出典(authority):フリー百科事典『ウィキペディア(Wikipedia)』「2015/08/26 13:25:12」(JST)
「スカイスクレイパー」はこの項目へ転送されています。デイヴィッド・リー・ロスのアルバムについては「スカイスクレイパー (アルバム)」をご覧ください。 |
超高層建築物(ちょうこうそうけんちくぶつ)は、高層建築物の中でも特に高い建築物である。超高層ビル(ちょうこうそうビル)ともいう(以下、「超高層ビル」を用いる)。どの程度の高さ以上の建築物を超高層ビルと呼ぶかについては、統一された明確な基準はない(#定義参照)。
一般には超高層ビルと呼ばれ、摩天楼(「天を摩するほどの高楼」の意、英語の訳語[1])ともいう。英語では、Skyscraper(スカイスクレイパー、「空を削るもの」の意)、Tower(タワー、「塔」の意)、Spire(スパイア、「尖塔」の意)などともいう。
世界で最も高い超高層ビルの座は、50年以上に渡りアメリカのビルが占めていたが、近年のアジア諸国の経済力の発展に伴いその座を譲り渡している。
どのような高さや階数の建築物を超高層ビルと呼ぶかについては、統一された明確な定義はない。
日本の法律では「超高層」という用語は用いられていないが、建築基準法第20条第1号では高さが60mを超える建築物に対してそれ以下のものと異なる構造の基準を設定しており、高さ60m以上の建築物が超高層建築と呼ばれることがある[2][3][4]。また、超高層ビル群があることで有名な新宿区は「新宿区景観形成ガイドライン」[5]を定めているが、そのうちの「超高層ビルの景観形成ガイドライン」の対象も「高さ60mを超える建築物」とされている[6]。
日本の場合、例として『広辞苑』では、「15階以上、または、100m以上の高さの建築物を超高層建築と呼ぶことが多い」としている[1]。階高を3〜4mと仮定すると15階は45〜60mにあたり、15階以上と100m以上とではその高さに大きな開きがあることになる。他の書籍の例を挙げると
書籍 | 出版 | 定義 |
---|---|---|
マイペディア | 平凡社 | 100m以上 |
建築大事典 | 彰国社 | 100m以上または15階程度以上 |
建築学用語辞典 | 日本建築学会 | 15階程度以上 |
と、100m・15階程度と書籍によって値は異なっている。
日本初の超高層ビルとされるのは霞が関ビルディング(36階、地上147m)である[7]。それ以前に最も高い建築物であったホテルニューオータニ(17階、73m)は、超高層ビルとは呼ばれていなかった。
イギリスのskyscrapernews.comでは、高さ150m(500ft)以上のビルを超高層ビル(skyscraper)と定義している[8]。英米ではこの定義が一般的である。また、300m以上(〜1,000m以下)の超高層ビル(超高層建築物)を supertall building (supertall tower)、または単に supertall (スーパートール)と呼ぶ場合がある。
高さが1,000mを超えるビルは、ハイパービルディング(超々高層ビル、超々高層建築物)と呼ばれ、サウジアラビアのジェッダで建設中(キングダムタワー)である。167階建て高さ約1,007m(尖塔高)、2019年の完成予定で、完成すれば世界初のハイパービルディングとなる見込み。
超高層ビルは規模にもよるが、多くの場合巨大な需要能力を有するため、再開発事業などを計画する際に、区画整理後の敷地に建設される建物として超高層建築物が採用されることが多い。
超高層ビルの建てられる場合として、不動産価格が高い土地に事業者が投資しようとする際に、投資資金の回収のため多層の建築を設けて収益を得ようとする事から結果的に超高層建ビルになる場合や、限られた土地に大きな収容力を求める場合、土地や都市、国などのランドマーク(シンボル)として建設する場合などが挙げられる。また超高層ビルは周囲からも抜き出た高さとなる事も多く、周辺地域への影響も大きい。そこで、高い意匠性を持つ超高層ビルは、その地域や、ビル建築主、ビルを使用するテナントのイメージを向上させることもあるが、その建築が周辺地域から受け入れられない場合には、計画段階時に是正を求められたり、計画の修正や建築差止めを求めて訴訟が提起されることもある。
超高層ビルは、現在ではその国や都市、企業の経済力や技術力を示す指標ともなっているが、昨今の特に先進国では消費社会から環境社会への転換が図られようとしており、その中で莫大なエネルギーを消費する超高層ビルは効率性が疑問視されている面もある。また居住者への精神的或いは肉体的な影響なども懸念されており、特に高層住宅の場合、居住者によっては周囲の人間関係や地区の住環境が悪化することもあるとの研究報告もあり、課題も抱えている。
地震や風圧対策(耐震構造)は、従来の建築物では「剛構造」という地震や風圧に耐える構造(人が走行中の列車内で脚を踏ん張って揺れに耐えることに例えられる)が求められてきたが、超高層ビルでは地震の揺れや風圧にある程度建物を任せる「柔構造」の建築がほとんどである[9]。さらに、昨今建設される超高層ビルでは、基礎部分に油圧装置(油圧ダンパー)を取り付ける、柱の中に低降伏点鋼を挟む(制震柱)、建物の上部にダンパーと呼ばれる錘(おもり)を取りつけたりして揺れを軽減する、などの方法(いずれも制震構造)を採用している[10]。
また、基礎と上部建築物を切り離し、構造物の間に積層ゴムやベアリングを媒介して、横揺れそのものを逃す方法(免震構造)も開発されている。免震構造は古い構造基準で建設された老朽化しているビルにも有効であり、免震レトロフィット(改良、後付)工法もあるほどである。ただし、この工法は基本的に柱を切断しジャッキアップしたうえで積層ゴムやベアリングを取り付けるものなので、1階部分が空洞(駐車場や駐輪場など)であり、かつ十分な敷地が確保できる場所で重量の負担が一定のレベルを超えないことが条件とされている。
一般に、ビルが高ければ高いほど、そのビルの固有振動の周期が長くなる[11]。そのため、超高層ビルでは、低層の建物ではあまり問題とされない、海溝型巨大地震などによる長周期地震動との共振の可能性が指摘されている[11]。日本では超高層ビルの建設が始まってからの歴史が浅く、実際の海溝型巨大地震を経験した超高層ビルはない。このため、長周期地震に対する経験的予測が出来ず、シミュレーションに頼ることしか出来ないのが現状である。2007年7月16日の新潟県中越沖地震では、六本木ヒルズの高層階用エレベーターが長周期地震動で緊急停止した[11]。
超高層ビルの解体には、一般的な建造物に用いられるような、上部から少しずつ取壊していく方法(圧砕工法)では、高所での作業を強いられる為に困難を伴う。そのため、欧米などでは発破解体が主に用いられるが、日本では、火薬の取り扱いや関連する法規制の問題、建造物が密集しているなどの理由により、建設を逆再生させるように最上段から順に解体していく方法や[12]、ジャッキを利用してだるま落としのように下から順に解体していく方法[13]などが採用されることが多い。赤坂プリンスホテル、りそな・マルハビルの解体では、大成建設により「テコレップシステム」[14]と呼ばれる順々に解体していく方法で行われた。
アメリカ合衆国は世界の超高層ビルの先駆けとなった国で、大都市の多くは超高層ビルが集積している。特にシカゴやニューヨーク、ロサンゼルスにおいては、多数の超高層ビルが密集している。これらの都市では、日本などと違いビルとビルの間が接近しているため、地上では日当たりが悪い。
また、現在では、サンフランシスコ、シアトル、ミネアポリス、ヒューストン、ダラス、デトロイト、クリーブランド、ピッツバーグ、ボストン、フィラデルフィア、シャーロット、アトランタ、マイアミなどアメリカ合衆国の主要な各都市で超高層ビルを見ることができる。また中規模以下の都市においても、アイオワ州デモインの801グランド (801 Grand) 、アラバマ州モービルのRSAバトル・ハウス・タワー (RSA Battle House Tower) 、ニューヨーク州オールバニのエラスタス・コーニング・タワー (Erastus Corning Tower) など、超高層ビルが建てられている都市がいくつかある。
超高層ビル発祥のシカゴでは、1890年代以降、ニューヨークにビルの高さ争いでは世界一の座を奪われ続けていたが[15]、アメリカの大手GMS(ゼネラル・マーチャンダイズ・ストア)チェーン、シアーズの本部でSOM設計のモダニズム建築であるシアーズ・タワー(442.3m、現ウィリス・タワー)が1973年に完成すると、世界一の座をニューヨークから奪還した。2013年には、アメリカ同時多発テロで倒壊した1 ワールドトレードセンター(541m)が再建され、再びアメリカで最も高いビルかつ世界でも三番目に高いビルとなった。しかし、2010年のブルジュ・ハリーファ(828m)を皮切りに、さらに巨大な超高層ビル建設プロジェクトは、もはやアメリカではなく、主に中東や中国で進行している。
1960年代までの超高層ビル建設は主にアメリカの独擅場であったが、アジア地域の経済的発展と共にアジアでも次第に超高層ビルが増えてきた。日本の霞が関ビルディング(147m、東京都千代田区)や神戸商工貿易センタービル(107m、兵庫県神戸市)、世界貿易センタービル(162.6m、東京都港区)をはじめ、香港のジャーディン・ハウス(Jerdine House:怡和大廈、178.5m)、シンガポールのOCBCセンター(華僑銀行、Overseas Chinese Banking Corp Center:201m)などがその初期のものである。現在は中国とアラブ首長国連邦の経済発展が目覚しく、特に300m以上の超高層ビルの多くはこの2国に集中する。
日本では1970年代から1980年代にかけて超高層ビル建設が本格的になり、その筆頭となったのは東京都新宿区の角筈地区(現:西新宿)での淀橋浄水場再開発により建設された超高層ビル群(新宿副都心)や、大阪府大阪市北区の超高層ビル群(梅田)、竣工当時東アジアで最も高いビルとなった東京都豊島区東池袋のサンシャイン60(240m)などである。
日本では、大阪のあべのハルカス(300m)を筆頭に、200mを超えるビルが東京や大阪、名古屋などで数多く建築されている。
日本の建設会社は、これより遙かに高いビルも建築可能な技術を有しており、マレーシアのペトロナスツインタワーや台北101を手がけた経験もあるが、日本国内では地震の多い土地柄に加え、航空法に基く高さ規制などの法的側面があり、実現していない。
現在、韓国の最高層ビルは、北東アジア貿易タワーである。ソウル市で最も高い建造物は江南区にある超高層マンション「江南タワーパレス」である。韓国の富裕層の象徴であるソウル・江南地区にそびえたつこのビルは、韓国富裕層の憧れの的となっている。また土地の少ない韓国では大都市部のソウルや、釜山を中心に超高層ビルの建設が活発である。仁川広域市の臨海部に造成された「松島新都市」に建設中の「仁川タワー」 (610m) は、韓国・東アジアで最も高いビルになる予定で、釜山やソウル市内でもオフィス需要の増加を受け大規模オフィスや住商複合マンションの建設が相次いでいる。
中国では、1978年に始まる中国共産党の鄧小平が指揮する改革開放路線により1980年に経済特区が深圳、珠海、汕頭、廈門(後に海南省)に設定された。その後1984年に経済技術開発区が臨海部の14都市に設定され、この動きに上海や広州などの大都市が加わると外国資本の流入から諸都市の著しい発展を見る。そして、中国経済の発展により、天津、重慶、長春、青島、大連、成都市、武漢、瀋陽、廈門といった都市でも多く超高層ビルが建設されてきている。
香港では、イギリス統治期の1970年代から多数の超高層ビルが建てられていた。
現在世界で2番目に高い超高層ビルは、台湾の台北市 信義区に2004年に竣工した台北101(Taipei101、旧称:台北国際金融センター:Taipei International Financial Center:台北國際金融大樓)で、高さ508m、地上101階建て、設計は李祖原建築事務所、施工は熊谷組を中心としたJV(共同企業体)である。下層部に2003年先行開業したショッピングモールを有する。このビルに設置されている東芝製の展望台直通高速エレベーターの速度は三菱電機製の横浜ランドマークタワーのものを超え、世界で最も速いエレベーターとなった。
台湾第2位の超高層ビルは、1997年に完成した高雄市の高雄85ビル(東帝士85國際廣場:Tuntex 85 Sky Tower、378m)で、台北101と同じ李祖原建築事務所の設計である。台北101が完成するまでは台湾で最も高い建物であった。高雄85ビルの高さは現在世界で12番目である。
マレーシアの首都クアラルンプールでは、マハティール・ビン・モハマド前首相による「ルックイースト政策」などの経済政策により、マレーシア経済は飛躍的に成長した。首都・クアラルンプールの再開発地「KLCC」では1998年に、当時世界で最も高い超高層ビルであったシーザー・ペリ設計、日本の準大手ゼネコンハザマ施工のペトロナスツインタワー(Petronas Towers:452m)が完成、このビルは国有石油会社のペトロナスが建設したものである。ペトロナスツインタワーは、既に台湾の台北にある台北国際金融センターに追い抜かれているが、ツインタワーとしては今なお世界で最も高い。
シンガポールでは、1965年にマレーシア連邦から独立した後、リー・クアンユー首相と人民行動党は権威主義的な独裁体制を敷き、これらは開発独裁と言われた。徹底した管理社会となるが、経済は著しい成長を続ける。その中で、シンガポール南部に位置する中心部のラッフルズ・プレイスには数多くの超高層ビルが建てられる。この中でも、丹下健三設計のOUBセンター(Overseas Union Bank Centre:280.1m)やUOBプラザ(United Overseas Bank Plaza One:280.1m)、また黒川紀章設計のリパブリックプラザ(Republic Plaza:280.1m)などはシンガポールを代表する超高層ビルである。2006年には、KPF設計のワン・ラッフルズ・キー・タワー(One Raffles Quay North Tower:245.1m)が完成している。
中東の物流、金融の拠点として投資を進め、経済発展を遂げたアラブ首長国連邦(UAE)のドバイでは、近年数多くの超高層ビルが林立している。2010年には、世界で最も高い超高層ビルであるブルジュ・ハリーファが竣工した。
ブルジュ・ハリーファ(旧称:「ブルジュ・ドバイ」)は、軒高643.3m、アンテナ高828m、162階。ムハンマド・ビン=ラーシド・アール=マクトゥームの首相就任からちょうど4年目に当たる2010年1月4日(現地時間)に竣工し、2012年現在着工中のビルを含め世界で最も高いビルとなった[16]。
ヨーロッパでは、近年になって超高層ビルの建設が著しくなっている。特に、イギリスのロンドンや、フランスのパリや、イタリアのミラノ、ドイツのベルリンなどでその動きが活発になっている。
歴史的な景観を重視するヨーロッパでは、元来超高層ビルの建設は余りされておらず、例外的には第二次世界大戦で壊滅したドイツのフランクフルトではドイツ及びヨーロッパの金融中心地として開発される際のオフィス供給の手段として、ドイツ銀行やコメルツ銀行などの200m級の超高層ビルが複数建設された。摩天楼の建つ一角はマイン川にマンハッタンを合わせた造語で「マインハッタン(Mainhattan)」と俗称される。またパリでは市内のオフィス需要を補うために郊外のデファンス(Défence)地区に新都心「ラ・デファンス(La Défence)」が作られ、ロンドンでは、「カナリー・ワーフ(Canary Wharf)」と呼ばれる新都心が作り出された。
現時点では、これらの地に代表される以外にヨーロッパでは超高層ビル群が建設されている例は余り見られない。しかし、ヨーロッパの都市での旧来の建築による不動産供給は限界に来ており、特にロンドンやパリと言った経済的に活動が活発な都市では景観に配慮しながらも、中心部の超高層ビルの建設が容認され始めている。
旧ソビエト連邦の首都モスクワでも、20世紀半ばには社会主義体制下における国威発揚効果を狙ってスターリン様式の超高層ビルが建設された。1930年代から1940年代にかけて「ソビエト宮殿」をはじめ多くの巨大建築が計画されたが、モスクワ大学(Moscow State University:182m)など実現したものは計画数からすると多いとは言えず、計画されたものの殆どは起草されただけに終わり、スターリンの死後に中止されている。しかしソビエト連邦の衛星国、主に東ヨーロッパ諸国での建築様式にも多大な影響を与えた。
また、1920年代から1930年代初頭、スターリン様式の確立以前に計画されたもの(ウラジーミル・タトリンの第三インターナショナル記念塔、高さ400mなど)は当時斬新なデザインでもあったため、社会情勢ともあいまって世界の多くの建築家に影響を与えた。この時期のソビエト建築界自身もル・コルビュジエなど当時先端を歩む建築家の思想に大きく傾倒していた。
2000年代に入り、ロシアの経済発展(特に石油など天然資源輸出を中心とした発展)に伴って、モスクワでは超高層ビルの建設・計画が進んでいる。特に2003年に完成したスターリン様式を模した超高層マンション、トライアンフ・パレス(264.1m)はフランクフルトのコメルツ銀行ビル(259m)を抜きヨーロッパ一の高さとなった。
1990年代前半からモスクワ川沿いに「モスクワ国際ビジネスセンター計画」(MIBC、モスクワ・シティ)が進行しており、現在ヨーロッパで一番高いビルになっている超高層ビルはモスクワ・シティーのナベレジナヤ・タワー(268m)である。同じモスクワ・シティーにはこれを上回るフェデレーション・タワー(2003年に着工・2009年に完成予定の93階建て(354m)の東棟と、62階建て(242m)の西棟からなる)、マーキュリー・シティー・タワー(2005年末に着工・2008年末に完成予定の70階建(380m) が建設中で、モスクワ・シティーの計画中で一番高いビルは「ロシア・タワー」となっている。このビルは、これまで125階建てなど複数の設計案があったが、2006年にノーマン・フォスター設計による118階建て、高さ612mの設計案が明らかにされた。モスクワ・シティーには他にも400 - 600m級の超高層ビルの建設計画が数多くあるが、完成すれば最大のビルとなる予定であったロシア・タワーは、経済危機の影響を受け、また、他のビルよりも着工が遅かったこともあり、計画は中止された。敷地跡には、3~4棟のビルを建設する計画が提案されているものの、具体的な計画は未定。
ロンドン市街東部の港湾跡地ドックランズ(Docklands)地区が再開発され、「カナリー・ワーフ(Canary Wharf)」と呼ばれる新都心となり、超高層オフィスビルがロンドン・ドックランズ再開発公社(LDDC)によって続々と建設された。竣工当時は英国で最も高かったシーザー・ペリ設計のワン・カナダ・スクエア(One Canada Square:235.1m)」のほか、ノーマン・フォスター(Sir Norman Foster)卿設計の香港上海銀行(HSBC、社屋の名称は「8 Canada Square」:199.5m)や、シーザー・ペリ設計のシティバンク(社屋の名称は「25 Canada Square」:199.5m)などの超高層ビルへ、中心部のシティ・オブ・ロンドンから金融機関が本拠を移転している。
歴史的建造物が並ぶシティ・オブ・ロンドンではセント・ポール大聖堂(111m)を越える高さの建造物は建ててはならないという不文律があったが、1965年に建ったポストオフィスタワー(現:BTタワー、188m)によって破られた。その後、1980年代までのイギリス経済の低迷により超高層ビルを求める声が上がり、ナットウェスト・タワー(1993年IRA暫定派により爆破、現在改修され「タワー42」と改称)をはじめとする大聖堂を越える超高層ビルがいくらか建設された。またロイズ保険もハイテク建築の超高層ビルに建て替えたが、今日まで多くの超高層ビル計画が景観を理由に中止させられている。この中で例外的に実現したのは、1992年にIRAが爆破した歴史的建築、バルティック・エクスチェンジの跡地に建設されたノーマン・フォスター設計によるスイス・リ本社ビル(別名「ガーキン」)である。2012年には、レンゾ・ピアノ設計による三角錐型の超高層ビル、シャード・ロンドン・ブリッジ(ロンドン・ブリッジ・タワー、高さ310m、87階建て)がテムズ川南側に完成した。
今後の計画では、シティ・オブ・ロンドンではKPF設計の螺旋形の超高層ビル、ビショップスゲート・タワー(高さ288m、63階建て)が当初の高さ307mの計画案を変更した上で建設認可が下りている。
ドイツ連邦共和国の新首都として再興されているベルリンでは高層、または超高層のビルが建設され始めている。「ポツダム広場」にあるヘルムート・ヤーン設計のソニーセンターや、レンゾ・ピアノ(Renzo Piano)設計のダイムラーシティ(Daimler City)などが代表的であり、他にミッテ(Mitte)地区やツォー駅(Zoologischer Garten)周辺でも再開発時に超高層ビルを用いている。
フランクフルトでは、コメルツ銀行、ドイツ銀行、メッセタワーなど、200mを超える超高層ビルが建設されている。今のところドイツで超高層ビルの林立が見られるのはフランクフルトくらいで、同市を流れるマイン川とマンハッタンを組み合わせた「マインハッタン」という造語がある。
パリでは、1960年代後半からの再開発で市街地南端のモンパルナス駅が解体され、跡地にトゥール・モンパルナス(210m)が完成しビルの超高層化が始った。以後、都心に超高層ビルを建てることは禁止されたが、1980年代のミッテラン大統領によるグラン・プロジェによってポストモダン建築やハイテク建築が相当数供給され街の様相を一変させた。同時期、エトワール凱旋門を通るパリの歴史軸の延長線上、市街地西郊のラ・デファンス地区には国際会議場グランダルシュをはじめ、フランスを代表する大企業や外資系企業の超高層ビルが相次いで建てられた。今後も新たな超高層ビルが建設されていく予定である。
首都マドリードを南北に貫くカステヤーナ通り沿いには、第二次世界大戦直後のフランコ政権時代に大規模なビジネスエリア・官庁街を作る計画があった。これは1970年代以後になってAZCAとして結実し、トーレ・ピカソ(157m)をはじめ高さ100m前後のビルが立ち並んだ。
カステヤーナ通りの北端には2000年代に入りクアトロ・トーレス・ビジネス・エリア(CTBA)という再開発地区が作られ、高さ250mほどの欧州でも有数の高さのビルが4本立ち並んだ。
スウェーデン南部の都市マルメに、スカンディナヴィアで一番高いターニング・トルソ(190m)というビルがあり、サンティアゴ・カラトラヴァがデザインしたユニークな形状のビルである。
竣工 | 画像 | 名称 | 国 | 位置 | 屋根 | 尖塔 | 階数 | 設計 | 解体 |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1889年 | オーディトリアムビル | アメリカ合衆国 | シカゴ | 82m | 106m | 17階 | D・アドラーとL・サリヴァン | ||
1890年 | ニューヨークワールドビル | アメリカ合衆国 | ニューヨーク | 94m | 106m | 20階 | ジョージ・B・ポスト | 1955年 | |
1894年 | マンハッタン生命保険ビル | アメリカ合衆国 | ニューヨーク | 106m | 18階 | 1930年 | |||
1895年 | ミルウォーキー市庁舎(英語版) | アメリカ合衆国 | ミルウォーキー | 108m | 15階 | ||||
1899年 | パークロービル | アメリカ合衆国 | ニューヨーク | 119m | 30階 | ||||
1901年 | フィラデルフィア市庁舎(英語版) | アメリカ合衆国 | フィラデルフィア | 156m | 167m | 9階 | ジョン・マッカーサーJr. | ||
1908年 | シンガービル | アメリカ合衆国 | ニューヨーク | 187m | 47階 | 1968年 | |||
1909年 | メトロポリタン生命保険会社タワー | アメリカ合衆国 | ニューヨーク | 213m | 50階 | ナポレオン・ルブラン父子 | |||
1913年 | ウールワースビル | アメリカ合衆国 | ニューヨーク | 241m | 57階 | キャス・ギルバート | |||
1930年 | クライスラービル (増築前) |
アメリカ合衆国 | ニューヨーク | 282m | 77階 | ウイリアム・ヴァン・アレン | |||
1930年 | 40ウォールストリート | アメリカ合衆国 | ニューヨーク | 283m | 70階 | クレイグ・ セベランス | |||
1930年 | クライスラービル (増築後) |
アメリカ合衆国 | ニューヨーク | 282m | 319m | 77階 | ウイリアム・ヴァン・アレン | ||
1931年 | エンパイアステートビル | アメリカ合衆国 | ニューヨーク | 381m | 449m | 102階 | シュリーブ,ラム&ハーモン | ||
1974年 | ワールドトレードセンター (1WTC・2WTC) |
アメリカ合衆国 | ニューヨーク | 417m | 526m | 110階 | ミノル・ヤマサキ | 2001年 | |
1974年 | ウィリス・タワー (旧 シアーズ・タワー) |
アメリカ合衆国 | シカゴ | 442m | 527m | 108階 | スキッドモア・オーウィングズ・アンド・メリル(SOM) | ||
2004年 | 台北101 | 台湾 | 台北 | 448m | 508m | 101階 | 李祖原建築事務所 | ||
2010年 | ブルジュ・ハリファ | アラブ首長国連邦 | ドバイ | 636m | 828m | 168階 | SOM |
順位 | 画像 | 名称 | 国・地域 | 都市 | 屋根 | 尖塔 | 階数 | 竣工年 |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1位 | ブルジュ・ハリファ | アラブ首長国連邦 | ドバイ | 636.0m | 828.0m | 168階 | 2010年 | |
2位 | アブラージュ・アル・ベイト・タワーズ | サウジアラビア | メッカ | 530.0m | 601.0m | 095階 | 2011年 | |
3位 | 1 ワールドトレードセンター | アメリカ合衆国 | ニューヨーク | 417m | 541.3m | 108階 | 2014年 | |
4位 | ウィリス・タワー (旧 シアーズ・タワー) |
アメリカ合衆国 | シカゴ | 442.1m | 527.0m | 110階 | 1974年 | |
5位 | 台北101 | 台湾 | 台北 | 449.2m | 509.2m | 101階 | 2004年 | |
6位 | 上海環球金融中心 (SWFC) |
中国 | 上海 | 487.4m | 492.3m | 101階 | 2008年 | |
7位 | 環球貿易広場 (ICC) |
香港 | 香港 | 484.0m | 484.0m | 118階 | 2010年 | |
8位 | ペトロナスツインタワー(2棟) | マレーシア | クアラルンプール | 378.6m | 451.9m | 088階 | 1997年 | |
9位 | 紫峰タワー | 中国 | 南京 | 381.0m | 450.0m | 089階 | 2010年 | |
10位 | 京基100 | 中国 | 深圳 | 441.8m | 097階 | 2011年 |
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A skyscraper is a tall, continuously habitable building of over 40 floors, mostly designed for office, commercial and residential uses. A skyscraper can also be called a high-rise, but the term skyscraper is often used for buildings higher than 150 m (492 ft). For buildings above a height of 300 m (984 ft), the term Supertall can be used, while skyscrapers reaching beyond 600 m (1,969 ft) are classified as megatall.[1]
One common feature of skyscrapers is having a steel framework that supports curtain walls. These curtain walls either bear on the framework below or are suspended from the framework above, rather than load-bearing walls of conventional construction. Some early skyscrapers have a steel frame that enables the construction of load-bearing walls taller than of those made of reinforced concrete. Modern skyscrapers' walls are not load-bearing and most skyscrapers are characterized by large surface areas of windows made possible by the concept of steel frame and curtain walls. However, skyscrapers can have curtain walls that mimic conventional walls and a small surface area of windows. Modern skyscrapers often have a tubular structure, and are designed to act like a hollow cylinder to resist lateral loads (wind, seismic, etc.). To appear more slender, allow less wind exposure and to transmit more daylight to the ground, many skyscrapers have a design with setbacks.
A relatively big building may be considered a skyscraper if it protrudes well above its built environment and changes the overall skyline. The maximum height of structures has progressed historically with building methods and technologies and thus what is today considered a skyscraper is taller than before. The Burj Khalifa is currently the tallest building in the world.
High-rise buildings are considered shorter than skyscrapers.[citation needed] There is no clear definition of any difference between a tower block and a skyscraper though a building lower than about thirty stories is not likely to be a skyscraper and a building with fifty or more stories is certainly a skyscraper.[2]
The term "skyscraper" was first applied to buildings of steel framed construction of at least 10 stories in the late 19th century, a result of public amazement at the tall buildings being built in major cities like Chicago, New York City, Philadelphia, Detroit, and St. Louis.[3] The first steel frame skyscraper was the Home Insurance Building (originally 10 stories with a height of 42 m or 138 ft) in Chicago, Illinois in 1885. Some point to Philadelphia's 10-story Jayne Building (1849–50) as a proto-skyscraper, or to New York's seven-floor Equitable Life Assurance Building, built in 1870, for its innovative use of a kind of skeletal frame, but such designation depends largely on what factors are chosen. Even the scholars making the argument find it to be purely academic.[4][5]
The structural definition of the word skyscraper was refined later by architectural historians, based on engineering developments of the 1880s that had enabled construction of tall multi-story buildings. This definition was based on the steel skeleton—as opposed to constructions of load-bearing masonry, which passed their practical limit in 1891 with Chicago's Monadnock Building.
Wikiquote has quotations related to: Skyscraper |
What is the chief characteristic of the tall office building? It is lofty. It must be tall. The force and power of altitude must be in it, the glory and pride of exaltation must be in it. It must be every inch a proud and soaring thing, rising in sheer exaltation that from bottom to top it is a unit without a single dissenting line.
The Emporis Standards Committee defines a high-rise building as "a multi-story structure between 35–100 meters tall, or a building of unknown height from 12–39 floors"[6] and a skyscraper as "a multi-story building whose architectural height is at least 100 m or 330 ft."[7] Some structural engineers define a highrise as any vertical construction for which wind is a more significant load factor than earthquake or weight. Note that this criterion fits not only high-rises but some other tall structures, such as towers.
The word skyscraper often carries a connotation of pride and achievement. The skyscraper, in name and social function, is a modern expression of the age-old symbol of the world center or axis mundi: a pillar that connects earth to heaven and the four compass directions to one another.[8]
A loose convention of some in the United States and Europe draws the lower limit of a skyscraper at 150 m or 490 ft.[9]
Until the 19th century, buildings of over six stories were rare, as having great numbers of stairs to climb was impractical for inhabitants, and water pressure was usually insufficient to supply running water above 50 m (164 ft).
The tallest building in ancient times was the 146 m (479 ft) Great Pyramid of Giza in ancient Egypt, built in the 26th century BC. It was not surpassed in height for thousands of years, the 14th century AD Lincoln Cathedral being conjectured by many to have exceeded it.[10] The latter in turn was not surpassed until the 555-foot (169 m) Washington Monument in 1884. However, being uninhabited, none of these structures actually comply with the modern definition of a skyscraper.
High-rise apartments flourished in classical antiquity. Ancient Roman insulae in imperial cities reached 10 and more stories.[11] Beginning with Augustus (r. 30 BC-14 AD), several emperors attempted to establish limits of 20–25 m for multi-story buildings, but met with only limited success.[12][13] Lower floors were typically occupied by shops or wealthy families, the upper rented to the lower classes.[11] Surviving Oxyrhynchus Papyri indicate that seven-story buildings existed in provincial towns such as in 3rd century AD Hermopolis in Roman Egypt.[14]
The skylines of many important medieval cities had large numbers of high-rise urban towers, built by the wealthy for defense and status. The residential Towers of 12th century Bologna numbered between 80 to 100 at a time, the tallest of which is the 97.2 m (319 ft) high Asinelli Tower. A Florentine law of 1251 decreed that all urban buildings be immediately reduced to less than 26 m.[15] Even medium-sized towns of the era are known to have proliferations of towers, such as the 72 up to 51 m height in San Gimignano.[15]
The medieval Egyptian city of Fustat housed many high-rise residential buildings, which Al-Muqaddasi in the 10th century described as resembling minarets. Nasir Khusraw in the early 11th century described some of them rising up to 14 stories, with roof gardens on the top floor complete with ox-drawn water wheels for irrigating them.[16] Cairo in the 16th century had high-rise apartment buildings where the two lower floors were for commercial and storage purposes and the multiple stories above them were rented out to tenants.[17] An early example of a city consisting entirely of high-rise housing is the 16th-century city of Shibam in Yemen. Shibam was made up of over 500 tower houses,[18] each one rising 5 to 11 stories high,[19] with each floor being an apartment occupied by a single family. The city was built in this way in order to protect it from Bedouin attacks.[18] Shibam still has the tallest mudbrick buildings in the world, with many of them over 30 m (98 ft) high.[20]
An early modern example of high-rise housing was in 17th-century Edinburgh, Scotland, where a defensive city wall defined the boundaries of the city. Due to the restricted land area available for development, the houses increased in height instead. Buildings of 11 stories were common, and there are records of buildings as high as 14 stories. Many of the stone-built structures can still be seen today in the old town of Edinburgh. The oldest iron framed building in the world, although only partially iron framed, is The Flaxmill (also locally known as the "Maltings"), in Shrewsbury, England. Built in 1797, it is seen as the "grandfather of skyscrapers”, since its fireproof combination of cast iron columns and cast iron beams developed into the modern steel frame that made modern skyscrapers possible. In 2013 funding was confirmed to convert the derelict building into offices.[21]
In 1852 Elisha Otis introduced the safety elevator, allowing convenient and safe passenger movement to upper floors. Another crucial development was the use of a steel frame instead of stone or brick, otherwise the walls on the lower floors on a tall building would be too thick to be practical. An early development in this area was Oriel Chambers in Liverpool. Designed by local architect Peter Ellis in 1864, the building was the world's first iron-framed, glass curtain-walled office building. It was only 5 floors high.[22][23][24] Further developments led to the world's first skyscraper, the ten-story Home Insurance Building in Chicago, built in 1884–1885.[25] While its height is not considered very impressive today, it was at that time. The architect, Major William Le Baron Jenney, created a load-bearing structural frame. In this building, a steel frame supported the entire weight of the walls, instead of load-bearing walls carrying the weight of the building. This development led to the "Chicago skeleton" form of construction. In addition to the steel frame, the Home Insurance Building also utilized fireproofing, elevators, and electrical wiring, key elements in most skyscrapers today.[26]
Burnham and Root's 1889 Rand McNally Building in Chicago, 1889, was the first all-steel framed skyscraper,[27] while Louis Sullivan's Wainwright Building in St. Louis, Missouri, 1891, was the first steel-framed building with soaring vertical bands to emphasize the height of the building and is therefore considered by some to be the first true skyscraper.
Most early skyscrapers emerged in the land-strapped areas of Chicago and New York City toward the end of the 19th century. A land boom in Melbourne, Australia between 1888–1891 spurred the creation of a significant number of early skyscrapers, though none of these were steel reinforced and few remain today. Height limits and fire restrictions were later introduced. London builders soon found building heights limited due to a complaint from Queen Victoria, rules that continued to exist with few exceptions until the 1950s. Concerns about aesthetics and fire safety had likewise hampered the development of skyscrapers across continental Europe for the first half of the twentieth century. With some notable exceptions, like the 1898 Witte Huis (White House) in Rotterdam; the Royal Liver Building in Liverpool, completed in 1911 and 90 m (300 ft) high;[28] the 1924 Marx House in Düsseldorf, Germany; the 17-story Kungstornen (Kings' Towers) in Stockholm, Sweden, which were built 1924–25,[29] the 15-story Edificio Telefónica in Madrid, Spain, built in 1929; the 26-story Boerentoren in Antwerp, Belgium, built in 1932; and the 31-story Torre Piacentini in Genoa, Italy, built in 1940).
After an early competition between Chicago and New York City for the world's tallest building, New York took the lead by 1895 with the completion of the American Surety Building, leaving New York with the title of the world's tallest building for many years. New York City developers competed among themselves, with successively taller buildings claiming the title of "world's tallest" in the 1920s and early 1930s, culminating with the completion of the Chrysler Building in 1930 and the Empire State Building in 1931, the world's tallest building for forty years. The first completed World Trade Center tower became the world's tallest building in 1972. However, it was soon overtaken by the Sears Tower (now Willis Tower) in Chicago within two years. The Sears Tower stood as the world's tallest building for 24 years, from 1974 until 1998, until it was edged out by Petronas Twin Towers in Kuala Lumpur, which held the title for six years.
Modern skyscrapers are built with steel or reinforced concrete frameworks and curtain walls of glass or polished stone. They use mechanical equipment such as water pumps and elevators. From the 1930s onwards, skyscrapers began to appear around the world - also in Latin America (such as São Paulo, Rio de Janeiro, Buenos Aires, Santiago, Lima, Caracas, Bogotá, Mexico City) and in Asia (Tokyo, Shanghai, Hong Kong, Manila, Singapore, Mumbai, Seoul, Kuala Lumpur, Taipei, Bangkok).
Immediately after World War II, the Soviet Union planned eight massive skyscrapers, with seven of them actually getting built until 1953, dubbed the "Seven Sisters of Moscow". Other skyscrapers in the style of Socialist Classicism were erected in East Germany (Frankfurter Tor), Poland (PKiN), Ukraine (Hotel Ukrayina), Latvia (Academy of Sciences) and other countries. The western countries of Europe also began to permit taller skyscrapers than before WW2, such as Madrid during the 1950s (Gran Vía). Finally, skyscrapers also began to be constructed in cities of Africa, the Middle East and Oceania (mainly Australia) from the late 1950s on.
Skyscraper projects after World War II typically rejected the classical designs of the early skyscrapers, instead embracing the uniform international style; many older skyscrapers were redesigned to suit contemporary tastes or even demolished - such as New York's Singer Building, once the world's tallest skyscraper.
German architect Ludwig Mies van der Rohe became one of the world's most renowned architects in the second half of the 20th century. He conceived of the glass façade skyscraper[30] and, along with Norwegian Fred Severud,[31] he designed the Seagram Building in 1958, a skyscraper that is often regarded as the pinnacle of the modernist high-rise architecture.[32]
After the Great Depression skyscrapers construction suffered a hiatus for over thirty years due to economic problems. A revival occurred with structural innovations that transformed the industry,[33] making it possible for people to live and work in "cities in the sky".[34]
In the early 1960s structural engineer Fazlur Khan realized that the dominating rigid steel frame structure was not the only system apt for tall buildings, marking a new era of skyscraper construction in terms of multiple structural systems.[35] His central innovation in skyscraper design and construction was the concept of the "tube" structural system, including the "framed tube", "trussed tube", and "bundled tube".[36] These systems allow greater economic efficiency,[37] and also allow skyscrapers to take on various shapes, no longer needing to be rectangular and box-shaped.[38] The first building to employ the tube structure was the Chestnut De-Witt apartment building.[33] Over the next fifteen years, many towers were built by Khan and the "Second Chicago School",[39] including the massive 442 m (1,450 ft) Willis Tower.[40] Other pioneers of this field include Hal Iyengar and William LeMessurier.
Chicago, Hong Kong, and New York City, otherwise known as "the big three," are recognized in architectural circles as having especially compelling skylines. A landmark skyscraper can inspire a boom of new high-rise projects in its city, as Taipei 101 has done in Taipei since its opening in 2004.
Modern building practices regarding supertall structures have led to the study of "vanity height".[41][42] Vanity height, according to the CTBUH, is the distance between the highest floor and its architectural top (excluding antennae, flagpole or other functional extensions). Vanity height first appeared in New York City skyscrapers as early as the 1920s and 1930s but supertall buildings have relied on such uninhabitable extensions for on average 30% of their height, raising potential definitional and sustainability issues.[43][44][45] The current era of skyscrapers focuses on sustainability, its built and natural environments, including the performance of structures, types of materials, construction practices, absolute minimal use of materials and natural resources, energy within the structure, and a holistically integrated building systems approach. LEED is a current green building standard.[46]
Architecturally, with the movements of Postmodernism, New Urbanism and New Classical Architecture, that established since the 1980s, a more classical approach came back to global skyscraper design, that remains popular today.[47] Examples are the Wells Fargo Center, NBC Tower, Parkview Square, 30 Park Place, the Messeturm, the iconic Petronas Towers and Jin Mao Tower.
Other contemporary styles and movements in skyscraper design include organic, sustainable, neo-futurist, structuralist, high-tech, deconstructivist, blob, digital, streamline, novelty, critical regionalist, vernacular, Neo Art Deco and neo-historist, also known as revivalist.
The design and construction of skyscrapers involves creating safe, habitable spaces in very tall buildings. The buildings must support their weight, resist wind and earthquakes, and protect occupants from fire. Yet they must also be conveniently accessible, even on the upper floors, and provide utilities and a comfortable climate for the occupants. The problems posed in skyscraper design are considered among the most complex encountered given the balances required between economics, engineering, and construction management.
One common feature of skyscrapers is having a steel framework from which curtain walls are suspended, rather than load-bearing walls of conventional construction. Most skyscrapers have a steel frame that enables to build taller than load-bearing walls of reinforced concrete. Skyscrapers usually have particularly small surface area of what are conventionally thought of as walls, because the walls are not load-bearing and therefore most skyscrapers are characterized by large surface areas of windows made possible by the concept of steel frame and curtain walls. However, skyscrapers can have curtain walls that mimick conventional walls and a small surface area of windows.
The concept of a skyscraper is a product of the industrialized age, made possible by cheap fossil fuel derived energy and industrially refined raw materials such as steel and concrete. The construction of skyscrapers was enabled by steel frame construction that surpassed brick and mortar construction starting at the end of the 19th century and finally surpassing it in the 20th century together with reinforced concrete construction as the price of steel decreased and labour costs increased.
The steel frames become inefficient and uneconomic for supertall buildings as usable floor spaces are reduced for supporting column and due to more usage of steel.[48] Since about 1960, tubular designs have been used for high rises. This reduces the usage of material (more efficient in economic terms - Willis Tower uses a third less steel than the Empire State Building) yet allows greater height. It allows fewer interior columns, and so creates more usable floor space. It further enables buildings to take on various shapes.
Elevators are characteristic to skyscrapers. In 1852 Elisha Otis introduced the safety elevator, allowing convenient and safe passenger movement to upper floors. Another crucial development was the use of a steel frame instead of stone or brick, otherwise the walls on the lower floors on a tall building would be too thick to be practical. Today major manufacturers of elevators include Otis, ThyssenKrupp, Schindler, and KONE.
Good structural design is important in most building design, but particularly for skyscrapers since even a small chance of catastrophic failure is unacceptable given the high price. This presents a paradox to civil engineers: the only way to assure a lack of failure is to test for all modes of failure, in both the laboratory and the real world. But the only way to know of all modes of failure is to learn from previous failures. Thus, no engineer can be absolutely sure that a given structure will resist all loadings that could cause failure, but can only have large enough margins of safety such that a failure is acceptably unlikely. When buildings do fail, engineers question whether the failure was due to some lack of foresight or due to some unknowable factor.
The load a skyscraper experiences is largely from the force of the building material itself. In most building designs, the weight of the structure is much larger than the weight of the material that it will support beyond its own weight. In technical terms, the dead load, the load of the structure, is larger than the live load, the weight of things in the structure (people, furniture, vehicles, etc.). As such, the amount of structural material required within the lower levels of a skyscraper will be much larger than the material required within higher levels. This is not always visually apparent. The Empire State Building's setbacks are actually a result of the building code at the time, and were not structurally required. On the other hand, John Hancock Center's shape is uniquely the result of how it supports loads. Vertical supports can come in several types, among which the most common for skyscrapers can be categorized as steel frames, concrete cores, tube within tube design, and shear walls.
The wind loading on a skyscraper is also considerable. In fact, the lateral wind load imposed on super-tall structures is generally the governing factor in the structural design. Wind pressure increases with height, so for very tall buildings, the loads associated with wind are larger than dead or live loads.
Other vertical and horizontal loading factors come from varied, unpredictable sources, such as earthquakes.
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A shear wall, in its simplest definition, is a wall where the entire material of the wall is employed in the resistance of both horizontal and vertical loads. A typical example is a brick or cinderblock wall. Since the wall material is used to hold the weight, as the wall expands in size, it must hold considerably more weight. Due to the features of a shear wall, it is acceptable for small constructions, such as suburban housing or an urban brownstone, to require low material costs and little maintenance. In this way, shear walls, typically in the form of plywood and framing, brick, or cinderblock, are used for these structures. For skyscrapers, though, as the size of the structure increases, so does the size of the supporting wall. Large structures such as castles and cathedrals inherently addressed these issues due to a large wall being advantageous (castles), or ingeniously designed around (cathedrals). Since skyscrapers seek to maximize the floor-space by consolidating structural support, shear walls tend to be used only in conjunction with other support systems.
By 1895, steel had replaced cast iron as skyscrapers' structural material. Its malleability allowed it to be formed into a variety of shapes, and it could be riveted, ensuring strong connections.[49] The simplicity of a steel frame eliminated the inefficient part of a shear wall, the central portion, and consolidated support members in a much stronger fashion by allowing both horizontal and vertical supports throughout. Among steel's drawbacks is that as more material must be supported as height increases, the distance between supporting members must decrease, which in turn increases the amount of material that must be supported. This becomes inefficient and uneconomic for buildings above 40 stories tall as usable floor spaces are reduced for supporting column and due to more usage of steel.[48]
A new structural system of framed tubes was developed in 1963. Fazlur Khan and J. Rankine defined the framed tube structure as "a three dimensional space structure composed of three, four, or possibly more frames, braced frames, or shear walls, joined at or near their edges to form a vertical tube-like structural system capable of resisting lateral forces in any direction by cantilevering from the foundation."[50] Closely spaced interconnected exterior columns form the tube. Horizontal loads (primarily wind) are supported by the structure as a whole. Framed tubes allow fewer interior columns, and so create more usable floor space, and about half the exterior surface is available for windows. Where larger openings like garage doors are required, the tube frame must be interrupted, with transfer girders used to maintain structural integrity. Tube structures cut down costs, at the same time allowing buildings to reach greater heights. Concrete tube-frame construction[36] was first used in the DeWitt-Chestnut Apartment Building, completed in Chicago in 1963,[51] and soon after in the John Hancock Center and World Trade Center.
The tubular systems are fundamental to tall building design. Most buildings over 40-stories constructed since the 1960s now use a tube design derived from Khan’s structural engineering principles,[48][52] examples including the construction of the World Trade Center, Aon Center, Petronas Towers, Jin Mao Building, and most other supertall skyscrapers since the 1960s.[36] The strong influence of tube structure design is also evident in the construction of the current tallest skyscraper, the Burj Khalifa.[38]
Khan pioneered several other variations of the tube structure design.[citation needed] One of these was the concept of X-bracing, or the "trussed tube", first employed for the John Hancock Center. This concept reduced the lateral load on the building by transferring the load into the exterior columns. This allows for a reduced need for interior columns thus creating more floor space. This concept can be seen in the John Hancock Center, designed in 1965 and completed in 1969. One of the most famous buildings of the structural expressionist style, the skyscraper's distinctive X-bracing exterior is actually a hint that the structure's skin is indeed part of its 'tubular system'. This idea is one of the architectural techniques the building used to climb to record heights (the tubular system is essentially the spine that helps the building stand upright during wind and earthquake loads). This X-bracing allows for both higher performance from tall structures and the ability to open up the inside floorplan (and usable floor space) if the architect desires.
The John Hancock Center was far more efficient than earlier steel-frame structures. Where the Empire State Building (1931), required about 206 kilograms of steel per square metre and Chase Manhattan Bank Building (1961) required 275, the John Hancock Center required only 145.[37] The trussed tube concept was applied to many later skyscrapers, including the Onterie Center, Citigroup Center and Bank of China Tower.[53]
An important variation on the tube frame is the "bundled tube", which uses several interconnected tube frames. The Willis Tower in Chicago used this design, employing nine tubes of varying height to achieve its distinct appearance. The bundled tube structure meant that "buildings no longer need be boxlike in appearance: they could become sculpture."[38]
The invention of the elevator was a precondition for the invention of skyscrapers, given that most people would not (or could not) climb more than a few flights of stairs at a time. The elevators in a skyscraper are not simply a necessary utility, like running water and electricity, but are in fact closely related to the design of the whole structure: a taller building requires more elevators to service the additional floors, but the elevator shafts consume valuable floor space. If the service core, which contains the elevator shafts, becomes too big, it can reduce the profitability of the building. Architects must therefore balance the value gained by adding height against the value lost to the expanding service core.[54] Many tall buildings use elevators in a non-standard configuration to reduce their footprint. Buildings such as the former World Trade Center Towers and Chicago's John Hancock Center use sky lobbies, where express elevators take passengers to upper floors which serve as the base for local elevators. This allows architects and engineers to place elevator shafts on top of each other, saving space. Sky lobbies and express elevators take up a significant amount of space, however, and add to the amount of time spent commuting between floors. Other buildings, such as the Petronas Towers, use double-deck elevators, allowing more people to fit in a single elevator, and reaching two floors at every stop. It is possible to use even more than two levels on an elevator, although this has never been done. The main problem with double-deck elevators is that they cause everyone in the elevator to stop when only people on one level need to get off at a given floor.
Buildings with sky lobbies include the World Trade Center, Petronas Twin Towers and Taipei 101. The 44th-floor sky lobby of the John Hancock Center also featured the first high-rise indoor swimming pool, which remains the highest in America.[55]
Skyscrapers are usually situated in city centers where the price of land is high. Constructing a skyscraper becomes justified if the price of land is so high that it makes economic sense to build upwards as to minimize the cost of the land per the total floor area of a building. Thus the construction of skyscrapers is dictated by economics and results in skyscrapers in a certain part of a large city unless a building code restricts the height of buildings. Skyscrapers are rarely seen in small cities and they are characteristic of large cities, because of the critical importance of high land prices for the construction of skyscrapers. Usually only office, commercial and hotel users can afford the rents in the city center and thus most tenants of skyscrapers are of these classes. Some skyscrapers have been built in areas where the bedrock is near surface, because this makes constructing the foundation cheaper, for example this is the case in Midtown Manhattan and Lower Manhattan, in New York City, but not in-between these two parts of the city.
Today, skyscrapers are an increasingly common sight where land is expensive, as in the centers of big cities, because they provide such a high ratio of rentable floor space per unit area of land.
One problem with skyscrapers is car parking. In the largest cities most people commute via public transport, but for smaller cities a lot of parking spaces are needed. Multi-storey car parks are impractical to build very tall, so a lot of land area is needed.
There may be a correlation between skyscraper construction and great income inequality but this has not been conclusively proved.[56]
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The environmental impact of skyscrapers and whether instead of skyscrapers multiple smaller, lighter buildings would be more environmentally friendly or sustainable is under debate. The concept of a skyscraper is a product of the industrialized age, made possible by cheap fossil fuel derived energy and industrially refined raw materials such as steel and concrete. The construction of skyscrapers was enabled by steel frame construction that surpassed brick and mortar construction starting at the end of the 19th century and finally surpassing it in the 20th century together with reinforced concrete construction as the price of steel decreased and labour costs increased.
The amount of steel, concrete and glass needed to construct a single skyscraper is large, and these materials represent a great deal of embodied energy. Skyscrapers are thus energy intensive buildings, but skyscrapers have a long lifespan, for example the Empire State Building in New York City, United States completed in 1931 and is still in active use. Skyscrapers have considerable mass, which means that they must be built on a sturdier foundation than would be required for shorter, lighter buildings. Building materials must also be lifted to the top of a skyscraper during construction, requiring more energy than would be necessary at lower heights. Furthermore, a skyscraper consumes a lot of electricity because potable and non-potable water have to be pumped to the highest occupied floors, skyscrapers are usually designed to be mechanically ventilated, elevators are generally used instead of stairs, and natural lighting cannot be utilized in rooms far from the windows and the windowless spaces such as elevators, bathrooms and stairwells.
Skyscrapers can be artificially lighted and the energy requirements can be covered by renewable energy or other electricity generation of low greenhouse gas emissions. Heating and cooling of skyscrapers can be efficient, because of centralized HVAC systems, heat radiation blocking windows and small surface area of the building. There is Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED) certification for skyscrapers. For example, the Empire State Building received a gold Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design rating in September 2011 and the Empire State Building is the tallest LEED certified building in the United States, proving that skyscrapers can be environmentally friendly. Also the 30 St Mary Axe in London, the United Kingdom is an environmentally friendly skyscraper.
In the lower levels of a skyscraper a larger percentage of the building cross section must be devoted to the building structure and services than is required for lower buildings:
In low-rise structures, the support rooms (chillers, transformers, boilers, pumps and air handling units) can be put in basements or roof space—areas which have low rental value. There is, however, a limit to how far this plant can be located from the area it serves. The farther away it is the larger the risers for ducts and pipes from this plant to the floors they serve and the more floor area these risers take. In practice this means that in highrise buildings this plant is located on 'plant levels' at intervals up the building.
At the beginning of the 20th century, New York City was a center for the Beaux-Arts architectural movement, attracting the talents of such great architects as Stanford White and Carrere and Hastings. As better construction and engineering technology became available as the century progressed, New York City and Chicago became the focal point of the competition for the tallest building in the world. Each city's striking skyline has been composed of numerous and varied skyscrapers, many of which are icons of 20th-century architecture:
Momentum in setting records passed from the United States to other nations with the opening of the Petronas Twin Towers in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, in 1998. The record for the world's tallest building has remained in Asia since the opening of Taipei 101 in Taipei, Taiwan, in 2004. A number of architectural records, including those of the world's tallest building and tallest free-standing structure, moved to the Middle East with the opening of the Burj Khalifa in Dubai, United Arab Emirates.
This geographical transition is accompanied by a change in approach to skyscraper design. For much of the twentieth century large buildings took the form of simple geometrical shapes. This reflected the "international style" or modernist philosophy shaped by Bauhaus architects early in the century. The last of these, the Willis Tower and World Trade Center towers in New York, erected in the 1970s, reflect the philosophy. Tastes shifted in the decade which followed, and new skyscrapers began to exhibit postmodernist influences. This approach to design avails itself of historical elements, often adapted and re-interpreted, in creating technologically modern structures. The Petronas Twin Towers recall Asian pagoda architecture and Islamic geometric principles. Taipei 101 likewise reflects the pagoda tradition as it incorporates ancient motifs such as the ruyi symbol. The Burj Khalifa draws inspiration from traditional Islamic art. Architects in recent years have sought to create structures that would not appear equally at home if set in any part of the world, but that reflect the culture thriving in the spot where they stand.[citation needed]
The following list measures height of the roof.[63][not in citation given] The more common gauge is the "highest architectural detail"; such ranking would have included Petronas Towers, built in 1998.
Built | Building | City | Country | Roof | Floors | Pinnacle | Current status | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1870 | Equitable Life Building | New York City | United States | 043 m | 142 ft | 8 | Destroyed by fire in 1912 | ||
1889 | Auditorium Building | Chicago | 082 m | 269 ft | 17 | 106 m | 349 ft | Standing | |
1890 | New York World Building | New York City | 094 m | 309 ft | 20 | 106 m | 349 ft | Demolished in 1955 | |
1894 | Manhattan Life Insurance Building | 106 m | 348 ft | 18 | Demolished in 1963 | ||||
1895 | Milwaukee City Hall | Milwaukee | 108 m | 353 ft | 15 | Standing | |||
1899 | Park Row Building | New York City | 119 m | 391 ft | 30 | Standing | |||
1901 | Philadelphia City Hall | Philadelphia | 155.8 m | 511 ft | 9 | 167 m | 548 ft | Standing | |
1908 | Singer Building | New York City | 187 m | 612 ft | 47 | Demolished in 1968 | |||
1909 | Met Life Tower | 213 m | 700 ft | 50 | Standing | ||||
1913 | Woolworth Building | 241 m | 792 ft | 57 | Standing | ||||
1930 | 40 Wall Street | 70 | 283 m | 927 ft | Standing | ||||
1930 | Chrysler Building | 282.9 m | 927 ft | 77 | 319 m | 1,046 ft | Standing | ||
1931 | Empire State Building | 381 m | 1,250 ft | 102 | 443 m | 1,454 ft | Standing | ||
1972 | World Trade Center (North Tower) | 417 m | 1,368 ft | 110 | 527.3 m | 1,730 ft | Destroyed in 2001 in the September 11 attacks | ||
1974 | Willis Tower (formerly Sears Tower) | Chicago | 442 m | 1,450 ft | 108 | 527 m | 1,729 ft | Standing | |
1996 | Petronas Towers | Kuala Lumpur | Malaysia | 379 m | 1,242 ft | 88 | 452 m | 1,483 ft | Standing |
2003 | International Finance Centre | Hong Kong | Hong Kong | 407 m | 1,335 ft | 88 | 412 m | 1,351 ft | Standing |
2004 | Taipei 101 | Taipei | Taiwan | 449 m | 1,474 ft | 101 | 509 m | 1,671 ft | Standing |
2008 | Shanghai World Financial Center | Shanghai | China | 487 m | 1,599 ft | 101 | 492 m | 1,614 ft | Standing |
2010 | Burj Khalifa | Dubai | United Arab Emirates | 828 m | 2,717 ft | 163 | 829.8 m | 2,722 ft | Standing |
2013 | One World Trade Center (Freedom Tower) | New York City | United States | 417 m | 1,368 ft | 104 | 541.3 m | 1,776 ft | Standing |
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At the time Taipei 101 broke the half-km mark in height, it was already technically possible to build structures towering over a km above the ground.[citation needed] Proposals for such structures have been put forward, including the Kingdom Tower to be built in Jeddah, Saudi Arabia,[64][65] Burj Mubarak Al Kabir in Kuwait and Azerbaijan Tower in Baku. Kilometer-plus structures present architectural challenges that may eventually place them in a new architectural category.[66]
The following skyscrapers, all contenders for being among the tallest in their city or region, are under construction and due to be completed in the next few years:
"In my view, we can no longer argue that the Home Insurance Building was the first skyscraper," says Carl W. Condit, now retired from Northwestern University in Evanston, Ill., and author of several books on Chicago architecture. "The claim rests on an unacceptably narrow idea of what constitutes a high-rise commercial building," he says."If there is a building in which all these technical factors—structural system, elevator, utilities—converge at the requisite level of maturity," argues Condit, "it's the Equitable Life Assurance Building in New York." Completed in 1870, the building rose 7½ stories, twice the height of its neighbors.
...their eleventh proper skyscraper, that is by definition buildings above 150 meters
The word skyscraper, in its architectural context, was first applied to the Home Insurance Building, completed in Chicago in 1885.
Mies van der Rohe, one of the great figures of 20th-century architecture.
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