WordNet

an analysis of a specific job in an effort to find the most efficient method in terms of time and effort (同)time-and-motion study, time-motion study, motion study, time_study, work_study
be a student; follow a course of study; be enrolled at an institute of learning
a room used for reading and writing and studying; "he knocked lightly on the closed door of the study"
applying the mind to learning and understanding a subject (especially by reading); "mastering a second language requires a lot of work"; "no schools offer graduate study in interior design" (同)work
a composition intended to develop one aspect of the performers technique; "a study in spiccato bowing"
a state of deep mental absorption; "she is in a deep study"
someone who memorizes quickly and easily (as the lines for a part in a play); "he is a quick study"
give careful consideration to; "consider the possibility of moving" (同)consider
learn by reading books; "He is studying geology in his room"; "I have an exam next week; I must hit the books now" (同)hit the books
think intently and at length, as for spiritual purposes; "He is meditating in his study" (同)meditate, contemplate
set the speed, duration, or execution of; "we time the process to manufacture our cars very precisely"
a period of time considered as a resource under your control and sufficient to accomplish something; "take time to smell the roses"; "I didnt have time to finish"; "it took more than half my time"
a suitable moment; "it is time to go"
adjust so that a force is applied and an action occurs at the desired time; "The good player times his swing so as to hit the ball squarely"
an indefinite period (usually marked by specific attributes or activities); "he waited a long time"; "the time of year for planting"; "he was a great actor in his time"
regulate or set the time of; "time the clock"
the continuum of experience in which events pass from the future through the present to the past
an instance or single occasion for some event; "this time he succeeded"; "he called four times"; "he could do ten at a clip" (同)clip
a persons experience on a particular occasion; "he had a time holding back the tears"; "they had a good time together"
assign a time for an activity or event; "The candidate carefully timed his appearance at the disaster scene"
a state of change; "they were in a state of steady motion"
the act of changing location from one place to another; "police controlled the motion of the crowd"; "the movement of people from the farms to the cities"; "his move put him directly in my path" (同)movement, move
a change of position that does not entail a change of location; "the reflex motion of his eyebrows revealed his surprise"; "movement is a sign of life"; "an impatient move of his hand"; "gastrointestinal motility" (同)movement, move, motility
a formal proposal for action made to a deliberative assembly for discussion and vote; "he made a motion to adjourn"; "she called for the question" (同)question
provide with or construct with studs; "stud the wall"
ornament consisting of a circular rounded protuberance (as on a vault or shield or belt) (同)rivet
poker in which each player receives hole cards and the remainder are dealt face up; bets are placed after each card is dealt (同)stud poker
adult male horse kept for breeding (同)studhorse
a man who is virile and sexually active (同)he-man, macho-man

PrepTutorEJDIC

〈U〉(一般に)『勉強』,学習すること / 〈C〉(…の)勉強,研究《+of+名》 / 〈C〉〈U〉(…の)『綿密な調査』,検討《+of+名》 / 〈C〉研究対象(問題,事項);学科 / 〈C〉『書斎』,勉強部屋 / 〈C〉(美術・文学などの)習作,試作,スケッチ,(音楽の)練習曲,エチュード / …‘を'『勉強する』,学ぶ,研究する / …‘を'『よく注意して見る』,しげしげと見る / …‘を'『調査する』,検討する / …‘を'考慮する,配慮する / 〈せりふなど〉‘を'覚えようとする / 『勉強する』,学ぶ,研究する
〈U〉《冠詞をつけずに》(空間に対しての)『時間』,時 / 〈U〉(時計で示される)『時刻』 / 〈U〉(ある方式で決められる)『時間』,標準時 / 〈C〉〈U〉(特定の)『時』,おり,ころ / 〈U〉《しばしば A ~》(ある長さの)『時間』,期間 / 〈U〉(要する)『時間』;暇 / 《しばしば複数形で》(歴史上の)『時代』 / 《複数形で》時勢,景気 / 《one's ~》(個人の)一生;若いころ;生涯の特定の時期 / 〈U〉《しばしば A ~》(ある経験をした)『時間』 / 〈C〉『…回』,度 / 〈C〉『…倍』 / …の時間を定める / (…に)…の調子を合わせる《+名+to+名》 / …の時間を計る
〈U〉『動くこと,運動』,運行,移動 / 〈C〉『動作』;身ぶり,合図 / 〈C〉(議会などの)『動議』,提案;)法廷での)申請,申し立て / 《しばしば副詞[句]を伴って》〈人など〉‘に'『身振りで合図をする』 / 『身振りで合図する』:《『motion to(for)』+『名』+『to』 do・・・に・・・するよう身振りで合図する》
《語・句・節を対等に結んで》…『と』…,…や…,および / 《数詞を結合して》…『足す』…,…に加えて / …『しかも』…,…して,同時に… / 《時間的に》『そして』,それから,すると(and then) / 《当然の帰結として》…『ので』,…だから(and so) / 《おもに話》《命令文などの後で》『そうすれば』,そうしたら / 《追加・強調して》それに,しかも / 《対照的な内容を導いて》ところが,しかし(but) / 《譲歩的に》それなのに,それでいながら / 《A and Bで一体の関係を表して》《単数扱い》 / 《同一語を反復して多数・継続などを表して》 / 《同一の複数名詞を結合して変化・種類などを表して》 / 《話》《「形容詞+and+形容詞」の形で前の形容詞が後に副詞的に働く》 / 《話》《「動詞come, goなど+and+動詞」の形でandとその後の動詞が不定詞の働きをして》 / 《「動詞+and+動詞」の形で後の動詞が現在分詞の意を表して》 / 《話》《文頭において前の質問・意見などに同意を示して》そうとも,そして(Yes!and) / 《話》《文頭に置いて驚き・疑念・非難などを表して》ほんとうに;…なのに
《おもに米》種馬 / 《集合的に》(一群の)繁殖用動物(種馬,種牛など)
(インテリアなどに用いる)飾りびょう / カフスボタン,カラーボタン / (建物の)間柱 / (…を)…‘に'ちりばめる《+名+with+名》 / …‘に'点在(散在)している / …‘に'間柱をつける

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出典(authority):フリー百科事典『ウィキペディア（Wikipedia）』「2015/05/20 03:16:52」(JST)

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Original Films Of Frank B. Gilbreth (Part I)

A time and motion study (or time-motion study) is a business efficiency technique combining the Time Study work of Frederick Winslow Taylor with the Motion Study work of Frank and Lillian Gilbreth (the same couple as is best known through the biographical 1950 film and book Cheaper by the Dozen). It is a major part of scientific management (Taylorism). After its first introduction, time study developed in the direction of establishing standard times, while motion study evolved into a technique for improving work methods. The two techniques became integrated and refined into a widely accepted method applicable to the improvement and upgrading of work systems. This integrated approach to work system improvement is known as methods engineering^[1] and it is applied today to industrial as well as ce organizations, including banks, schools and hospitals.^[2]

Time study

Time study is a direct and continuous observation of a task, using a timekeeping device (e.g., decimal minute stopwatch, computer-assisted electronic stopwatch, and videotape camera) to record the time taken to accomplish a task^[3] and it is often used when:^[4]

there are repetitive work cycles of short to long duration,
wide variety of dissimilar work is performed, or
process control elements constitute a part of the cycle.

The Industrial Engineering Terminology Standard, defines time study as "a work measurement technique consisting of careful time measurement of the task with a time measuring instrument, adjusted for any observed variance from normal effort or pace and to allow adequate time for such items as foreign elements, unavoidable or machine delays, rest to overcome fatigue, and personal needs."^[5]

The systems of time and motion studies are frequently assumed to be interchangeable terms, descriptive of equivalent theories. However, the underlying principles and the rationale for the establishment of each respective method are dissimilar, despite originating within the same school of thought.

The application of science to business problems, and the use of time-study methods in standard setting and the planning of work, was pioneered by Frederick Winslow Taylor.^[6] Taylor liaised with factory managers and from the success of these discussions wrote several papers proposing the use of wage-contingent performance standards based on scientific time study.^[7] At its most basic level time studies involved breaking down each job into component parts, timing each part and rearranging the parts into the most efficient method of working.^[8] By counting and calculating, Taylor wanted to transform management, which was essentially an oral tradition, into a set of calculated and written techniques.^[9]^[10]

Taylor and his colleagues placed emphasis on the content of a fair day’s work, and sought to maximize productivity irrespective of the physiological cost to the worker.^[11] For example, Taylor thought unproductive time usage (soldiering) to be the deliberate attempt of workers to promote their best interests and to keep employers ignorant of how fast work could be carried out.^[12] This instrumental view of human behavior by Taylor prepared the path for human relations to supersede scientific management in terms of literary success and managerial application.

Criticisms

In response to Taylor’s time studies and view of human nature, many strong criticisms and reactions were recorded. Unions, for example, regarded time study as a disguised tool of management designed to standardize and intensify the pace of production. Similarly, individuals such as Gilbreth (1909), Cadbury^[13] and Marshall^[14] heavily criticized Taylor and pervaded his work with subjectivity. For example, Cadbury^[15] in reply to Thompson^[16] stated that under scientific management employee skills and initiatives are passed from the individual to management,^[17] a view reiterated by Nyland.^[18] In addition, Taylor’s critics condemned the lack of scientific substance in his time studies,^[19] in the sense that they relied heavily on individual interpretations of what workers actually do.^[20] However, the value in rationalizing production is indisputable and supported by academics such as Gantt, Ford and Munsterberg, and Taylor society members Mr C.G. Renold, Mr W.H. Jackson and Mr C.B. Thompson.^[21] Proper time studies are based on repeated observation, so that motions performed on the same part differently by one or many workers can be recorded, to determine those values that are truly repetitive and measureable. Good studies are never studied just once.

Motion studies

In contrast to, and motivated by, Taylor’s time study methods, the Gilbreths proposed a technical language, allowing for the analysis of the labor process in a scientific context.^[22] The Gilbreths made use of scientific insights to develop a study method based upon the analysis of work motions', consisting in part of filming the details of a worker’s 'activities and their body posture while recording the time.^[23] The films served two main purposes. One was the visual record of how work had been done, emphasising areas for improvement. Secondly, the films also served the purpose of training workers about the best way to perform their work.^[24] This method allowed the Gilbreths to build on the best elements of these work flows and to create a standardized best practice.^[25]

Taylor vs. the Gilbreths

Although for Taylor, motion studies remained subordinate to time studies, the attention he paid to the motion study technique demonstrated the seriousness with which he considered the Gilbreths’ method. The split with Taylor in 1914, on the basis of attitudes to workers, meant the Gilbreths had to argue contrary to the trade unionists, government commissions and Robert Hoxie^[26] who believed scientific management was unstoppable.^[27] The Gilbreths were charged with the task of proving that motion study particularly, and scientific management generally, increased industrial output in ways which improved and did not detract from workers' mental and physical strength. This was no simple task given the propaganda fuelling the Hoxie report and the consequent union opposition to scientific management. In addition, the Gilbreths credibility and academic success continued to be hampered by Taylor who held the view that motion studies were nothing more than a continuation of his work.

While both Taylor and the Gilbreths continue to be criticized for their respective work, it should be remembered that they were writing at a time of industrial reorganization and the emergence of large, complex organizations with new forms of technology. Furthermore, to equate scientific management merely with time and motion study and consequently labor control not only misconceives the scope of scientific management, but also misinterprets Taylor’s incentives for proposing a different style of managerial thought.^[28]

Direct time study procedure

Following is the procedure developed by Mikell Groover for a direct time study:^[29]

Define and document the standard method.
Divide the task into work elements.

These first two steps are conducted prior to the actual timing. They familiarize the analyst with the task and allow the analyst to attempt to improve the work procedure before defining the standard time.
Time the work elements to obtain the observed time for the task.
Evaluate the worker’s pace relative to standard performance (performance rating), to determine the normal time.

Note that steps 3 and 4 are accomplished simultaneously. During these steps, several different work cycles are timed, and each cycle performance is rated independently. Finally, the values collected at these steps are averaged to get the normalized time.
Apply an allowance to the normal time to compute the standard time. The allowance factors that are needed in the work are then added to compute the standard time for the task.

Conducting time studies

According to good practice guidelines for production studies ^[30] a comprehensive time study consists of:

Study goal setting;
Experimental design;
Time data collection;
Data analysis;
Reporting.

The collection of time data can be done in several ways, depending on study goal and environmental conditions. Time and motion data can be captured with a common stopwatch, a handheld computer or a video recorder. There are a number of dedicated software packages used to turn a palmtop or a handheld PC into a time study device. As an alternative, time and motion data can be collected automatically from the memory of computer-control machines (i.e. automated time studies).

References

^ Zandin 2001, Section 4, Chapter 1, p.2
^ Ben-Gal et. al 2010
^ Groover 2007
^ Salvendy 2001, Section IV.C, Chapter 54
^ IIE, ANSI 1982
^ Krenn, M 2011, ‘From Scientific Management to Homemaking: Lillian M. Gilbreth’s Contributions to the Development of Management Thought’, Management & Organisational History, vol. 6, no. 2, pp. 145-161
^ Payne, S.C., Youngcourt, S.S. & Watrous, K.M. 2006, ‘Portrayals of F.W. Taylor Across Textbooks’, Journal of Management History, vol. 12, no. 4, pp. 385-407
^ Payne, S.C., Youngcourt, S.S. & Watrous, K.M. 2006, ‘Portrayals of F.W. Taylor Across Textbooks’, Journal of Management History, vol. 12, no. 4, pp. 385-407
^ Nyland, C 1996, ‘Taylorism, John R. Commons, and the Hoxie Report’, Journal of Economic Issues, vol. 30, no. 4, pp. 985-1016
^ Gowler, D & Legge, K 1983, ‘The Meaning of Management and the Management of Meaning: A View from Social Anthropology’, Perspectives on Management, cited in Karsten, L 1996, ‘Writing and the Advent of Scientific Management: The Case of Time and Motion Studies’, Scandinavian Journal of Management, vol. 12, issue. 1, pp. 41-55.
^ Karsten, L 1996, ‘Writing and the Advent of Scientific Management: The Case of Time and Motion Studies’, Scandinavian Journal of Management, vol. 12, issue. 1, pp. 41-55.
^ Thompson, C.B. 1914, ‘The Literature of Scientific Management’, The Quarterly Journal of Economics, vol. 28, no. 3, pp. 506-557
^ Cadbury, E. 1914 ‘Some Principles of Industrial Organization: The Case For and Against Scientific Management’, Sociological Review, vol. 7, pp. 99-125
^ Marshall, A 1919, Industry and Trade, MacMillan, London, cited in, Caldari, K 2007, ‘Alfred Marshall’s Critical Analysis of Scientific Management’, European Journal of the History of Economic Thought’, vol. 14, no. 1, pp. 55-78
^ Cadbury, E. 1914 ‘Some Principles of Industrial Organization: The Case For and Against Scientific Management’, Sociological Review, vol. 7, pp. 99-125
^ Thompson, C.B. 1914, ‘The Literature of Scientific Management’, The Quarterly Journal of Economics, vol. 28, no. 3, pp. 506-557
^ Cadbury, E. 1914 ‘Some Principles of Industrial Organization: The Case For and Against Scientific Management’, Sociological Review, vol. 7, pp. 99-125
^ Nyland, C 1996, ‘Taylorism, John R. Commons, and the Hoxie Report’, Journal of Economic Issues, vol. 30, no. 4, pp. 985-1016.
^ Caldari, K 2007, ‘Alfred Marshall’s Critical Analysis of Scientific Management’, European Journal of the History of Economic Thought’, vol. 14, no. 1, pp. 55-78
^ Wrege, C.D. & Perroni, A.G. 1974, ‘Taylor’s Pig-Tale: A Historical Analysis of Frederick W. Taylor’s Pig-Iron Experiments’, Academy of Management, vol. 17, no. 1
^ Cadbury, E 1914, 'Mr. Cadbury's Reply', The Sociological Review, vol. a7, issue 4, pp. 327-331, October
^ Baumgart, A & Neuhauser, D 2009, ‘Frank and Lillian Gilbreth: Scientific Management in the Operating Room’, Quality Safety Health Care, vol. 18, pp. 413-415
^ Baumgart, A & Neuhauser, D 2009, ‘Frank and Lillian Gilbreth: Scientific Management in the Operating Room’, Quality Safety Health Care, vol. 18, pp. 413-415
^ Baumgart, A & Neuhauser, D 2009, ‘Frank and Lillian Gilbreth: Scientific Management in the Operating Room’, Quality Safety Health Care, vol. 18, pp. 413-415
^ Price, B 1989, ‘Frank and Lillian Gilbreth and the Manufacture and Marketing of Motion Study, 1908-1924’, Business and Economic History, vol. 18, no. 2
^ Hoxie, R 1915, ‘Why Organised Labour Opposes Scientific Management’, Quarterly Journal of Economics, vol. 31, no. 1, pp. 62-85
^ Nyland, C 1996, ‘Taylorism, John R. Commons, and the Hoxie Report’, Journal of Economic Issues, vol. 30, no. 4, pp. 985-1016
^ Nyland, C 1996, ‘Taylorism, John R. Commons, and the Hoxie Report’, Journal of Economic Issues, vol. 30, no. 4, pp. 985-1016
^ Groover, Mikell P. (2007). Work Systems and Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work, Pearson Education International
^ Magagnotti, N., Spinelli, R., 2012, Good practice guidelines for biomass production system, COST Action FP-0902, WG 2 Operations research and measurement methodologies, 50 pages, Italy, ISBN 978-88-901660-4-4, available on internet: http://forestenergy.org/observer:get_page/observer/action/details/itemid/113?PHPSESSID=5157c9d7f7bbbb319764c33e4a28112b&viewportheight=933&viewportwidth=1887

External links

Encyclopedia.com
Time and Motion
Original Films of Frank B Gilbreth 1945
"The Easier" Way GM 1946
"Some Time and Motion Studies" by Langsner
"Time Study App"

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