This article is about concepts called Darwinism. For biological evolution, see evolution. For modern evolutionary theory, see modern evolutionary synthesis. For Wallace's defence of the theory of natural selection, see Darwinism (book).
Darwinism originally included the broad concepts of transmutation of species or of evolution which gained general scientific acceptance when Charles Darwin published On the Origin of Species, including concepts which predated Darwin's theories, but subsequently referred to specific concepts of natural selection, the Weismann barrier or in genetics the central dogma of molecular biology.[1] Though it usually refers strictly to biological evolution, the term has been used by creationists to refer to the origin of life, and has even been applied to concepts of cosmic evolution, both fields which have no connection to Darwin's work. It is therefore considered the belief and acceptance of Darwin's, and his predecessors, work in place of other theories including divine design and extraterrestrial origins.[2][3]
The meaning of "Darwinism" has changed over time, and varies depending on its context.[4] In the United States, the term "Darwinism" is often used by creationists as a pejorative term in reference to beliefs such as atheistic naturalism, but in the United Kingdom the term has no negative connotations, being freely used as a shorthand for the body of theory dealing with evolution, and in particular, evolution by natural selection.[5]
The term was coined by Thomas Henry Huxley in April 1860,[6] and was used to describe evolutionary concepts in general, including earlier concepts such as Spencerism. Many of the proponents of Darwinism at that time, including Huxley, had reservations about the significance of natural selection, and Darwin himself gave credence to what was later called Lamarckism. The strict neo-Darwinism of August Weismann gained few supporters in the late 19th century. During this period, which has been called "the eclipse of Darwinism", scientists proposed various alternative evolutionary mechanisms which eventually proved untenable. The development of the modern evolutionary synthesis from the 1930s to the 1950s, incorporating natural selection with population genetics and Mendelian genetics, revived Darwinism in an updated form.[7]
While the term has remained in use amongst scientific authors when referring to modern evolutionary theory, it has increasingly been argued that it is an inappropriate term for modern evolutionary theory.[5][8] For example, Darwin was unfamiliar with the work of Gregor Mendel,[9] and as a result had only a vague and inaccurate understanding of heredity. He naturally had no inkling of yet more recent developments and, like Mendel himself, knew nothing of genetic drift for example.[10]
Contents
- 1 Conceptions of Darwinism
- 2 19th-century usage
- 3 Other uses
- 4 See also
- 5 Notes
- 6 References
- 7 External links
Conceptions of Darwinism[edit]
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As "Darwinism" became widely accepted in the 1870s, caricatures of Charles Darwin with an ape or monkey body symbolised evolution.
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While the term Darwinism had been used previously to refer to the work of Erasmus Darwin in the late 18th century, the term as understood today was introduced when Charles Darwin's 1859 book On the Origin of Species was reviewed by Thomas Henry Huxley in the April 1860 issue of the Westminster Review.[12] Having hailed the book as, "a veritable Whitworth gun in the armoury of liberalism" promoting scientific naturalism over theology, and praising the usefulness of Darwin's ideas while expressing professional reservations about Darwin's gradualism and doubting if it could be proved that natural selection could form new species,[13] Huxley compared Darwin's achievement to that of Copernicus in explaining planetary motion:
What if the orbit of Darwinism should be a little too circular? What if species should offer residual phenomena, here and there, not explicable by natural selection? Twenty years hence naturalists may be in a position to say whether this is, or is not, the case; but in either event they will owe the author of "The Origin of Species" an immense debt of gratitude...... And viewed as a whole, we do not believe that, since the publication of Von Baer's "Researches on Development," thirty years ago, any work has appeared calculated to exert so large an influence, not only on the future of Biology, but in extending the domination of Science over regions of thought into which she has, as yet, hardly penetrated.[6]
Another important evolutionary theorist of the same period was Peter Kropotkin who, in his book Mutual Aid: A Factor of Evolution, advocated a conception of Darwinism counter to that of Huxley. His conception was centred around what he saw as the widespread use of co-operation as a survival mechanism in human societies and animals. He used biological and sociological arguments in an attempt to show that the main factor in facilitating evolution is cooperation between individuals in free-associated societies and groups. This was in order to counteract the conception of fierce competition as the core of evolution, which provided a rationalisation for the dominant political, economic and social theories of the time; and the prevalent interpretations of Darwinism, such as those by Huxley, who is targeted as an opponent by Kropotkin. Kropotkin's conception of Darwinism could be summed up by the following quote:
In the animal world we have seen that the vast majority of species live in societies, and that they find in association the best arms for the struggle for life: understood, of course, in its wide Darwinian sense – not as a struggle for the sheer means of existence, but as a struggle against all natural conditions unfavourable to the species. The animal species, in which individual struggle has been reduced to its narrowest limits, and the practice of mutual aid has attained the greatest development, are invariably the most numerous, the most prosperous, and the most open to further progress. The mutual protection which is obtained in this case, the possibility of attaining old age and of accumulating experience, the higher intellectual development, and the further growth of sociable habits, secure the maintenance of the species, its extension, and its further progressive evolution. The unsociable species, on the contrary, are doomed to decay.
— Peter Kropotkin, Mutual Aid: A Factor of Evolution (1902), Conclusion.
19th-century usage[edit]
"Darwinism" soon came to stand for an entire range of evolutionary (and often revolutionary) philosophies about both biology and society. One of the more prominent approaches, summed in the 1864 phrase "survival of the fittest" by the philosopher Herbert Spencer, later became emblematic of Darwinism even though Spencer's own understanding of evolution (as expressed in 1857) was more similar to that of Jean-Baptiste Lamarck than to that of Darwin, and predated the publication of Darwin's theory in 1859. What is now called "Social Darwinism" was, in its day, synonymous with "Darwinism" — the application of Darwinian principles of "struggle" to society, usually in support of anti-philanthropic political agenda. Another interpretation, one notably favoured by Darwin's half-cousin Francis Galton, was that "Darwinism" implied that because natural selection was apparently no longer working on "civilized" people, it was possible for "inferior" strains of people (who would normally be filtered out of the gene pool) to overwhelm the "superior" strains, and voluntary corrective measures would be desirable — the foundation of eugenics.
In Darwin's day there was no rigid definition of the term "Darwinism," and it was used by opponents and proponents of Darwin's biological theory alike to mean whatever they wanted it to in a larger context. The ideas had international influence, and Ernst Haeckel developed what was known as Darwinismus in Germany, although, like Spencer's "evolution", Haeckel's "Darwinism" had only a rough resemblance to the theory of Charles Darwin, and was not centred on natural selection at all. In 1886 Alfred Russel Wallace went on a lecture tour across the United States, starting in New York and going via Boston, Washington, Kansas, Iowa and Nebraska to California, lecturing on what he called "Darwinism" without any problems.[14]
Other uses[edit]
The term Darwinism is often used in the United States by promoters of creationism, notably by leading members of the intelligent design movement, as an epithet to attack evolution as though it were an ideology (an "ism") of philosophical naturalism, or atheism.[15] For example, Phillip E. Johnson makes this accusation of atheism with reference to Charles Hodge's book What Is Darwinism?.[16] However, unlike Johnson, Hodge confined the term to exclude those like Asa Gray who combined Christian faith with support for Darwin's natural selection theory, before answering the question posed in the book's title by concluding: "It is Atheism."[17][18][19] Creationists use the term Darwinism, often pejoratively, to imply that the theory has been held as true only by Darwin and a core group of his followers, whom they cast as dogmatic and inflexible in their belief.[20] In the 2008 movie Expelled: No Intelligence Allowed which promotes intelligent design, Ben Stein refers to scientists as Darwinists. Reviewing the film for Scientific American, John Rennie says "The term is a curious throwback, because in modern biology almost no one relies solely on Darwin's original ideas... Yet the choice of terminology isn't random: Ben Stein wants you to stop thinking of evolution as an actual science supported by verifiable facts and logical arguments and to start thinking of it as a dogmatic, atheistic ideology akin to Marxism." [21]
However, Darwinism is also used neutrally within the scientific community to distinguish modern evolutionary theories, sometimes called "Neo-Darwinism", from those first proposed by Darwin. Darwinism also is used neutrally by historians to differentiate his theory from other evolutionary theories current around the same period. For example, Darwinism may be used to refer to Darwin's proposed mechanism of natural selection, in comparison to more recent mechanisms such as genetic drift and gene flow. It may also refer specifically to the role of Charles Darwin as opposed to others in the history of evolutionary thought — particularly contrasting Darwin's results with those of earlier theories such as Lamarckism or later ones such as the modern synthesis.
In political discussions in the United States, the term is mostly used by its enemies. "It's a rhetorical device to make evolution seem like a kind of faith, like 'Maoism,'" says Harvard biologist E.O. Wilson. He adds, "Scientists don't call it 'Darwinism'."[22] In the United Kingdom the term often retains its positive sense as a reference to natural selection, and for example Richard Dawkins wrote in his collection of essays A Devil's Chaplain, published in 2003, that as a scientist he is a Darwinist.[23]
In his 1995 book Darwinian Fairytales, Australian philosopher David Stove[24] used the term "Darwinism" in a different sense than the above examples. Describing himself as non-religious and as accepting the concept of natural selection as a well-established fact, Stove nonetheless attacked what he described as flawed concepts proposed by some "Ultra-Darwinists". Stove alleged that by using weak or false ad hoc reasoning, these Ultra-Darwinists used evolutionary concepts to offer explanations that were not valid (e.g., Stove suggested that sociobiological explanation of altruism as an evolutionary feature was presented in such a way that the argument was effectively immune to any criticism.) Philosopher Simon Blackburn wrote a rejoinder to Stove,[25] though a subsequent essay by Stove's protegee James Franklin's[26] suggested that Blackburn's response actually "confirms Stove's central thesis that Darwinism can 'explain' anything."
See also[edit]
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Evolutionary biology portal |
- Darwinism (book)
- Modern evolutionary synthesis
- Neo-Darwinism
- Neural Darwinism
- Social Darwinism
- Darwin Awards
- Pangenesis - Charles Darwin's hypothetical mechanism for heredity
- Universal Darwinism
- Speciation
- History of evolutionary thought
Notes[edit]
- ^ John Wilkins (1998). "How to be Anti-Darwinian". TalkOrigins Archive. Retrieved 19 June 2008.
- ^ "Expelled Exposed: Why Expelled Flunks » …on what evolution explains". National Center for Science Education. Retrieved 22 December 2008.
- ^ based on a European Southern Observatory release (9 December 2006). "Galactic Darwinism :: Astrobiology Magazine - earth science - evolution distribution Origin of life universe - life beyond :: Astrobiology is study of earth science evolution distribution Origin of life in universe terrestrial". Retrieved 22 December 2008.
- ^ Joel Hanes. "What is Darwinism?". TalkOrigins Archive. Retrieved 19 June 2008.
- ^ a b Scott, Eugenie C.; Branch, Glenn (16 January 2009). "Don’t Call it "Darwinism"". Evolution: Education and Outreach (New York: Springer) 2 (1): 90. doi:10.1007/s12052-008-0111-2. ISSN 1936-6434. Retrieved 17 November 2009.
- ^ a b Huxley, T.H. (April 1860). "ART. VIII.- Darwin on the origin of Species". Westminster Review. pp. 541–70. Retrieved 19 June 2008. "What if the orbit of Darwinism should be a little too circular?"
- ^ Bowler 2003, pp. 179, 222–225, 338–3399, 347
- ^ Olivia Judson (15 July 2008). "Let’s Get Rid of Darwinism". New York Times.
- ^ Sclater, Andrew (June 2006). "The extent of Charles Darwin’s knowledge of Mendel". Journal of Biosciences (Bangalore, India: Springer India / Indian Academy of Sciences) 31 (2): 191–193. doi:10.1007/BF02703910. PMID 16809850. Retrieved 3 January 2009.
- ^ Laurence Moran (1993). "Random Genetic Drift". TalkOrigins Archive. Retrieved 27 June 2008.
- ^ Browne 2002, pp. 376–379
- ^ "The Huxley File § 4 Darwin's Bulldog". Retrieved 29 June 2008.
- ^ Browne 2002, pp. 105–106
- ^ "Evolution and Wonder - Understanding Charles Darwin - Speaking of Faith from American Public Media". Retrieved 27 July 2007.
- ^ Scott, Eugenie C. (2008). "Creation Science Lite: "Intelligent Design" as the New Anti-Evolutionism". In Godfrey, Laurie R.; Petto, Andrew J. Scientists Confront Creationism: Intelligent Design and Beyond. New York: W. W. Norton. p. 72. ISBN 0-393-33073-7
- ^ Johnson, Phillip E. "What is Darwinism?". Retrieved 4 January 2007.
- ^ Matthew, Ropp. "Charles Hodge and His Objection to Darwinism". Retrieved 4 January 2007.
- ^ Hodge, Charles. "What is Darwinism?". Retrieved 4 January 2007.
- ^ Hodge, Charles (1874). What is Darwinism?. Scribner, Armstrong, and Company. OCLC 11489956.
- ^ Sullivan, M (2005). "From the Beagle to the School Board: God Goes Back to School". Impact Press. Retrieved 18 September 2008.
- ^ Ben Stein's Expelled: No Integrity Displayed, Scientific American.
- ^ Newsweek Nov 28, 2005
- ^ Sheahen, Laura. Religion: For Dummies. BeliefNet.com, interview about 2003 book.
- ^ Stove, David (1995). Darwinian Fairytales: Selfish Gees, Errors of Heredity and Other Fables of Evolution. Avebury, ISBN 1-85972-306-3
- ^ Blackburn, Simon. "I Rather Think I am a Darwinian" Philosophy, Vol. 71, 1996, pp. 605 - 616
- ^ Franklin, James. "Stove's Anti-Darwinism" Philosophy, Vol. 72, No. 279 (Jan., 1997), pp. 133-136
References[edit]
- Bowler, Peter J. (2003). Evolution: The History of an Idea (3rd ed.). University of California Press. ISBN 0-520-23693-9.
- Browne, E. Janet (2002). Charles Darwin: Vol. 2 The Power of Place. London: Jonathan Cape. ISBN 0-7126-6837-3.
- Gopnik, Adam (2009). Angels and Ages: A Short Book About Darwin, Lincoln, and Modern Life. London: Quercus. ISBN 978-1-84724-929-6.
External links[edit]
- Universal Darwinism
- (Russian) Nikolai Danilevsky. 1885-1889 Darwinism. A Critical Study (Дарвинизм. Критическое исследование) at Runivers.ru in DjVu format
- Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy entry
- What is Darwinism
