WordNet

wind moving 13-18 knots; 4 on the Beaufort scale
being within reasonable or average limits; not excessive or extreme; "moderate prices"; "a moderate income"; "a moderate fine"; "moderate demands"; "a moderate estimate"; "a moderate eater"; "moderate success"; "a kitchen of moderate size"; "the X-ray showed moderate enlargement of the heart"
make less fast or intense; "moderate your speed"
preside over; "John moderated the discussion" (同)chair, lead
marked by avoidance of extravagance or extremes; "moderate in his demands"; "restrained in his response" (同)restrained
not extreme; "a moderate penalty"; "temperate in his response to criticism" (同)temperate
a slight wind (usually refreshing); "the breeze was cooled by the lake"; "as he waited he could feel the air on his neck" (同)zephyr, gentle wind, air
to proceed quickly and easily
blow gently and lightly; "It breezes most evenings at the shore"
lessening in intensity or strength

PrepTutorEJDIC

『適度の』,度を越さない / (量・大きさ・質などが)『中くらいの』,並の / 《遠回しに》並以下の,平均以下の / (天候などが)『穏やかな』,温和な(mild) / (思想・考え方などが)穏健な / (特に政治上)穏健な人,中道主義者 / …‘を'適度にする,和らげる / 〈集会など〉‘の'司会をする / 穏やかになる,和らぐ / 司会をつとめる
『微風・そよ風』,軟風 / 《英話》ちょっとした口論(けんか) / 《おもに米話》容易なこと,楽なこと / 軽快に動く(進む)

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出典(authority):フリー百科事典『ウィキペディア（Wikipedia）』「2014/01/15 10:28:05」(JST)

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"Violent storm" redirects here. For the videogame, see Violent Storm.

Force 12 at sea.

The Beaufort scale /ˈboʊfərt/ is an empirical measure that relates wind speed to observed conditions at sea or on land. Its full name is the Beaufort wind force scale, although it is a measure of wind speed and not of force in the scientific sense.

History[edit]

The scale was devised in 1805 by Francis Beaufort (later Rear Admiral Sir Francis Beaufort), an Irish Royal Navy officer, while serving on HMS Woolwich. The scale that carries Beaufort's name had a long and complex evolution from the previous work of others (including Daniel Defoe the century before) to when Beaufort was a top administrator in the Royal Navy in the 1830s when it was adopted officially and first used during the voyage of HMS Beagle under Captain Robert FitzRoy, later to set up the first Meteorological Office (Met Office) in Britain giving regular weather forecasts.^[1] In the early 19th century, naval officers made regular weather observations, but there was no standard scale and so they could be very subjective – one man's "stiff breeze" might be another's "soft breeze". Beaufort succeeded in standardizing the scale.

Sir Francis Beaufort

The initial scale of thirteen classes (zero to twelve) did not reference wind speed numbers but related qualitative wind conditions to effects on the sails of a frigate, then the main ship of the Royal Navy, from "just sufficient to give steerage" to "that which no canvas sails could withstand".^[2]

The scale was made a standard for ship's log entries on Royal Navy vessels in the late 1830s and was adapted to non-naval use from the 1850s, with scale numbers corresponding to cup anemometer rotations. In 1916, to accommodate the growth of steam power, the descriptions were changed to how the sea, not the sails, behaved and extended to land observations. Rotations to scale numbers were standardized only in 1923. George Simpson, C.B.E. (Later Sir George Simpson), Director of the UK Meteorological Office, was responsible for this and for the addition of the land-based descriptors.^[1] The measure was slightly altered some decades later to improve its utility for meteorologists. Today, many countries have abandoned the scale and use the metric system based units, m/s or km/h, instead,^{[citation needed]} but the severe weather warnings given to the public are still approximately the same as when using the Beaufort scale.

The Beaufort scale was extended in 1946, when forces 13 to 17 were added.^[3] However, forces 13 to 17 were intended to apply only to special cases, such as tropical cyclones. Nowadays, the extended scale is only used in Taiwan and mainland China, which are often affected by typhoons. Internationally, WMO Manual on Marine Meteorological Services (2012 edition) defined the Beaufort Scale only up to Force 12 and there was no recommendation on the use of the extended scale.^[4]

Wind speed on the 1946 Beaufort scale is based on the empirical relationship:^[5]

v = 0.836 B^3/2 m/s

Where v is the equivalent wind speed at 10 metres above the sea surface and B is Beaufort scale number. For example, B = 9.5 is related to 24.5 m/s which is equal to the lower limit of "10 Beaufort". Using this formula the highest winds in hurricanes would be 23 in the scale.

Today, hurricane force winds are sometimes described as Beaufort scale 12 through 16, very roughly related to the respective category speeds of the Saffir–Simpson Hurricane Scale, by which actual hurricanes are measured, where Category 1 is equivalent to Beaufort 12. However, the extended Beaufort numbers above 13 do not match the Saffir–Simpson Scale. Category 1 tornados on the Fujita and TORRO scales also begin roughly at the end of level 12 of the Beaufort scale, but are independent scales – although the TORRO scale wind values are based on the 3/2 power law relating wind velocity to Beaufort force.^[6]

Note that wave heights in the scale are for conditions in the open ocean, not along the shore.

Modern scale[edit]

Beaufort number	Description	Wind speed	Wave height	Sea conditions	Land conditions
0	Calm	< 1 km/h	0 m	Flat.	Calm. Smoke rises vertically.
		< 1 mph	0 m
		< 1 knot	0 ft
		< 0.3 m/s	0 ft
1	Light air	1.1–5.5 km/h	0–0.2 m	Ripples without crests.	Smoke drift indicates wind direction. Leaves and wind vanes are stationary.
		1–3 mph	0–0.2 m
		1–3 knot	0–1 ft
		0.3–1.5 m/s	0–1 ft
2	Light breeze	5.6–11 km/h	0.2–0.5 m	Small wavelets. Crests of glassy appearance, not breaking	Wind felt on exposed skin. Leaves rustle. Wind vanes begin to move.
		4–7 mph	0.2–0.5 m
		4–6 knot	1–2 ft
		1.6–3.4 m/s	1–2 ft
3	Gentle breeze	12–19 km/h	0.5–1 m	Large wavelets. Crests begin to break; scattered whitecaps	Leaves and small twigs constantly moving, light flags extended.
		8–12 mph	0.5–1 m
		7–10 knot	2–3.5 ft
		3.5–5.4 m/s	2–3.5 ft
4	Moderate breeze	20–28 km/h	1–2 m	Small waves with breaking crests. Fairly frequent whitecaps.	Dust and loose paper raised. Small branches begin to move.
		13–17 mph	1–2 m
		11–16 knot	3.5–6 ft
		5.5–7.9 m/s	3.5–6 ft
5	Fresh breeze	29–38 km/h	2–3 m	Moderate waves of some length. Many whitecaps. Small amounts of spray.	Branches of a moderate size move. Small trees in leaf begin to sway.
		18–24 mph	2–3 m
		17–21 knot	6–9 ft
		8.0–10.7 m/s	6–9 ft
6	Strong breeze	39–49 km/h	3–4 m	Long waves begin to form. White foam crests are very frequent. Some airborne spray is present.	Large branches in motion. Whistling heard in overhead wires. Umbrella use becomes difficult. Empty plastic bins tip over.
		25–30 mph	3–4 m
		22–27 knot	9–13 ft
		10.8–13.8 m/s	9–13 ft
7	High wind, moderate gale, near gale	50–61 km/h	4–5.5 m	Sea heaps up. Some foam from breaking waves is blown into streaks along wind direction. Moderate amounts of airborne spray.	Whole trees in motion. Effort needed to walk against the wind.
		31–38 mph	4–5.5 m
		28–33 knot	13–19 ft
		13.9–17.1 m/s	13–19 ft
8	Gale, fresh gale	62–74 km/h	5.5–7.5 m	Moderately high waves with breaking crests forming spindrift. Well-marked streaks of foam are blown along wind direction. Considerable airborne spray.	Some twigs broken from trees. Cars veer on road. Progress on foot is seriously impeded.
		39–46 mph	5.5–7.5 m
		34–40 knot	18–25 ft
		17.2–20.7 m/s	18–25 ft
9	Strong gale	75–88 km/h	7–10 m	High waves whose crests sometimes roll over. Dense foam is blown along wind direction. Large amounts of airborne spray may begin to reduce visibility.	Some branches break off trees, and some small trees blow over. Construction/temporary signs and barricades blow over.
		47–54 mph	7–10 m
		41–47 knot	23–32 ft
		20.8–24.4 m/s	23–32 ft
10	Storm,^[7] whole gale	89–102 km/h	9–12.5 m	Very high waves with overhanging crests. Large patches of foam from wave crests give the sea a white appearance. Considerable tumbling of waves with heavy impact. Large amounts of airborne spray reduce visibility.	Trees are broken off or uprooted, structural damage likely.
		55–63 mph	9–12.5 m
		48–55 knot	29–41 ft
		24.5–28.4 m/s	29–41 ft
11	Violent storm	103–117 km/h	11.5–16 m	Exceptionally high waves. Very large patches of foam, driven before the wind, cover much of the sea surface. Very large amounts of airborne spray severely reduce visibility.	Widespread vegetation and structural damage likely.
		64–73 mph	11.5–16 m
		56–63 knot	37–52 ft
		28.5–32.6 m/s	37–52 ft
12	Hurricane force ^[7]	≥ 118 km/h	≥ 14 m	Huge waves. Sea is completely white with foam and spray. Air is filled with driving spray, greatly reducing visibility.	Severe widespread damage to vegetation and structures. Debris and unsecured objects are hurled about.
		≥ 74 mph	≥ 14 m
		≥ 64 knot	≥ 46 ft
		≥ 32.7 m/s	≥ 46 ft

The scale is used in the Shipping Forecasts broadcast on BBC Radio 4 in the United Kingdom, and in the Sea Area Forecast from Met Éireann, the Irish Meteorological Service. Met Éireann issues a "Small Craft Warning" if winds of Beaufort force 6 (mean wind speed exceeding 22 knots) are expected up to 10 nautical miles offshore. Other warnings are issued by Met Éireann for Irish coastal waters, which are regarded as extending 30 miles out from the coastline, and the Irish Sea or part thereof: "Gale Warnings" are issued if winds of Beaufort force 8 are expected; "Strong Gale Warnings" are issued if winds of Beaufort force 9 or frequent gusts of at least 52 knots are expected.; "Storm Force Warnings" are issued if Beaufort force 10 or frequent gusts of at least 61 knots are expected; "Violent Storm Force Warnings" are issued if Beaufort force 11 or frequent gusts of at least 69 knots are expected; "Hurricane Force Warnings" are issued if winds of greater than 64 knots are expected.

This scale is also widely used in the Netherlands, Greece, China, Taiwan, Hong Kong, Malta and Macau, however with some differences between them. Taiwan uses the Beaufort scale with the extension to 17 noted above. China also switched to this extended version without prior notice on the morning of 15 May 2006,^[8] and the extended scale was immediately put to use for Typhoon Chanchu. Hong Kong and Macau however keep using force 12 as the maximum.

In the United States, winds of force 6 or 7 result in the issuance of a small craft advisory, with force 8 or 9 winds bringing about a gale warning, force 10 or 11 a storm warning ("a tropical storm warning" being issued instead of the latter two if the winds relate to a tropical cyclone), and force 12 a hurricane force wind warning (or hurricane warning if related to a tropical cyclone). A set of red warning flags (daylight) and red warning lights (night time) is displayed at shore establishments which coincide with the various levels of warning.

In Canada, maritime winds forecast to be in the range of 6 to 7 are designated as "strong"; 8 to 9 "gale force"; 10 to 11 "storm force"; 12 "hurricane force". Appropriate wind warnings are issued by Environment Canada's Meteorological Service of Canada: strong wind warning, gale (force wind) warning, storm (force wind) warning and hurricane force wind warning. These designations were standardized nationally in 2008, whereas "light wind" can refer to 0 to 12 or 0 to 15 knots and "moderate wind" 12 to 19 or 16 to 19 knots, depending on regional custom, definition or practice. Prior to 2008, a "strong wind warning" would have been referred to as a "small craft warning" by Environment Canada, similar to US terminology. (Canada and the USA have the Great Lakes in common.) However, there being no generally accepted definition of "small craft", and to have consistency between wind speed ranges and their associated warnings, the phrase "strong wind warning" has become the national Canadian norm.

References[edit]

Huler, Scott (2004). Defining the Wind: The Beaufort Scale, and How a 19th-Century Admiral Turned Science into Poetry. Crown. ISBN 1-4000-4884-2.

^ ^a ^b "National Meteorological Library and Archive Fact sheet 6 — The Beaufort Scale". Met Office. Retrieved 2011-05-13.
^ Oliver, John E. (2005GWAPO KO GWAPO KAAU KO). Encyclopedia of world climatology. Springer. Check date values in: |date= (help)
^ Walter J. Saucier (1955). Principles of Meteorological Analysis. Retrieved on 2009-01-09.
^ http://library.wmo.int/pmb_ged/wmo_558_en-v1.pdf
^ Tom Beer (1997). Environmental Oceanography. CRC Press. ISBN 0-8493-8425-7.
^ Maiden, Terence. "T-Scale: Origins and Scientific Basis". TORRO. Retrieved 2012-01-04.
^ ^a ^b The names "storm" and "hurricane" on the Beaufort scale refer only to wind strength, and do not necessarily mean that other severe weather (for instance, a thunderstorm or tropical cyclone) is present. To avoid confusion, strong wind warnings will often speak of e.g. "hurricane-force winds".
^ 昨日实行新标准"珍珠"属强台风_新闻中心_新浪网

External links[edit]

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Beaufort Scale.

Wikisource has the text of the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica article Beaufort Scale.

UK Meteorological Office: The Beaufort Scale.
Radio interview with Scott Huler.
OceanWeather.com gives current graphics for wind, waves and temperature.
Introduction to Physical Oceanography, Open Source Textbook, oceanworld.tamu.edu, cites the original definition formula in chapter 4.
Howtoons Poster showing effects on land/sea effects at each step.
US Economic Costs of High Winds NOAA Economics.
Online calculator: Beaufort scale.
The Weather Legacy of Francis Beaufort — The history of the Beaufort Scale.
Ireland's Beaufort was Windscale Inventor - by Dr John de Courcy Ireland.
Film of Wind Scale

UpToDate Contents

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English Journal

The impact of sea breeze under different synoptic patterns on air pollution within Athens basin.

Mavrakou T, Philippopoulos K, Deligiorgi D.AbstractAir quality in densely populated urban coastal areas is directly related to the coupling of the synoptic and the local scale flows. The dispersion conditions within Athens basin, under the influence of different meteorological forcings, lead to distinct spatio-temporal air pollution patterns. The aim of the current observational research is to identify and examine the effect of sea breeze under different atmospheric circulation patterns on air pollution levels for a one-year study period (2007). The study employs surface pressure maps, routine meteorological observations at two coastal sites and nitrogen monoxide (NO), nitrogen dioxide (NO(2)) and ozone (O(3)) concentrations from a network of four air quality stations within the Athens basin. A three-step methodology is applied that incorporates a set of criteria for classifying atmospheric circulation and identifying sea breeze events under each circulation pattern. Two types of sea breeze development are identified (pure sea breeze-PSB and modified sea breeze-MSB) with distinct characteristics. Sea breeze is found to develop more frequently under offshore compared to onshore and parallel to the shoreline background flows. Poor dispersion conditions (high nitrogen oxides-NO(x) and O(3) concentrations) are connected to the pure sea breeze cases and to those cases where sea breeze interacts with a moderate northerly flow during the warm period. The levels of NO(x) and O(3) for the northern Athens basin area are found to be significantly higher during the sea breeze days compared to the Etesian days. Regarding the diurnal variation of ozone for the sea breeze days, peak concentrations and higher intra-daily ranges are observed. Day-to-day pollution accumulation (build-up effect) is measured for O(3) at the northern stations in the Athens basin.
The Science of the total environment.Sci Total Environ.2012 Sep 1;433:31-43. Epub 2012 Jul 4.
Air quality in densely populated urban coastal areas is directly related to the coupling of the synoptic and the local scale flows. The dispersion conditions within Athens basin, under the influence of different meteorological forcings, lead to distinct spatio-temporal air pollution patterns. The ai
PMID 22766425

Internal and external influences on near-surface microbial community structure in the vicinity of the Cape Verde Islands.

Hill PG, Heywood JL, Holland RJ, Purdie DA, Fuchs BM, Zubkov MV.SourceNational Oceanography Centre, European Way, Southampton, SO14 3ZH, UK. polly.hill@noc.ac.uk
Microbial ecology.Microb Ecol.2012 Jan;63(1):139-48. Epub 2011 Oct 13.
Microbial community structure in the subtropical north-east Atlantic Ocean was compared between 2 years and variation attributed to environmental variables. Surface seawater communities were analysed by flow cytometry and fluorescence in situ hybridisation. Probes specific to Alphaproteobacteria, C
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Japanese Journal

Studies on air pollution from automobile exhaust in tokyo : analysis of urban influence and estimates of air pollution potential

Masuhara Takaaki
Geographical Reports of Tokyo Metropolitan University 26, 87-135, 1991
… The result shows that roughness increase doesn't affect the inversion growth in the case of a weak surface wind (u_s=1m/s) but tends to weaken it in the case of a moderate surface wind (u_s=3m/s), and screen-height cooling amount is almost linearly related to the inversion intensity; …
NAID 110008620269

粉炭を利用せる瓦斯發生爐の研究(昭和五年七月十二日、燃料協會第八十三囘例會講演)

並河孝
燃料協會誌 9(95), 八三四-八六三, 1930-08
粉炭を利用して發生爐瓦斯の原料となさんとし海軍燃料廠考案の装置に依り簡單に之を團結せしめて直ちに發生爐に投入して瓦斯化試驗を行ひたる結果に就て演述せんとす
NAID 110004412958

「moderate」

　　[★]

adj.

極端に走らない、節制のある、節度のある。穏健派の。(気質などが)穏やかな
適度の。(質、大きさなどが)中位の、並の。(値段が)安い、手頃な、ほどよい

disease: mild - moderate - severe

関: alleviate、ease、intermediate、medium degree、mitigate、mitigation、moderate disease、moderate level、moderately、modest、modestly、palliate、palliation、reasonably、relax、relaxation

[met_office-1] "National Meteorological Library and Archive Fact sheet 6 — The Beaufort Scale". Met Office. Retrieved 2011-05-13.

[2] Oliver, John E. (2005GWAPO KO GWAPO KAAU KO). Encyclopedia of world climatology. Springer. Check date values in: |date= (help)

[3] Walter J. Saucier (1955). Principles of Meteorological Analysis. Retrieved on 2009-01-09.

[4] ttp://library.wmo.int/pmb_ged/wmo_558_en-v1.pdf

[5] Tom Beer (1997). Environmental Oceanography. CRC Press. ISBN 0-8493-8425-7.

[6] Maiden, Terence. "T-Scale: Origins and Scientific Basis". TORRO. Retrieved 2012-01-04.

[forcenamenote-7] The names "storm" and "hurricane" on the Beaufort scale refer only to wind strength, and do not necessarily mean that other severe weather (for instance, a thunderstorm or tropical cyclone) is present. To avoid confusion, strong wind warnings will often speak of e.g. "hurricane-force winds".

[8] 昨日实行新标准"珍珠"属强台风_新闻中心_新浪网

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moderate breeze