関: right whale

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Right whales are three species of large baleen whales of the genus Eubalaena: the North Atlantic right whale (E. glacialis), the North Pacific right whale (E. japonica) and the southern right whale (E. australis). They are classified in the family Balaenidae with the bowhead whale. Right whales have rotund bodies with arching rostrums, V-shaped blowholes and dark gray or black skin. The most distinguishing feature of a right whale is the rough patches of skin on its head which appear white due to parasitism by whale lice. Right whales can grow up to more than 18 m (59 ft) long with the maximum record of 19.8 m (65 ft)^[8]and weigh up to 100 short tons (91 t; 89 long tons), significantly larger than other coastal species such as humpbacks, grays, or bryde's, but smaller than blues.

All three species are migratory, moving seasonally to feed or give birth. The warm equatorial waters form a barrier that isolates the northern and southern species from one another. In the Northern Hemisphere, Right whales tend to avoid open waters and stay close to peninsulas and bays and on continental shelves, as these areas offer greater shelter and an abundance of their preferred foods. In the Southern Hemisphere, right whales feed far offshore in summer, but a large portion of the population occur in near shore waters in winter. Right whales feed mainly on copepods but also consume krill and pteropods. They may forage the surface, underwater or even on the ocean bottom. During courtship, males gather into large groups to compete for a single female, suggesting that sperm competition appears to be an important factor in mating behavior. Although the blue whale is the largest animal on the planet, the testes of the right whale are actually ten times larger than those of the blue whale^[9] – with each weighing up to 525 kilograms (1,157 lb), they are by far the largest of any animal on Earth.^[10] Gestation tends to last a year, and calves are born at 1 short ton (0.91 t; 0.89 long tons) in weight and 4–6 m (13–20 ft) in length. Weaning occurs after eight months.

Right whales were a preferred target for whalers because of their docile nature, their slow surface-skimming feeding behaviors, their tendencies to stay close to the coast, and their high blubber content (which makes them float when they are killed, and which produced high yields of whale oil). Today, the North Atlantic and North Pacific right whales are among the most endangered whales in the world,^[11] and both species are protected in the United States by the Endangered Species Act. The western populations of both are currently endangered, with their total populations numbering in the hundreds. The eastern North Pacific population, on the other hand, with less than 50 individuals remaining, is critically endangered^[12] – further still, the eastern North Atlantic population, which numbers in the low teens at best, may already be functionally extinct.^[11] Although no longer facing a threat from whaling, mankind remains by far the greatest threat to these species: the two leading causes of death are from being struck by ships and from entanglement in fishing gear. Regarding the North Atlantic right whale, for example, these two anthropogenic factors alone account for 48% of all known right whale deaths since 1970.^[13]

1 Naming
2 Taxonomy
- 2.1 Others
- 2.2 Synonyms and common names
3 Description
- 3.1 Anatomy
4 Life history and ecology
- 4.1 Courtship and reproduction
- 4.2 Lifespan
- 4.3 Feeding and predation
- 4.4 Range and habitat
  - 4.4.1 North Atlantic right whale
  - 4.4.2 North Pacific right whale
  - 4.4.3 Southern right whale
- 4.5 Vocalization and hearing
5 Relationship to humans
- 5.1 Whaling
- 5.2 Whale watching
6 Conservation
- 6.1 Threats
7 Notes
8 References
9 Further reading
10 External links

Naming

A popular explanation for the name "right whales" is that they were the "right" ones to hunt,^[14] as they float when killed and often swim within sight of shore. They are quite docile, and do not tend to shy away from approaching boats. As such, they were hunted nearly to extinction during the active years of the whaling industry. This origin is apocryphal. In his history of American whaling, Eric Jay Dolin writes:

Despite this highly plausible rationale, nobody actually knows how the right whale got its name. The earliest references to the right whale offer no indication why it was called that, and some who have studied the issue point out that the word "right" in this context might just as likely be intended "to connote 'true' or 'proper,' meaning typical of the group."

—E.J. Dolin, Leviathan: The History of Whaling in America, quoting a 1766 Connecticut Courant newspaper article.^[15]

Taxonomy

The right whales were first classified in the genus Balaena in 1758 by Carolus Linnaeus, who at the time considered all of the right whales (including the bowhead) as a single species. Through the 1800s and 1900s, in fact, the family Balaenidae has been the subject of great taxonometric debate. Authorities have repeatedly recategorized the three populations of right whale plus the bowhead whale, as one, two, three or four species, either in a single genus or in two separate genera. In the early whaling days, they were all thought to be a single species, Balaena mysticetus. Eventually, it was recognized that bowheads and right whales were in fact different, and John Edward Gray proposed the genus Eubalaena for the right whale in 1864. Later, morphological factors such as differences in the skull shape of northern and southern right whales indicated at least two species of right whale—one in the Northern Hemisphere, the other in the Southern Ocean.^[16] As recently as 1998, Rice, in his comprehensive and otherwise authoritative classification, Marine mammals of the world: systematics and distribution, listed just two species: Balaena glacialis (the right whales) and Balaena mysticetus (the bowheads).^[17]

Southern right whale in the breeding grounds at Peninsula Valdés in Patagonia

In 2000, two studies of DNA samples from each of the whale populations concluded the northern and southern populations of right whale should be considered separate species. What some scientists found more surprising was the discovery that the North Pacific and North Atlantic populations are also distinct, and that the North Pacific species is more closely related to the southern right whale than to the North Atlantic right whale.^[18]^[19] The authors of one of these studies concluded that these species have not interbred for between 3 million and 12 million years.^[19]

In 2001, Brownell et al. reevaluated the conservation status of the North Pacific right whale as a distinct species,^[20] and in 2002, the Scientific Committee of the International Whaling Commission (IWC) accepted Rosenbaum's findings, and recommended that the Eubalaena nomenclature be retained for this genus.^[21] A 2007 study by Churchill provided further evidence to conclude the three living right whale species do comprise a phylogenetic lineage, distinct from the bowhead, and are rightly classified into two separate genera.^[22]

The cladogram is a tool for visualizing and comparing the evolutionary relationships between taxa; the point where each node branches is analogous to an evolutionary branching – the diagram can be read left-to-right, much like a timeline. The following cladogram of the family Balaenidae serves to illustrate the current scientific consensus as to the relationships between the three right whales and the bowhead whale.

Family Balaenidae

Eubalaena (right whales)

E. glacialis North Atlantic right whale

	E. japonica North Pacific right whale

	E. australis Southern right whale

Balaena (bowhead whales)

B. mysticetus bowhead whale

The right whales, genus Eubalaena, in the family Balaenidae^[18]

Orange whale lice on a right whale

Whale lice, parasitic cyamid crustaceans that live off skin debris, offer further information through their own genetics. Because these lice reproduce much more quickly than whales, their genetic diversity is greater. Marine biologists at the University of Utah examined these louse genes and determined their hosts split into three species 5–6 million years ago, and these species were all equally abundant before whaling began in the 11th century.^[23] The communities first split because of the joining of North and South America. The rising temperatures of the equator then created a second split, into northern and southern groups, preventing them from interbreeding.^[24] "This puts an end to the long debate about whether there are three [Eubalaena] species of right whale. They really are separate beyond a doubt", Jon Seger, the project's leader, told BBC News.^[25]

Others

The pygmy right whale (Capera marginata), a much smaller whale of the Southern Hemisphere, was also included in the family Balaenidae, but has recently been found to warrant a separate family, Neobalaenidae. Yet another species of right whale was proposed by Emanuel Swedenborg in the 18th century - the so-called Swedenborg whale. The description of this species was based on a collection of fossil bones unearthed at Norra Vånga, Sweden, in 1705 and believed to be those of giants. The bones were examined by Swedenborg, who realized they belong to a species of whale. The existence of this species has been debated, and further evidence for this species was discovered during the construction of a motorway in Strömstad, Sweden in 2009.^[26] To date, however, scientific consensus still considers Hunterius swedenborgii to be a North Atlantic right whale.^[27] According to a DNA analysis conducted by scientists, it was later confirmed that the fossil bones are actually from a bowhead whale.^[28]

Synonyms and common names

Southern right whale skeleton

Due to their familiarity to whalers over a number of centuries, the right whales have had many names. These names were used throughout the world, reflecting the fact that only one species was recognized at the time. In his novel Moby-Dick, Herman Melville writes:

"Among the fishermen, the whale regularly hunted for oil is indiscriminately designated by all the following titles: The Whale; the Greenland whale; the black whale; the great whale; the true whale; the right whale. There is a deal of obscurity concerning the identity of the species thus multitudinously baptised. ... Some pretend to see a difference between the Greenland whale of the English and the Right whale of the Americans."

— Melville, Moby Dick: or, The White Whale, Ch. XXXII Cetology^[29]

In fact, there was indeed a difference between the two – Melville's "Greenland whale", or "Greenland right whale", was in fact the modern-day bowhead whale, Balaena mysticetus.

The following are junior synonyms for the genus Eubalaena:^[7]

Baloena Robineau, 1989
Halibalaena Gray, 1873
Hunterius Gray, 1866
Hunterus Gray, 1864
Macleayanus Marschall, 1873
Macleayius Gray, 1865

Although the right whale is now officially in the Eubalaena genus, the type species for a genus remains as it was first described – in the case of Eubalaena the type species is Balaena australis Desmoulins, 1822.^[1]

Some of the species-level synonyms are:^[1]

For E. australis:^[30]

B. antarctica Lesson, 1828
B. antipodarum Gray, 1843
B. glacialis Mueller, 1776
B. glacialis australis Scheffer & Rice, 1963
E. capensis Gray, 1866
E. glacialis australis Tomilin, 1962
Halibalaena britannica Gray, 1873
Hunterus temminckii Gray, 1864
Macleayius australiensis Gray, 1865

For E. glacialis:^[31]

B. biscayensis Eschricht, 1860
B. glacialis glacialis Scheffer & Rice, 1963
B. mysticetus islandica Kerr, 1792
B. nordcaper Lacépède, 1804
Baloena glacialis Robineau, 1989
E. glacialis glacialis Tomilin, 1957
Hunterius swedenborgii Lilljeborg, 1867
Macleayius britannicus Gray, 1870

For E. japonica:^[32]

B. japonica Lacépède, 1804 (basionym)
B. sieboldii Gray, 1864
Balaenoptera antarctica Temminck, 1841 (lapsus for Balaena)
E. glacialis japonica Imaizumi, 1958
E. sieboldii Gray, 1868

Description

Unlike other whales, a right whale has distinctive callosities (roughened patches of skin) on its head, along with a broad back without a dorsal fin, occasionally with white belly patches, and a long, arching rostrum, or upper jaw, that begins above the eye. The callosities appear white due to large colonies of cyamids (whale lice).^[16]^[33] Each individual has a unique callosities pattern. Right whales are very large, robust whales that can grow up to more than 18 m (59 ft) long and weigh up to 100 short tons (91 t; 89 long tons), almost as big as bowhead whales and much larger than other species with high dependencies on shallow waters. An unusually large 40% of their body weight is blubber, which is of relatively low density. Consequently, unlike many other species of whale, dead right whales tend to float.^[34]^[35] Right whales swim slowly, reaching only 5 kn (9.3 km/h) at top speed. However, they are highly acrobatic and frequently breach (jump clear of the sea surface), tail-slap and lobtail.^[22]

The distinctive V-shaped blow of a right whale

Anatomy

Adults may be between 11–18 m (36–59 ft) in length and typically weigh 60–80 short tons (54–73 t; 54–71 long tons). The most typical lengths are 13–16 m (43–52 ft).^[22] The body is extremely thick with girth as much as 60% of total body length in some cases. The tail fluke is broad (up to 40% of body length).^[22] The North Pacific species is on average the largest of the three species. The largest specimens may weigh 100 short tons (91 t; 89 long tons).^[22] Right whales have a distinctive wide V-shaped blow, caused by the widely spaced blowholes on the top of the head. The blow rises 5 m (16 ft) above the surface.^[9] Right whales have between 200 and 300 baleen plates on each side of their mouths. These are narrow and approximately 2 m (6.6 ft) long, and are covered in very thin hairs. The plates enable the whale to filter feed.

An example of baleen plates; there are about 50 plates in this photo.

The penis on a right whale can be up to 2.7 m (8.9 ft) – the testes, at up to 2 m (6.6 ft) in length, 78 cm (2.56 ft) in diameter, and weighing up to 525 kg (1157 lbs), are also by far the largest of any animal on Earth.^[10] The blue whale may be the largest animal on the planet, yet the testicles of the right whale are ten times the size of those of the blue whale. They also exceed predictions in terms of relative size, as well – they are six times larger than would be expected on the basis of body mass. Together, the testicles make up nearly 1% of the right whale's total body weight. This strongly suggests sperm competition is important in mating, which correlates to the fact that right whales are highly promiscuous.^[9]^[36]

Many of southern right whales are seen with rolls on fats behind blowholes that northern species often lack, and these are regarded as a sign of better health condition due to sufficient nutrition supply, and could have contributed in vast differences in recovery status between right whales in southern and northern hemisphere, other than direct impacts by mankind.^[37]

Life history and ecology

Courtship and reproduction

During the mating season, which can occur at any time in the North Atlantic, right whales gather into "surface-active groups" made up of as many as 20 males consorting a single female. The female has her belly to the surface while the males stroke her with their flippers or keep her underwater. The males do not compete as aggressively against each other as male humpbacks. The female may not become pregnant but she is still able to assess the condition of potential mates.^[22] The mean age of first parturition in North Atlantic right whales is estimated at between 7.5^[38] and 9^[39] years. Females breed every 3–4 years.^[38]^[40] Both reproduction and calving take place during the winter months.^[41] Calves are approximately 1 short ton (0.91 t; 0.89 long tons) in weight and 4–6 m (13–20 ft) in length at birth following a gestation period of 1 year. The right whale grows rapidly in its first year, typically doubling in length. Weaning occurs after eight months to one year and the growth rate in later years is not well understood—it may be highly dependent on whether a calf stays with its mother for a second year.^[42]

Lifespan

Very little is known about the life span of right whales. One of the few well-documented cases is of a female North Atlantic right whale that was photographed with a baby in 1935, then photographed again in 1959, 1980, 1985, and 1992. Consistent callosity patterns ensured it was the same animal. She was last photographed in 1995 with a seemingly fatal head wound, presumably from a ship strike. By conservative estimates (e.g. she was a new mother who had just reached sexual maturity in 1935), she was nearly 70 years of age, if not older. Research on the closely related bowhead whale suggests this lifespan is not uncommon and may even be exceeded.^[42]^[43]

Feeding and predation

The right whales' diets consist primarily of zooplankton, primarily the tiny crustaceans called copepods, as well as krill, and pteropods, although they are occasionally opportunistic feeders. As with other baleens, they feed by filtering prey from the water. They swim with an open mouth, filling it with water and prey. The whale then expels the water, using its baleen plates to retain the prey. Prey must occur in sufficient numbers to trigger the whale's interest, be large enough that the baleen plates can filter it, and be slow enough that it cannot escape.^[42] The "skimming" may take place on the surface, underwater, or even at the ocean's bottom, indicated by mud occasionally observed on right whales' bodies.^[42]

The right whales' three known predators are humans, orcas, and sharks. When danger lurks, a group of right whales may cluster into a circle, and thrash their outwards-pointing tails. They may also head for shallow water, which sometimes proves to be an ineffective defense. The sheer size of this animal is its best defense, although young calves are the most vulnerable to orca and shark attacks.^[9]

Range and habitat

The three Eubalaena species inhabit three distinct areas of the globe: the North Atlantic in the western Atlantic Ocean, the North Pacific in a band from Japan to Alaska and all areas of the Southern Ocean. The whales can only cope with the moderate temperatures found between 20 and 60 degrees in latitude. The warm equatorial waters form a barrier that prevents mixing between the northern and southern groups. Although the southern species in particular must travel across open ocean to reach its feeding grounds, the species is not considered to be pelagic. In general, they prefer to stay close to peninsulas and bays and on continental shelves, as these areas offer greater shelter and an abundance of their preferred foods.^[24]

Because the oceans are so large, it is very difficult to accurately gauge whale population sizes. Approximate figures:^[22]

400 North Atlantic right whales (Eubalaena glacialis) live in the North Atlantic;
23 North Pacific right whales have been identified in the eastern North Pacific (Eubalaena japonica) and
15,000 southern right whales (Eubalaena australis) are spread throughout the southern part of the Southern Hemisphere.

North Atlantic right whale

Almost all of the 400 North Atlantic right whales live in the western North Atlantic Ocean. In northern spring, summer and autumn, they feed in areas off the Canadian and northeast U.S. coasts in a range stretching from New York to Newfoundland. Particularly popular feeding areas are the Bay of Fundy and Cape Cod Bay. In winter, they head south towards Georgia and Florida to give birth.^[44] There have been a smattering of sightings further east over the past few decades; several sightings were made close to Iceland in 2003. These are possibly the remains of a virtually extinct eastern Atlantic stock, but examination of old whalers' records suggests they are more likely to be strays.^[42] However, a few sightings are regular between Norway, Ireland, Spain, Portugal, the Canary Islands and even Italy^[45] and Sicily;^[46] at least the Norway individuals come from the Western stock.^[47]

North Pacific right whale

The North Pacific right whale appears to occur in two populations. The population in the eastern North Pacific/Bering Sea is extremely low, numbering about 30 individuals.^[48] A larger western population of 100-200 appears to be surviving in the Sea of Okhotsk, but very little is known about this population. Thus, the two northern right whale species are the most endangered of all large whales and two of the most endangered animal species in the world. Based on current population density trends, both species are predicted to become extinct within 200 years.^[49] The Pacific species was historically found in summer from the Sea of Okhotsk in the west to the Gulf of Alaska in the east, generally north of 50°N. Today, sightings are very rare and generally occur in the mouth of the Sea of Okhotsk and in the eastern Bering Sea. Although this species is very likely to be migratory like the other two species, its movement patterns are not known.^[50]

Southern right whale

The last major population review of southern right whales by the International Whaling Commission was in 1998. Researchers used data about adult female populations from three surveys (one in each of Argentina, South Africa and Australia) and extrapolated to include unsurveyed areas and estimated counts of males and calves (using available male:female and adult:calf ratios), giving an estimated 1997 population of 7,500 animals. More recent data from 2007 indicate those survey areas have shown evidence of strong recovery, with a population approaching twice that of a decade earlier. However, other breeding populations are still very small, and data are insufficient to determine whether they, too, are recovering.^[2]

The southern right whale spends the summer months in the far Southern Ocean feeding, probably close to Antarctica. It migrates north in winter for breeding, and can be seen around the coasts of Argentina, Australia, Brazil, Chile, Mozambique, New Zealand and South Africa.^[51] Since hunting of the southern right whale ceased, stocks are estimated to have grown by 7% a year. The South American, South African and Australasian groups apparently intermix very little, if at all, because of the strong fidelity of mothers to their feeding and calving grounds. The mother passes these instincts to her calves.^[42]

Vocalization and hearing

Vocalizations made by right whales are not elaborate compared to those made by other whale species. The whales make groans, pops and belches typically at frequencies around 500 Hz. The purpose of the sounds is not known but may be a form of communication between whales within the same group. Northern right whales responded to sounds similar to police sirens—sounds of much higher frequency than their own. On hearing the sounds, they moved rapidly to the surface. The research was of particular interest because northern rights ignore most sounds, including those of approaching boats. Researchers speculate this information may be useful in attempts to reduce the number of ship-whale collisions or to encourage the whales to surface for ease of harvesting.^[49]^[52]

Relationship to humans

Whaling

Whaling in small wooden boats with hand harpoons was a hazardous enterprise, even when hunting the "right" whale.

Right whales were so named because early whalers considered them the "right" whale to hunt. In the early centuries of shore-based whaling before 1712, right whales were virtually the only catchable large whales, for three reasons:

They often swam close to shore where they could be spotted by beach lookouts, and hunted from beach-based whaleboats.
They are relatively slow swimmers, allowing whalers to catch up to them in their whaleboats.
Once killed by harpoons, they were more likely to float, and thus could be retrieved. However, some did sink when killed (10-30% in the North Pacific) and were lost unless they later stranded or surfaced.^[53]

Basque people were the first to hunt right whales commercially, beginning as early as the 11th century in the Bay of Biscay. They initially sought oil, but as meat preservation technology improved, the animal was also used for food. Basque whalers reached eastern Canada by 1530^[42] and the shores of Todos os Santos Bay (in Bahia, Brazil) by 1602. The last Basque voyages were made before the Seven Years' War (1756–1763). All attempts to revive the trade after the war failed. Basque shore whaling continued sporadically into the 19th century.

"Yankee whalers" from the new American colonies replaced the Basques. Setting out from Nantucket, Massachusetts and Long Island, New York, they took up to 100 animals in good years. By 1750, the commercial hunt of the North Atlantic right whale was basically over. The Yankee whalers moved into the South Atlantic before the end of the 18th century. The southernmost Brazilian whaling station was established in 1796, in Imbituba. Over the next hundred years, Yankee whaling spread into the Southern and Pacific Oceans, where the Americans were joined by fleets from several European nations. The beginning of the 20th century saw much greater industrialization of whaling, and the harvest grew rapidly. By 1937, there had been, according to whalers' records, 38,000 takes in the South Atlantic, 39,000 in the South Pacific, 1,300 in the Indian Ocean, and 15,000 in the North Pacific. The incompleteness of these records means the actual take was somewhat higher.^[54]

As it became clear the stocks were nearly depleted, the world banned right whaling in 1937. The ban was largely successful, although violations continued for several decades. Madeira took its last two right whales in 1968. Japan took 23 Pacific right whales in the 1940s and more under scientific permit in the 1960s. Illegal whaling continued off the coast of Brazil for many years and the Imbituba land station processed right whales until 1973. The Soviet Union illegally took at least 3,212 southern right whales during the 1950s and '60s, although it reported taking only four.^[55]

A southern right whale approaches close to whale watchers near Península Valdés in Patagonia

Whale watching

The southern right whale has made Hermanus, South Africa one of the world centers for whale watching. During the winter months (July–October), southern right whales come so close to the shoreline, visitors can watch whales from strategically placed hotels.^[56] The town employs a "whale crier" (cf. town crier) to walk through the town announcing where whales have been seen.^[57] Southern right whales can also be watched at other winter breeding grounds.

In Brazil, Imbituba in Santa Catarina has been recognized as the National Right Whale Capital and holds annual Right Whale Week celebrations in September^[58] when mothers and calves are more often seen. The old whaling station there has been converted to a museum dedicated to the whales.^[59] In winter in Argentina, Península Valdés in Patagonia hosts the largest breeding population of the species, with more than 2,000 animals catalogued by the Whale Conservation Institute and Ocean Alliance.^[60]

Conservation

North Atlantic right whale on a Faroese stamp

Both the North Atlantic and North Pacific species are listed as a "species threatened with extinction which [is] or may be affected by trade" (Appendix I) by CITES, and as "endangered" by the IUCN Red List. In the United States, the National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS), a subagency of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) has classified all three species as "endangered" under the Endangered Species Act. Under the Marine Mammal Protection Act, they are listed as "depleted".^[61]^[62]^[63]

The southern right whale is listed as "endangered" under the Australian Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act, as "nationally endangered" under the New Zealand Threat Classification System, as a "natural monument" by the Argentine National Congress, and as a "State Natural Monument" under the Brazilian National Endangered Species List.^[63]

The US and Brazil added new protections for right whales in the 2000s to address the two primary hazards. While environmental campaigners were, as reported in 2001, pleased about the plan's positive effects, they attempted to force the US government to do more.^[64] In particular, they advocated 12 knots (22 km/h) speed limits for ships within 40 km (25 mi) of US ports in times of high right whale presence. Citing concerns about excessive trade disruption, it did not institute greater protections. The Defenders of Wildlife, the Humane Society of the United States and the Ocean Conservancy sued the NMFS in September 2005 for "failing to protect the critically endangered North Atlantic Right Whale, which the agency acknowledges is 'the rarest of all large whale species' and which federal agencies are required to protect by both the Marine Mammal Protection Act and the Endangered Species Act", demanding emergency protection measures.^[65] According to NOAA researchers, about 83% of right whale sightings in the mid-Atlantic region occur within 20 nautical miles (37 km) of shore.

The southern right whale, listed as "endangered" by CITES and "lower risk - conservation dependent" by the IUCN, is protected in the jurisdictional waters of all countries with known breeding populations (Argentina, Australia, Brazil, Chile, New Zealand, South Africa and Uruguay). In Brazil, a federal Environmental Protection Area encompassing some 1,560 km² (600 sq mi) and 130 km (81 mi) of coastline in Santa Catarina State was established in 2000 to protect the species' main breeding grounds in Brazil and promote whale watching.^[66]

On February 6, 2006, NOAA proposed its Strategy to Reduce Ship Strikes to North Atlantic Right Whales.^[67] The proposal, opposed by some shipping interests, limited ship speeds during calving season. The proposal was made official when on December 8, 2008, NOAA issued a press release that included the following:^[68]

Effective January 2009, ships 65 feet (20 m) or longer are limited to 10 knots (19 km/h) in waters off New England when whales begin gathering in this area as part of their annual migration. The restriction extends to 20 nautical miles (37 km) around major mid-Atlantic ports.
The speed restriction applies in waters off New England and the southeastern US, where whales gather seasonally:
- Southeastern US from St. Augustine, Florida to Brunswick, Georgia from Nov 15 to April 15
- Mid-Atlantic U.S. areas from Rhode Island to Georgia from Nov 1 to April 30.
- Cape Cod Bay from Jan 1 to May 15
- Off Race Point at the northern end of Cape Cod from March 1 to April 30
- Great South Channel of New England from April 1 to July 31
Temporary voluntary speed limits in other areas or times when a group of three or more right whales is confirmed
Scientists will assess the rule's effectiveness before the rule expires in 2013.

The Stellwagen Bank area has implemented an autobuoy program to acoustically detect right whales in the Boston Approaches and notify mariners via the Right Whale Listening Network website.

Threats

The remains of a North Atlantic right whale after it collided with a ship propeller

The leading cause of death among the North Atlantic right whale, which migrates through some of the world's busiest shipping lanes while journeying off the east coast of the United States and Canada, is from being struck by ships.^{[note 1]}^[69] At least 16 ship-strike deaths were reported between 1970 and 1999, and probably more remain unreported.^[42] According to NOAA, 25 of the 71 right whale deaths reported since 1970 resulted from ship strikes.^[68] Recognizing this toll could tip the delicately balanced species towards extinction, in July 1997, the U.S. NOAA introduced the Atlantic Large Whale Take Reduction Plan.^[70] A key part of the plan was the introduction of mandatory reporting of large whale sightings by ships using US ports.

In 2000 endangered right whale #1114 was struck and killed in or near the Bay of Fundy with very little media attention paid. Intrinsic Defence and Intelligence Enterprises (IDIE) located in Dartmouth, Nova Scotia, has completed a full investigation into the death of this adult female. In the fall of 2014 IDIE will be presenting this work through public speaking engagements in Canada.

A second major cause of morbidity and mortality in the North Atlantic right whale is entanglement in fishing gear. Right whales ingest plankton with wide-open mouths, risking entanglement in any rope or net fixed in the water column. Rope wraps around their upper jaws, flippers and tails. Some are able to escape, but others remain tangled.^[71] If observers notice, they can be successfully disentangled, but others die over a period of months.

The U.S. Navy proposed plans to create a new undersea naval training range immediately adjacent to northern right whale calving grounds in shallow waters off the Florida/Georgia border. Legal challenges by leading environmental groups including the Natural Resources Defense Council were recently denied in federal court, allowing the Navy to proceed.^[72]^[73] These rulings were made despite the extremely low numbers (as low as 313 by some estimates) of right whales in existence at this time, and a very poor calving season.^[74]

Notes

^ The Lloyd's mirror effect results in low frequency propeller sounds not being discernible near the surface, where most accidents occur. Combined with spreading and acoustic shadowing effects, the result is that the marine animal is unable to hear an approaching vessel before it has been run over or entrapped by the hydrodynamic forces of the vessel's passage.

References

^ ^a ^b ^c Mead, J. G.; Brownell, R. L., Jr. (2005). "Order Cetacea". In Wilson, D. E.; Reeder, D. M. Mammal Species of the World (3rd ed.). Johns Hopkins University Press. pp. 723–743. ISBN 978-0-8018-8221-0. OCLC 62265494.
^ ^a ^b Reilly, S.B.; Bannister, J.L.; Best, P.B.; Brown, M.; Brownell Jr.; R.L., Butterworth, D.S.; Clapham, P.J.; Cooke, J.; Donovan, G.P.; Urbán, J.; Zerbini, A.N. (2008). "Eubalaena australis". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Version 2012.1. International Union for Conservation of Nature. Retrieved 30 September 2012.
^ Abel, O. (1941). "Vorlaufige Mitteilungen über die Revision der fossilen Mystacoceten aus dem Tertiar Belgiens". Bulletin du Museum Royal d'Historie Naturelles du Belgique 17 (32): 1–29.
^ Reilly, S.B.; Bannister, J.L.; Best, P.B.; Brown, M.; Brownell Jr.; R.L., Butterworth, D.S.; Clapham, P.J.; Cooke, J.; Donovan, G.P.; Urbán, J.; Zerbini, A.N. (2008). "Eubalaena glacialis". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Version 2012.1. International Union for Conservation of Nature. Retrieved 30 September 2012.
^ Reilly, S.B.; Bannister, J.L.; Best, P.B.; Brown, M.; Brownell Jr.; R.L., Butterworth, D.S.; Clapham, P.J.; Cooke, J.; Donovan, G.P.; Urbán, J.; Zerbini, A.N. (2008). "Eubalaena japonica". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Version 2012.1. International Union for Conservation of Nature. Retrieved 30 September 2012.
^ Kimura, T.; Narita, K. (2007). "A new species of Eubalaena (Cetacea: Mysticeti: Balaenidae) from the Gonda Formation (latest Miocene-early Pliocene) of Japan". Bulletin of the Gunma Museum of Natural History 11: 15–27.
^ ^a ^b Perrin, W.F. (2012). "Eubalaena Gray, 1864". World Cetacea Database. Retrieved 29 September 2012.
^ Ivashchenko YV and Clapham PJ (2011). "Pushed to the Edge: Soviet Catches of Right Whales in the Eastern North Pacific". Alaska Fisheries Science Center Quarterly Research Reports (Apr–May–June 2011).
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d Crane, J.; Scott, R. (2002). "Eubalaena glacialis: North Atlantic right whale: Information". Animal Diversity Web. University of Michigan Museum of Zoology. Retrieved April 30, 2006.
^ ^a ^b Feldhamer, George A.; Thompson, Bruce C.; Chapman, Joseph A. (2003). Wild mammals of North America : biology, management, and conservation (2nd ed. ed.). Baltimore, Md.: Johns Hopkins University Press. p. 432. ISBN 9780801874161.
^ ^a ^b "North Atlantic right whale (Eubalaena glacialis) 5-year review: Summary and Evaluation" (PDF). Gloucester, MA: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Fisheries Service. August 2012. Retrieved 9 December 2012. The western North Atlantic population numbered at least 361 individuals in 2005 and at least 396 in 2010 (Waring et al. 2012).
^ Reilly, S.B.; Bannister, J.L.; Best, P.B.; Brown, M.; Brownell Jr.; R.L., Butterworth, D.S.; Clapham, P.J.; Cooke, J.; Donovan, G.P.; Urbán, J.; Zerbini, A.N. (2008). "Eubalaena japonica (Northeast Pacific subpopulation)". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Version 2012.1. International Union for Conservation of Nature. Retrieved 30 September 2012.
^ Fisheries and Oceans Canada (2007). "Recovery potential assessment for right whale (Western North Atlantic population)" (PDF). Canadian Science Advisory Secretariat Science Advisory Report 2007/027. Retrieved 17 June 2011.
^ "North Atlantic right whale | Basic Facts About Right Whales | Defenders of Wildlife". Defenders.org. Retrieved May 10, 2012.
^ Dolin, Eric Jay (2007). Leviathan: The History of Whaling in America. W.W. Norton & Co. p. 22. ISBN 0-393-06057-8. Retrieved 30 September 2012. ; (quoting "Boston, August 21". Connecticut Courant. 1 September 1766. ); (also quoting Spears. The Story of the New England Whalers. pp. 80–81. )
^ ^a ^b Müller, J. (1954). "Observations of the orbital region of the skull of the Mystacoceti" (PDF). Zoologische Mededelingen 32: 239–90.
^ Rice, Dale W. (1998). Marine mammals of the world: systematics and distribution. Society of Marine Mammalogy, Special Publication No. 4. ISBN 1891276034.
^ ^a ^b Rosenbaum, H. C., R. L. Brownell Jr.; M. W. Brown C. Schaeff, V. Portway, B. N. White, S. Malik, L. A. Pastene, N. J. Patenaude, C. S. Baker, M. Goto, P. Best, P. J. Clapham, P. Hamilton, M. Moore, R. Payne, V. Rowntree, C. T. Tynan, J. L. Bannister and R. Desalle (2000). "World-wide genetic differentiation of Eubalaena: Questioning the number of right whale species" (PDF). Molecular Ecology 9 (11): 1793–802. doi:10.1046/j.1365-294x.2000.01066.x. PMID 11091315.
^ ^a ^b Malik, S., M. W. Brown, S.D. Kraus and B.N. White (2000). "Analysis of mitochondrial DNA diversity within and between North and South Atlantic right whales". Marine Mammal Science 16 (3): 545–558. doi:10.1111/j.1748-7692.2000.tb00950.x.
^ Brownell, R. L. Jr., P.J. Clapham, T. Miyashita and T. Kasuya (2001). "Conservation status of North Pacific right whales". Journal of Cetacean Research and Management (Special Issue) 2: 269–286.
^ "List of Marine Mammal Species and Subspecies". Committee on Taxonomy. Society for Marine Mammology. 3 April 2012. Retrieved 29 September 2012.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g Kenney, Robert D. (2008). "Right Whales (Eubalaena glacialis, E. japonica, and E. australis)". In Perrin, W. F.; Wursig, B.; Thewissen, J. G. M. Encyclopedia of Marine Mammals. Academic Press. pp. 962–69. ISBN 978-0-12-373553-9. Retrieved 20 May 2012.
^ Kaliszewska, Z. A., J. Seger, S. G. Barco, R. Benegas, P. B. Best, M. W. Brown, R. L. Brownell Jr., A. Carribero, R. Harcourt, A. R. Knowlton, K. Marshalltilas, N. J. Patenaude, M. Rivarola, C. M. Schaeff, M. Sironi, W. A. Smith & T. K. Yamada (2005). "Population histories of right whales (Cetacea: Eubalaena) inferred from mitochondrial sequence diversities and divergences of their whale lice (Amphipoda: Cyamus)". Molecular Ecology 14 (11): 3439–3456. doi:10.1111/j.1365-294X.2005.02664.x. PMID 16156814.
^ ^a ^b Palaeobiology and Biodiversity Research Group, University of Bristol
^ Ross, Alison (September 20, 2005). "Whale riders' reveal evolution". BBC News.
^ "Prehistoric Whale Discovered On The West Coast Of Sweden". Sciencedaily.com. June 5, 2009. Retrieved May 10, 2012.
^ Perrin, W.F. (2012). "Hunterius swedenborgii Lilljeborg, 1867". World Cetacea Database. Retrieved 29 September 2012.
^ "Whale bones found in highway were not from mystery whale". ScienceNordic.com. February 7, 2013. Retrieved March 26, 2013.
^ Melville, Herman (1892). "XXXII Cetology". Moby Dick: or, the White Whale. Boston: L.C. Page & Company. p. 131.
^ Perrin, W.F. (2012). "Eubalaena australis Desmoulins, 1822". World Cetacea Database. Retrieved 29 September 2012.
^ Perrin, W.F. (2012). "Eubalaena glacialis Müller, 1776". World Cetacea Database. Retrieved 29 September 2012.
^ Perrin, W.F. (2012). "Eubalaena japonica Lacépède, 1818". World Cetacea Database. Retrieved 29 September 2012.
^ Carwardine, M.H.; Hoyt, E. (1998). Whales, Dolphins and Porpoises. Surry Hills, NSW: Reader's Digest. ISBN 0-86449-096-8.
^ Woodward, Becky L.; Winn, Jeremy P.; Fish, Frank E. (2006). "Morphological Specializations of Baleen Whales Associated With Hydrodynamic Performance and Ecological Niche" (PDF). Journal of Morphology 267 (11): 1284–1294. doi:10.1002/jmor.10474. PMID 17051544. The true buoyancy of a particular whale is dependent upon its body composition, particularly the relative quantities of muscle and blubber tissues. Balaenopterid whales have a higher proportion of muscle tissue and tend to be negatively buoyant while the opposite is true for right whales (Lockyer, 1976).
^ Lockyer, C. (1976). "Body weights of some species of large whales". Journal du Conseil Conseil International pour l'Exploration de la Mer 36 (3): 259–273. doi:10.1093/icesjms/36.3.259.
^ Brownell, Jr., Robert L.; Ralls, K. (1986). "Potential for sperm competition in baleen whales". Report of the International Whaling Commission 8 (8): 97–112.
^ Oceanus Magazine. Images: Doing the Right Thing for the Right Whale. Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution. Retrieved on November 5. 2014
^ ^a ^b A.R. Knowlton, S.D. Kraus and R.D. Kenney (1994). "Reproduction in North Atlantic right whales (Eubalaena glacialis)". Canadian Journal of Zoology 72 (7): 1297–1305. doi:10.1139/z94-173.
^ P.K. Hamilton, A.R. Knowlton, M.K. Marx and S.D. Kraus (1998). "Age structure and longevity in North Atlantic right whales (Eubalaena glacialis) and their relation to reproduction". Marine Ecology Progress Series 171: 285–292. doi:10.3354/meps171285.
^ R. Payne, V. Rowntree, J.S. Perkins, J.G. Cooke and K. Lankester (1990). "Population size, trends and reproductive parameters of right whales (Eubalaena australis) off Peninsula Valdez, Argentina". Report - International Whaling Commission (Special Issue) 12: 271–278.
^ P.B. Best (1994). "Seasonality of reproduction and the length of gestation in southern right whales Eubalaena australis". Journal of Zoology (London) 32 (2): 175–189. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7998.1994.tb01567.x.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h Kenney, Robert D. (2002). "North Atlantic, North Pacific and Southern Right Whales". In William F. Perrin, Bernd Wursig and J. G. M. Thewissen. The Encyclopedia of Marine Mammals. Academic Press. pp. 806–813. ISBN 0-12-551340-2.
^ Katona, S. K. and S. D. Kraus (1999). "Efforts to conserve the North Atlantic right whale". In J. R. Twiss and R. R. Reeves. Conservation and Management of Marine Mammals. Smithsonian Press. pp. 311–331.
^ Moore, M. (November 3, 2004). "Whither the North Atlantic Right Whale?: Scientists explore many facets of whales' lives to help species on the edge of extinction". Woods Hole Oceangraphic Institution. Retrieved August 10, 2012.
^ Notarbartolo di Sciara, G., E. Politi, A. Bayed, P.-C. Beaubrun and A. Knowlton (1998). "A winter cetacean survey off Southern Morocco, with a special emphasis on suitable habitats for wintering right whales". Sci. Rep. Int. Whaling Commission, SC/49/O3, 48: 547–550.
^ Martin AR, Walker FJ (May 16, 1996). "Sighting of a right whale (Eubalaena glacialis) with calf off S. W. Portugal". Marine Mammal Science 13 (1): 139–140. doi:10.1111/j.1748-7692.1997.tb00617.x. Retrieved October 26, 2006.
^ Jacobsen, K.O.; Marx, M.; Øien, N. (2003-05-21). "TWO-WAY TRANS-ATLANTIC MIGRATION OF A NORTH ATLANTIC RIGHT WHALE (EUBALAENA GLACIALIS)". Marine Mammal Science 20 (1): 161. doi:10.1111/j.1748-7692.2004.tb01147.x. Retrieved 2006-10-26.
^ Viegas, Jennifer (June 30, 2010). "Smallest whale population identified". Discovery News. Retrieved May 19, 2012.
^ ^a ^b Rincon, Paul (December 3, 2003). "Northern Right Whales respond to emergency sirens". BBC News. Retrieved May 10, 2012.
^ "North Pacific Right Whale". Alaska Sea Grant Marine Education. Retrieved August 9, 2012.
^ "Southern right whales of Patagonia" (PDF). Whale and Dolphin Conservation Society. Retrieved August 7, 2012.
^ Gaines CA, Hare MP, Beck SE, Rosenbaum HC (March 7, 2005). "Nuclear markers confirm taxonomic status and relationships among highly endangered and closely related right whale species". Proceedings of the Royal Society B 272 (1562): 533–542. doi:10.1098/rspb.2004.2895. PMC 1578701. PMID 15846869.
^ Scarff, JE (2001). "Preliminary estimates of whaling-induced mortality in the 19th century Pacific northern right whale (Eubalaena glacialis) fishery, adjusting for struck-but-lost whales and non-American whaling". J. Cetacean Res. Manage (Special Issue 2): 261–268.
^ Tonnessen, J.N.; Johnsen, A.O. (1982). The History of Modern Whaling. United Kingdom: C. Hurst & Co. ISBN 0-905838-23-8.
^ Reeves, Randall R.; Stewart, Brent S.; Clapham, Phillip J.; Powell, James. A. (2002). National Audubon Society: Guide to Marine Mammals of the World. United States: Alfred A. Knopf, Inc. ISBN 0-375-41141-0.
^ "Whale Watching in Hermanus at the Windsor Hotel". Windsor Hotel website. Retrieved August 10, 2012.
^ "Hermanus Whale Crier". SA Venues.com. Retrieved August 7, 2012.
^ "News From Brazil". Cetacean Society International. Retrieved August 10, 2012.
^ Ribeiro, P. "Whale Watching in Santa Catarina, Brazil: Fascinating Encounters With Southern Right Whales". About.com Brazil Travel. Retrieved August 10, 2012.
^ "Ocean Alliance website". Oceanalliance.org. Retrieved May 10, 2012.
^ "North Atlantic Right Whales (Eubalaena glacialis)". NOAA Fisheries Office of Protected Resources. National Marine Fisheries Service. Retrieved 4 September 2012.
^ "North Pacific Right Whales (Eubalaena japonica)". NOAA Fisheries Office of Protected Resources. National Marine Fisheries Service. Retrieved 4 September 2012.
^ ^a ^b "Southern Right Whales (Eubalaena australis)". NOAA Fisheries Office of Protected Resources. National Marine Fisheries Service. Retrieved 4 September 2012.
^ Author not specified (November 28, 2001). "Right whales need extra protection". BBC News (BBC News). Retrieved May 2, 2006.
^ The Southeast United States Right Whale Recovery Plan Implementation Team and the Northeast Implementation Team (November 2005). "NMFS and Coast Guard Inactions Bring Litigation" (PDF). Right Whale News 12 (4). Retrieved May 2, 2006.
^ "Área de Proteção Ambiental" (in Portuguese). Projeto Baleia Franca. Retrieved 4 September 2012.
^ NOAA. Proposed Strategy to Reduce Ship Strikes to North Atlantic Right Whales.
^ ^a ^b NOAA (December 8, 2008). "Press Release on Effective Date of Speed Regulations" (PDF). Retrieved December 21, 2008.
^ Vanderlaan & Taggart (2007). "Vessel collisions with whales: the probability of lethal injury based on vessel speed" (PDF). Mar. Mam. Sci. Retrieved May 10, 2008.
^ "Atlantic Large Whale Take Reduction Plan". National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 1997. Retrieved May 2, 2006.
^ "Whales Entangled In Fishing Lines: What Can Be Done?". Science Daily. Retrieved August 7, 2012.
^ "Whale Defenders Lose Navy Training Challenge". Courthouse News Service. Retrieved 2012-09-20.
^ "Right Whales Wronged: Judge allows Navy to expand sonar use in Florida calving area". Retrieved 2012-10-09.
^ "Poor calving season for right whales". savannahnow.com.

External links

IUCN Red List entry
Right Whale Lesson Plan from Smithsonian Education
North Atlantic Right Whale on the Smithsonian Ocean Portal
National Library for the Environment
The Fall and Rise of the Right Whale, New York Times, March 16, 2009

English Journal

Effects of fishing rope strength on the severity of large whale entanglements.

Knowlton AR1, Robbins J2, Landry S2, McKenna HA3, Kraus SD1, Werner TB1,4.
Conservation biology : the journal of the Society for Conservation Biology.Conserv Biol.2016 Apr;30(2):318-28. doi: 10.1111/cobi.12590. Epub 2015 Dec 1.
Entanglement in fixed fishing gear affects whales worldwide. In the United States, deaths of North Atlantic right (Eubalaena glacialis) and humpback whales (Megaptera novaeangliae) have exceeded management limits for decades. We examined live and dead whales entangled in fishing gear along the U.S.
PMID 26183819

Evolutionary loss of cone photoreception in balaenid whales reveals circuit stability in the mammalian retina.

Schweikert LE1, Fasick JI2, Grace MS1.
The Journal of comparative neurology.J Comp Neurol.2016 Mar 12. doi: 10.1002/cne.23996. [Epub ahead of print]
The classical understanding of mammalian vision is that it occurs through "duplex" retinae containing both rod and cone photoreceptors, the signals from which are processed through rod- and/or cone-specific signaling pathways. The recent discovery of rod monochromacy in some cetacean lineages provid
PMID 26972896

Effects of Model Formulation on Estimates of Health in Individual Right Whales (Eubalaena glacialis).

Schick RS1, Kraus SD2, Rolland RM3, Knowlton AR4, Hamilton PK5, Pettis HM6, Thomas L7, Harwood J8, Clark JS9.
Advances in experimental medicine and biology.Adv Exp Med Biol.2016;875:977-85. doi: 10.1007/978-1-4939-2981-8_121.
Right whales are vulnerable to many sources of anthropogenic disturbance including ship strikes, entanglement with fishing gear, and anthropogenic noise. The effect of these factors on individual health is unclear. A statistical model using photographic evidence of health was recently built to infer
PMID 26611058

Japanese Journal

North Atlantic right whales (Eubalaena glacialis) ignore ships but respond to alerting stimuli

NOWACEK D. P.
Proc. R. Soc. Lond. B 271, 227-231, 2004
NAID 30018911207

World-wide genetic differentiation of Eubalaena : questioning the number of right whale species

ROSENBAUM H. C.
Molecular Ecology 9, 1793-1802, 2000
NAID 30014875409

Allomorphosis between Body Length at Sexual Maturity and Body Length at Birth in the Cetacea

Ohsumi S.
哺乳動物学雑誌: The Journal of the Mammalogical Society of Japan 3(1), 3-7, 1966
… and <I>Eubalaena</I> …
NAID 130001818257

Related Pictures

★リンクテーブル★

リンク元	「セミクジラ属」「ユーバレナ属」「right whale」
拡張検索	「Eubalaena属」

「セミクジラ属」

Right whales
	A female North Atlantic right whale with her calf in the ocean.
	Size compared to an average human
Scientific classification
Kingdom:	Animalia
Phylum:	Chordata
Class:	Mammalia
Order:	Cetacea
Suborder:	Mysticeti
Family:	Balaenidae
Genus:	Eubalaena; Gray, 1864
Type species
	Balaena australis; Desmoulins, 1822
Species
	E. australis – Southern; (Desmoulins, 1822); †E. belgica Abel, 1941; E. glacialis – North Atlantic; (Müller, 1776); E. japonica – North Pacific; (Lacépède, 1818); †E. shinshuensis; Kimura & Narita, 2007;
	Ranges Eubalaena glacialis Ranges Eubalaena australis Ranges Eubalaena japonica
Synonyms
	Baloena Robineau, 1989; Halibalaena Gray, 1873; Hunterius Gray, 1866; Hunterus Gray, 1864; Macleayanus Marschall, 1873; Macleayius Gray, 1865;

　　[★]

ラ: Eubalaena
関: Eubalaena属、セミクジラ、ユーバレナ属

「ユーバレナ属」

　　[★]

ラ: Eubalaena
関: セミクジラ属、Eubalaena属、セミクジラ

「right whale」

　　[★]

セミクジラ

関: Eubalaena

「Eubalaena属」

　　[★]

ラ: Eubalaena
関: セミクジラ属、セミクジラ、ユーバレナ属

[69] The Lloyd's mirror effect results in low frequency propeller sounds not being discernible near the surface, where most accidents occur. Combined with spreading and acoustic shadowing effects, the result is that the marine animal is unable to hear an approaching vessel before it has been run over or entrapped by the hydrodynamic forces of the vessel's passage.

[msw3-1] Mead, J. G.; Brownell, R. L., Jr. (2005). "Order Cetacea". In Wilson, D. E.; Reeder, D. M. Mammal Species of the World (3rd ed.). Johns Hopkins University Press. pp. 723–743. ISBN 978-0-8018-8221-0. OCLC 62265494.

[iucn-australis-2] Reilly, S.B.; Bannister, J.L.; Best, P.B.; Brown, M.; Brownell Jr.; R.L., Butterworth, D.S.; Clapham, P.J.; Cooke, J.; Donovan, G.P.; Urbán, J.; Zerbini, A.N. (2008). "Eubalaena australis". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Version 2012.1. International Union for Conservation of Nature. Retrieved 30 September 2012.

[3] Abel, O. (1941). "Vorlaufige Mitteilungen über die Revision der fossilen Mystacoceten aus dem Tertiar Belgiens". Bulletin du Museum Royal d'Historie Naturelles du Belgique 17 (32): 1–29.

[iucn-glacialis-4] Reilly, S.B.; Bannister, J.L.; Best, P.B.; Brown, M.; Brownell Jr.; R.L., Butterworth, D.S.; Clapham, P.J.; Cooke, J.; Donovan, G.P.; Urbán, J.; Zerbini, A.N. (2008). "Eubalaena glacialis". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Version 2012.1. International Union for Conservation of Nature. Retrieved 30 September 2012.

[iucn-japonica-5] Reilly, S.B.; Bannister, J.L.; Best, P.B.; Brown, M.; Brownell Jr.; R.L., Butterworth, D.S.; Clapham, P.J.; Cooke, J.; Donovan, G.P.; Urbán, J.; Zerbini, A.N. (2008). "Eubalaena japonica". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Version 2012.1. International Union for Conservation of Nature. Retrieved 30 September 2012.

[6] Kimura, T.; Narita, K. (2007). "A new species of Eubalaena (Cetacea: Mysticeti: Balaenidae) from the Gonda Formation (latest Miocene-early Pliocene) of Japan". Bulletin of the Gunma Museum of Natural History 11: 15–27.

[syns-7] Perrin, W.F. (2012). "Eubalaena Gray, 1864". World Cetacea Database. Retrieved 29 September 2012.

[Ivashchenko_Clapham2011-8] Ivashchenko YV and Clapham PJ (2011). "Pushed to the Edge: Soviet Catches of Right Whales in the Eastern North Pacific". Alaska Fisheries Science Center Quarterly Research Reports (Apr–May–June 2011).

[ADW-9] Crane, J.; Scott, R. (2002). "Eubalaena glacialis: North Atlantic right whale: Information". Animal Diversity Web. University of Michigan Museum of Zoology. Retrieved April 30, 2006.

[Feldhamer-10] Feldhamer, George A.; Thompson, Bruce C.; Chapman, Joseph A. (2003). Wild mammals of North America : biology, management, and conservation (2nd ed. ed.). Baltimore, Md.: Johns Hopkins University Press. p. 432. ISBN 9780801874161.

[noaa5year-11] "North Atlantic right whale (Eubalaena glacialis) 5-year review: Summary and Evaluation" (PDF). Gloucester, MA: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Fisheries Service. August 2012. Retrieved 9 December 2012. The western North Atlantic population numbered at least 361 individuals in 2005 and at least 396 in 2010 (Waring et al. 2012).

[iucn-japonica-EAST-12] Reilly, S.B.; Bannister, J.L.; Best, P.B.; Brown, M.; Brownell Jr.; R.L., Butterworth, D.S.; Clapham, P.J.; Cooke, J.; Donovan, G.P.; Urbán, J.; Zerbini, A.N. (2008). "Eubalaena japonica (Northeast Pacific subpopulation)". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Version 2012.1. International Union for Conservation of Nature. Retrieved 30 September 2012.

[CA-SAR-2007-13] Fisheries and Oceans Canada (2007). "Recovery potential assessment for right whale (Western North Atlantic population)" (PDF). Canadian Science Advisory Secretariat Science Advisory Report 2007/027. Retrieved 17 June 2011.

[14] "North Atlantic right whale | Basic Facts About Right Whales | Defenders of Wildlife". Defenders.org. Retrieved May 10, 2012.

[15] Dolin, Eric Jay (2007). Leviathan: The History of Whaling in America. W.W. Norton & Co. p. 22. ISBN 0-393-06057-8. Retrieved 30 September 2012. ; (quoting "Boston, August 21". Connecticut Courant. 1 September 1766. ); (also quoting Spears. The Story of the New England Whalers. pp. 80–81. )

[Muller-16] Müller, J. (1954). "Observations of the orbital region of the skull of the Mystacoceti" (PDF). Zoologische Mededelingen 32: 239–90.

[17] Rice, Dale W. (1998). Marine mammals of the world: systematics and distribution. Society of Marine Mammalogy, Special Publication No. 4. ISBN 1891276034.

[Rosenbaum-18] Rosenbaum, H. C., R. L. Brownell Jr.; M. W. Brown C. Schaeff, V. Portway, B. N. White, S. Malik, L. A. Pastene, N. J. Patenaude, C. S. Baker, M. Goto, P. Best, P. J. Clapham, P. Hamilton, M. Moore, R. Payne, V. Rowntree, C. T. Tynan, J. L. Bannister and R. Desalle (2000). "World-wide genetic differentiation of Eubalaena: Questioning the number of right whale species" (PDF). Molecular Ecology 9 (11): 1793–802. doi:10.1046/j.1365-294x.2000.01066.x. PMID 11091315.

[Malik-19] Malik, S., M. W. Brown, S.D. Kraus and B.N. White (2000). "Analysis of mitochondrial DNA diversity within and between North and South Atlantic right whales". Marine Mammal Science 16 (3): 545–558. doi:10.1111/j.1748-7692.2000.tb00950.x.

[20] Brownell, R. L. Jr., P.J. Clapham, T. Miyashita and T. Kasuya (2001). "Conservation status of North Pacific right whales". Journal of Cetacean Research and Management (Special Issue) 2: 269–286.

[SMM-21] "List of Marine Mammal Species and Subspecies". Committee on Taxonomy. Society for Marine Mammology. 3 April 2012. Retrieved 29 September 2012.

[PerrinWursig2008-22] ^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g Kenney, Robert D. (2008). "Right Whales (Eubalaena glacialis, E. japonica, and E. australis)". In Perrin, W. F.; Wursig, B.; Thewissen, J. G. M. Encyclopedia of Marine Mammals. Academic Press. pp. 962–69. ISBN 978-0-12-373553-9. Retrieved 20 May 2012.

[23] Kaliszewska, Z. A., J. Seger, S. G. Barco, R. Benegas, P. B. Best, M. W. Brown, R. L. Brownell Jr., A. Carribero, R. Harcourt, A. R. Knowlton, K. Marshalltilas, N. J. Patenaude, M. Rivarola, C. M. Schaeff, M. Sironi, W. A. Smith & T. K. Yamada (2005). "Population histories of right whales (Cetacea: Eubalaena) inferred from mitochondrial sequence diversities and divergences of their whale lice (Amphipoda: Cyamus)". Molecular Ecology 14 (11): 3439–3456. doi:10.1111/j.1365-294X.2005.02664.x. PMID 16156814.

[paleo-24] Palaeobiology and Biodiversity Research Group, University of Bristol

[BBCWhaleLice-25] Ross, Alison (September 20, 2005). "Whale riders' reveal evolution". BBC News.

[26] "Prehistoric Whale Discovered On The West Coast Of Sweden". Sciencedaily.com. June 5, 2009. Retrieved May 10, 2012.

[27] Perrin, W.F. (2012). "Hunterius swedenborgii Lilljeborg, 1867". World Cetacea Database. Retrieved 29 September 2012.

[28] "Whale bones found in highway were not from mystery whale". ScienceNordic.com. February 7, 2013. Retrieved March 26, 2013.

[Melville-29] Melville, Herman (1892). "XXXII Cetology". Moby Dick: or, the White Whale. Boston: L.C. Page & Company. p. 131.

[30] Perrin, W.F. (2012). "Eubalaena australis Desmoulins, 1822". World Cetacea Database. Retrieved 29 September 2012.

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Eubalaena