the Israel prize for Arabic literature; and Mahmoud Darwish, considered by many to be "the Palestinian national poet."[447] Darwish was born and raised in northern Israel, but lived his adult life abroad after joining the Palestine Liberation Organization.
Israeli music contains musical influences from all over the world; Sephardic music, Hasidic melodies, Belly dancing music, Greek music, jazz, and pop rock are all part of the music scene.[448][449]
The nation's canonical folk songs, known as "Songs of the Land of Israel," deal with the experiences of the pioneers in building the Jewish homeland.[451] The Hora circle dance introduced by early Jewish settlers was originally popular in the Kibbutzim and outlying communities. It became a symbol of the Zionist reconstruction and of the ability to experience joy amidst austerity. It now plays a significant role in modern Israeli folk dancing and is regularly performed at weddings and other celebrations, and in group dances throughout Israel.
Modern dance in Israel is a flourishing field, and several Israeli choreographers such as Ohad Naharin, Rami Beer, Barak Marshall and many others, are considered to be among the most versatile and original international creators working today. Famous Israeli companies include the Batsheva Dance Company and the Kibbutz Contemporary Dance Company.
Among Israel's world-renowned[452][453] orchestras is the Israel Philharmonic Orchestra, which has been in operation for over seventy years and today performs more than two hundred concerts each year.[454] Israel has also produced many musicians of note, some achieving international stardom. Itzhak Perlman, Pinchas Zukerman and Ofra Haza are among the internationally acclaimed musicians born in Israel.
Israel has participated in the Eurovision Song Contest nearly every year since 1973, winning the competition three times and hosting it twice.[455][456] Eilat has hosted its own international music festival, the Red Sea Jazz Festival, every summer since 1987.[457]
Israel is home to many Palestinian musicians, including internationally acclaimed oud and violin virtuoso Taiseer Elias, singer Amal Murkus, and brothers Samir and Wissam Joubran. Israeli Arab musicians have achieved fame beyond Israel's borders: Elias and Murkus frequently play to audiences in Europe and America, and oud player Darwish Darwish (Prof. Elias's student) was awarded first prize in the all-Arab oud contest in Egypt in 2003. The Jerusalem Academy of Music and Dance has an advanced degree program, headed by Taiseer Elias, in Arabic music.
Ten Israeli films have been final nominees for Best Foreign Language Film at the Academy Awards since the establishment of Israel. The 2009 movie Ajami was the third consecutive nomination of an Israeli film.[458] Continuing the strong theatrical traditions of the Yiddish theatre in Eastern Europe, Israel maintains a vibrant theatre scene. Founded in 1918, Habima Theatre in Tel Aviv is Israel's oldest repertory theater company and national theater.[459] Palestinian Israeli filmmakers have made a number of films dealing with the Arab-Israel conflict and the status of Palestinians within Israel, such as Mohammed Bakri's 2002 film Jenin, Jenin and The Syrian Bride.
The Israel Museum in Jerusalem is one of Israel's most important cultural institutions[460] and houses the Dead Sea scrolls,[461] along with an extensive collection of Judaica and European art.[460] Israel's national Holocaust museum, Yad Vashem, is the world central archive of Holocaust-related information.[462] Beth Hatefutsoth (the Diaspora Museum), on the campus of Tel Aviv University, is an interactive museum devoted to the history of Jewish communities around the world.[463]
Apart from the major museums in large cities, there are high-quality artspaces in many towns and kibbutzim. Mishkan Le'Omanut on Kibbutz Ein Harod Meuhad is the largest art museum in the north of the country.[464]
Several Israeli museums are devoted to Islamic culture, including the Rockefeller Museum and the L. A. Mayer Institute for Islamic Art, both in Jerusalem. The Rockefeller specializes in archaeological remains from the Ottoman and other periods of Middle East history. It is also the home of the first hominid fossil skull found in Western Asia called Galilee Man.[465] A cast of the skull is on display at the Israel Museum.[466]
Israeli cuisine includes local dishes as well as dishes brought to the country by Jewish immigrants from the diaspora. Since the establishment of the State in 1948, and particularly since the late 1970s, an Israeli fusion cuisine has developed. Most Israeli food is kosher and cooked in accordance with the Jewish Halakha. As most of its population is either Jewish or Muslim, pork is very rarely consumed in Israel.
Israeli cuisine has adopted, and continues to adapt, elements of various styles of Jewish cuisine, particularly the Mizrahi, Sephardic, and Ashkenazi styles of cooking, along with Moroccan Jewish, Iraqi Jewish, Ethiopian Jewish, Indian Jewish, Iranian Jewish and Yemeni Jewish influences. It incorporates many foods traditionally eaten in the Arab, Middle Eastern and Mediterranean cuisines, such as falafel, hummus, shakshouka, couscous, and za'atar, which have become common ingredients in Israeli cuisine. Schnitzel, pizza, hamburgers, French fries, rice and salad are also very common in Israel.
The Maccabiah Games, an Olympic-style event for Jewish athletes and Israeli athletes, was inaugurated in the 1930s, and has been held every four years since then. In 1964 Israel hosted and won the Asian Nations Cup; in 1970 the Israel national football team managed to qualify to the FIFA World Cup, which is still considered the biggest achievement of Israeli football.
The 1974 Asian Games held in Tehran, were the last Asian Games in which Israel participated, and was plagued by the Arab countries which refused to compete with Israel, and Israel since ceased competing in Asian competitions.[467] Israel was excluded from the 1978 Asian Games due to security and expense involved if they were to participate.[468] In 1994, UEFA agreed to admit Israel and all Israeli sporting organizations now compete in Europe.
The most popular spectator sports in Israel are association football and basketball.[469] The Israeli Premier League is the country's premier football league, and the Israeli Basketball Super League is the premier basketball league.[470] Maccabi Haifa, Maccabi Tel Aviv, Hapoel Tel Aviv and Beitar Jerusalem are the largest sports clubs. Maccabi Tel Aviv, Maccabi Haifa and Hapoel Tel Aviv have competed in the UEFA Champions League and Hapoel Tel Aviv reached the UEFA Cup quarter-finals. Maccabi Tel Aviv B.C. has won the European championship in basketball six times.[471] Israeli tennis champion Shahar Pe'er ranked 11th in the world on 31 January 2011.
Chess is a leading sport in Israel and is enjoyed by people of all ages. There are many Israeli grandmasters and Israeli chess players have won a number of youth world championships.[472] Israel stages an annual international championship and hosted the World Team Chess Championship in 2005. The Ministry of Education and the World Chess Federation agreed upon a project of teaching chess within Israeli schools, and it has been introduced into the curriculum of some schools.[473][474][475] The city of Beersheba has become a national chess center, with the game being taught in the city's kindergartens. Owing partly to Soviet immigration, it is home to the largest number of chess grandmasters of any city in the world.[476][477] The Israeli chess team won the silver medal at the 2008 Chess Olympiad[478] and the bronze, coming in third among 148 teams, at the 2010 Olympiad. Israeli grandmaster Boris Gelfand won the Chess World Cup in 2009[479] and the 2011 Candidates Tournament for the right to challenge the world champion. He only lost the World Chess Championship 2012 to reigning world champion Anand after a speed-chess tie breaker.
Krav Maga, a martial art developed by Jewish ghetto defenders during the struggle against fascism in Europe, is used by the Israeli security forces and police. Its effectiveness and practical approach to self-defense, have won it widespread admiration and adherence round the world.
To date, Israel has won seven Olympic medals since its first win in 1992, including a gold medal in windsurfing at the 2004 Summer Olympics.[480] Israel has won over 100 gold medals in the Paralympic Games and is ranked about 15th in the all-time medal count. The 1968 Summer Paralympics were hosted by Israel.[481]
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