| Vermiform Appendix |
Drawing of colon seen from front
(appendix coloured red)
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Arteries of cecum and appendix (appendix labeled as vermiform process at lower right)
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| Latin |
Appendix vermiformis |
| Gray's |
p.1178 |
| System |
Digestive system |
| Artery |
Appendicular artery |
| Vein |
Appendicular vein |
| Precursor |
Midgut |
| MeSH |
Appendix |
Dorlands
/Elsevier |
Vermiform appendix |
The appendix (or vermiform appendix; also cecal [or caecal] appendix; also vermix) is a blind-ended tube connected to the cecum, from which it develops embryologically. The cecum is a pouchlike structure of the colon. The appendix is located near the junction of the small intestine and the large intestine.
The term "vermiform" comes from Latin and means "worm-shaped".
Contents
- 1 Structure
- 2 Function
- 2.1 Vestigiality
- 2.2 Maintaining gut flora
- 3 Clinical significance
- 3.1 Appendicitis
- 3.2 Surgery
- 4 History
- 5 Additional images
- 6 References
- 7 Further reading
Structure
The human's appendix averages 11 cm in length but can range from 2 to 20 cm. The diameter of the appendix is usually between 7 and 8 mm. The longest appendix ever removed measured 26 cm from a patient in Zagreb, Croatia.[1] The appendix is located in the right lower quadrant of the abdomen, near the right hip bone. Its position within the abdomen corresponds to a point on the surface known as McBurney's point (see below).
Variation
While the base of the appendix is at a fairly constant location, 2 cm below the ileocecal valve, the location of the tip of the appendix can vary from being retrocecal (behind the cecum) (74%)[2] to being in the pelvis to being extraperitoneal.
Function
Vestigiality
The human appendix has been proposed to be a vestigial structure, a structure that has lost all or most of its original function through the process of evolution. The vermiform appendix has been proposed to be the shrunken remainder of the cecum that was found in a remote ancestor of humans, but a 2013 study refutes the idea of an inverse relationship between cecum size and appendix size and presence.[3] Ceca, which are found in the digestive tracts of many extant herbivores, house mutualistic bacteria which help animals digest the cellulose molecules that are found in plants.[4]
It is widely present in the Euarchontoglires and has also evolved independently in the diprotodont marsupials, monotremes, and is highly diverse in size and shape.[5][3]
A possible scenario for the progression from a fully functional cecum to the current human appendix was put forth by Charles Darwin.[6] He suggested that the appendix was used for digesting leaves as primates. It may be a vestigial organ of ancient humans that has degraded to nearly nothing over the course of evolution. The very long cecum of some herbivorous animals, such as found in the horse or the koala, appears to support this theory. The koala's cecum enables it to host bacteria that specifically help to break down cellulose. Human ancestors may have also relied upon this system when they lived on a diet rich in foliage. As people began to eat more easily digested foods, they may have become less reliant on cellulose-rich plants for energy. As the cecum became less necessary for digestion, mutations that were previously deleterious (and would have hindered evolutionary progress) were no longer important, so the mutations have survived. It's suggested that these alleles became more frequent and the cecum continued to shrink. After millions of years, the once-necessary cecum degraded to be the appendix of today.[6]
Maintaining gut flora
Possible function of the human vermiform appendix as a "safe house" for beneficial bacteria in the recovery from diarrhea.
Although it was long accepted that the immune tissue, called gut associated lymphoid tissue, surrounding the appendix and elsewhere in the gut carries out a number of important functions, explanations were lacking for the distinctive shape of the appendix and its apparent lack of importance as judged by an absence of side effects following appendectomy.[7]
William Parker, Randy Bollinger, and colleagues at Duke University proposed in 2007 that the appendix serves as a haven for useful bacteria when illness flushes those bacteria from the rest of the intestines.[8][9] This proposal is based on a new understanding of how the immune system supports the growth of beneficial intestinal bacteria,[10][11] in combination with many well-known features of the appendix, including its architecture, its location just below the normal one-way flow of food and germs in the large intestine, and its association with copious amounts of immune tissue. Research performed at Winthrop University-Hospital showed that individuals without an appendix were four times more likely to have a recurrence of Clostridium difficile.[12] However, other research showed that there is a greater rate of C. difficile infection among people with an appendix than those without.[13]
Clinical significance
An appendiceal carcinoid tumor
The most common diseases of the appendix (in humans) are appendicitis and carcinoid tumors (appendiceal carcinoid).[14] Appendix cancer accounts for about 1 in 200 of all gastrointestinal malignancies. In rare cases, adenomas are also present.[15]
Appendicitis
Main article: Appendicitis
Appendicitis (or epityphlitis) is a condition characterized by inflammation of the appendix. Pain often begins in the center of the abdomen, corresponding to the appendix's development as part of the embryonic midgut. This pain is typically a dull, poorly localized, visceral pain.[16]
As the inflammation progresses, the pain begins to localize more clearly to the right lower quadrant, as the peritoneum becomes inflamed. This peritoneal inflammation, or peritonitis, results in rebound tenderness (pain upon removal of pressure rather than application of pressure). In particular, it presents at McBurney's point, 1/3 of the way along a line drawn from the anterior superior iliac spine to the umbilicus. Typically, point (skin) pain is not present until the parietal peritoneum is inflamed, as well. Fever and an immune system response are also characteristic of appendicitis.[16]
Appendicitis usually requires removal of the inflamed appendix, either by laparotomy or laparoscopy. Untreated, the appendix may rupture, leading to peritonitis, followed by shock, and, if still untreated, death.[16]
Surgery
The surgical removal of the vermiform appendix is called an appendectomy, or appendicectomy.[17] This removal is normally performed as an emergency procedure when the patient is suffering from acute appendicitis. In the absence of surgical facilities, intravenous antibiotics are used to delay or avoid the onset of sepsis. In some cases, the appendicitis resolves completely; more often, an inflammatory mass forms around the appendix. This is a relative contraindication to surgery.
The appendix is also used for the construction of an efferent urinary conduit, in an operation known as the Mitrofanoff procedure,[18] in people with a neurogenic bladder.
The appendix is also used as a means to access the colon in children with paralysed bowels or major rectal sphincter problems. The appendix is brought out to the skin surface and the child/parent can then attach a catheter and easily wash out the colon (via normal defaecation) using an appropriate solution.[19]
History
Dr. Heather F. Smith of Arizona State University explained:
Recently... improved understanding of gut immunity has merged with current thinking in biological and medical science, pointing to an apparent function of the mammalian cecal appendix as a safe-house for symbiotic gut microbes, preserving the flora during times of gastrointestinal infection in societies without modern medicine. This function is potentially a selective force for the evolution and maintenance of the appendix. Three morphotypes of cecal-appendices can be described among mammals based primarily on the shape of the cecum: a distinct appendix branching from a rounded or sac-like cecum (as in many primate species),an appendix located at the apex of a long and voluminous cecum (as in the rabbit, greater glider and Cape dune mole rat), and an appendix in the absence of a pronounced cecum (as in the wombat). In addition, long narrow appendix-like structures are found in mammals that either lack an apparent cecum (as in monotremes) or lack a distinct junction between the cecum and appendix- like structure (as in the koala). A cecal appendix has evolved independently at least twice, and apparently represents yet another example of convergence in morphology between Australian marsupials and placentals in the rest of the world. Although the appendix has apparently been lost by numerous species, it has also been maintained for more than 80 million years in at least one clade.[5]
In a more recent paper, the appendix was found to have evolved at least 32 times (and perhaps as many as 38 times) and to have been lost no more than six times.[3] This suggests that the cecal appendix has a selective advantage in many situations and argues strongly against its vestigial nature. This complex evolutionary history of the appendix, along with a great heterogeneity in its evolutionary rate in various taxa, suggests that it is a recurrent trait.[20]
Such a function may be useful in a culture lacking modern sanitation and healthcare practice, where diarrhea may be prevalent. Current epidemiological data on the cause of death in developed countries collected by the World Health Organization in 2001 show that acute diarrhea is now the fourth leading cause of disease-related death in developing countries (data summarized by The Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation). Two of the other leading causes of death are expected to have exerted limited or no selection pressure.[21][22]
Additional images
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Illustration depicting the location of the appendix in a child
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Normal location of the appendix relative to other organs of the digestive system (frontal view)
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Ileo-cecal valve and vermiform appendix
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Mucinous adenocarcinoma of the appendix tip
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Cross section of the appendix with Enterobius with H&E stain
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Histology of vermiform appendix
References
- ^ "Guinness world record for longest appendix removed". Guinnessworldrecords.com. Retrieved 2011-10-03.
- ^ Paterson-Brown, S. (2007). "15. The acute abdomen and intestinal obstruction". In Parks, Rowan W.; Garden, O. James; Carter, David John; Bradbury, Andrew W.; Forsythe, John L. R. Principles and practice of surgery (5th ed.). Edinburgh: Churchill Livingstone. ISBN 0-443-10157-4.
- ^ a b c Smith H. F., Parker W., Kotzé, S. H., Laurin, M. (2013). "Multiple independent appearances of the cecal appendix in mammalian evolution and an investigation of related ecological and anatomical factors". Comptes rendus Palevol. doi:10.1016/j.crpv.2012.12.001.
- ^ "Animal Structure & Function". Sci.waikato.ac.nz. Retrieved 2011-10-03.
- ^ a b Smith H. F., Fisher R. E., Everett M. L., Thomas A. D., Bollinger, R. R., Parker W. (2009). "Comparative anatomy and phylogenetic distribution of the mammalian cecal appendix". Journal of Evolutionary Biology 22 (10): 1984–1999. doi:10.1111/j.1420-9101.2009.01809.x. PMID 19678866.
- ^ a b Darwin, Charles (1871) "Jim's Jesus". The Descent of Man, and Selection in Relation to Sex. John Murray: London.
- ^ Kumar, Vinay; Robbins, Stanley L.; Cotran, Ramzi S. (1989). Robbins' pathologic basis of disease (4th ed.). Philadelphia: Saunders. pp. 902–3. ISBN 0-7216-2302-6.
- ^ Associated Press. "Scientists may have found appendix's purpose". MSNBC, 5 October 2007. Accessed 17 March 2009.
- ^ Bollinger, R.R.; Barbas, A.S.; Bush, E.L.; Lin, S.S. & Parker. W. (21 December 2007). "Biofilms in the large bowel suggest an apparent function of the human vermiform appendix". Journal of Theoretical Biology 249 (4): 826–831. doi:10.1016/j.jtbi.2007.08.032. ISSN 0022-5193. PMID 17936308. [dead link]
- ^ Sonnenburg J.L., Angenent L.T., Gordon J.I. (June 2004). "Getting a grip on things: how do communities of bacterial symbionts become established in our intestine?". Nat. Immunol. 5 (6): 569–73. doi:10.1038/ni1079. PMID 15164016.
- ^ Everett M.L., Palestrant D., Miller S.E., Bollinger R.R., Parker W. (2004). "Immune exclusion and immune inclusion: a new model of host-bacterial interactions in the gut". Clinical and Applied Immunology Reviews 5 (5): 321–32. doi:10.1016/j.cair.2004.03.001.
- ^ http://blogs.scientificamerican.com/guest-blog/2012/01/02/your-appendix-could-save-your-life/
- ^ Merchant, R.; Mower, W.R.; Ourian, A.; Abrahamian, M.F.; Moran G.J.; Krishnadasan, A.; Talan, D.A.. (17 January 2012). "Association Between Appendectomy and Clostridium difficile Infection". J Clin Med Res 4 (1): 17–19. doi:10.4021/jocmr770w. PMC 3279496. PMID 22383922.
- ^ "Appendix disorders Symptoms, Diagnosis, Treatments and Causes". Wrongdiagnosis.com. Retrieved 2010-05-19.
- ^ "Statistics about Appendix disorder". Wrongdiagnosis.com. Retrieved 2010-05-19.
- ^ a b c Miller R., Kenneth; Levine, Joseph (2002). Biology. Prentice Hall. pp. 92–98. ISBN 0-13-050730-X.
- ^ "appendicectomy - definition of appendicectomy". Farlex Incorporation.
- ^ Mingin G.C., Baskin L.S. (2003). "Surgical management of the neurogenic bladder and bowel". Int Braz J Urol 29 (1): 53–61. doi:10.1590/S1677-55382003000100012. PMID 15745470.
- ^ http://www.healthpoint.co.nz/default,169125.sm;jsessionid=1CD66A058B10550C51041E477C8E7075
- ^ Laurin M., Everett, M.L. Parker W. (2011). "The cecal appendix: one more immune component with a function disturbed by post-industrial culture". Anatomical Record 294 (4): 567–579. doi:10.1002/ar.21357.
- ^ Needs Citation
- ^ Evolution of the Appendix: A Biological 'Remenant' No More; By Duke Medicine News and Communications; Published: Aug. 20, 2009 Updated: Aug. 21, 2009, http://www.dukehealth.org/health_library/news/evolution_of_the_appendix_a_biological_remnant_no_more
Further reading
- Appendix May Actually Have a Purpose—2007 WebMD article
- Anatomy photo:37:12-0102 at the SUNY Downstate Medical Center—"Abdominal Cavity: The Cecum and the Vermiform Appendix"
- "The vestigiality of the human vermiform appendix: A Modern Reappraisal"—evolutionary biology argument that the appendix is vestigial
- Smith, H.F.; R.E. Fisher, M.L. Everett, A.D. Thomas, R. Randal Bollinger, and W. Parker (October 2009). "Comparative anatomy and phylogenetic distribution of the mammalian cecal appendix". Journal of Evolutionary Biology 22 (10): 1984–99. doi:10.1111/j.1420-9101.2009.01809.x. ISSN 1420-9101. PMID 19678866.
- Cho, Jinny. "Scientists refute Darwin's theory on appendix". The Chronicle (Duke University), August 27, 2009. (News article on the above journal article.)
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Anatomy of torso, digestive system: Gastrointestinal tract, excluding mouth (TA A05.3–7, TH H3.04.02-04, GA 11.1141)
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| Upper GI |
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Hypo- pharynx
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- spaces:
- Peripharyngeal space
- Retropharyngeal space
- Parapharyngeal space
- Retrovisceral space
- Retropharyngeal space
- Danger space
- Prevertebral space
- Pterygomandibular raphe
- Pharyngeal raphe
- Buccopharyngeal fascia
- Pharyngobasilar fascia
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Esophagus
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- UES
- LES
- Esophageal glands
- Serosa / Adventitia
- Muscular layer
- Submucosa
- Mucosa
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Stomach
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- by region:
- Greater curvature
- Lesser curvature
- Cardia
- Body
- Fundus
- Pylorus
- by layer:
- Serosa
- Muscular layer
- Submucosa
- Gastric mucosa
- Muscularis mucosa
- Gastric rugae
- Gastric pits
- Gastric gland
- Cardiac glands
- Fundic glands
- Pyloric glands
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| Lower GI |
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Intestine: small
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Layers
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- Serosa
- Subserosa
- Muscular layer
- Circular folds
- Submucosa
- Mucosa
- Muscularis mucosa
- Peyer's patches
- Intestinal villus
- Intestinal gland
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Duodenum
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- Suspensory muscle
- Major duodenal papilla
- Minor duodenal papilla
- Duodenal cap
- Duodenojejunal flexure
- Brunner's glands
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Jejunum
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Ileum
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- Terminal ileum
- Ileocecal valve
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Intestine: large
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Layers
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- Serosa
- Subserosa
- Muscular layer
- Submucosa
- Mucosa
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Cecum
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Colon
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- ascending colon
- hepatic flexure
- transverse colon
- splenic flexure
- descending colon
- sigmoid colon
- continuous
- taenia coli
- haustra
- epiploic appendix
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Rectum
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- Transverse folds of rectum
- Rectal ampulla
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Anal canal
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- Anal columns
- Anal valves
- Anal sinuses
- Pectinate line
- Sphincter ani internus muscle
- Intersphincteric groove
- Sphincter ani externus muscle
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anat (t, g, p)/phys/devp/enzy
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noco/cong/tumr, sysi/epon
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proc, drug (A2A/2B/3/4/5/6/7/14/16), blte
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Systems and organs of the animal anatomy
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| Respiratory system |
- Bronchus
- Trachea
- Lung
- Diaphragm
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| Excretory system |
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| Nervous system |
Brain
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| Immune system |
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| Digestive system |
- Anus
- Colon
- Mouth
- Pancreas
- Rectum
- Small intestine
- Spleen
- Stomach
- Tongue
- Tooth
- Vermiform appendix
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| Other organs |
- Bone
- Ear
- Eye
- Head
- Heart
- Larynx
- Liver
- Nose
- Penis
- Pharynx
- Rhinarium
- Skeleton
- Skin
- Skull
- Tonsil
- Thymus
- Thyroid
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