混合栄養の

関: mixotrophism

Wikipedia preview

出典(authority):フリー百科事典『ウィキペディア（Wikipedia）』「2016/09/19 20:34:56」(JST)

wiki en

A mixotroph is an organism that can use a mix of different sources of energy and carbon, instead of having a single trophic mode on the continuum from complete autotrophy at one end to heterotrophy at the other.

Possible combinations are photo- and chemotrophy, litho- and organotrophy, auto- and heterotrophy or other combinations of these. Mixotrophs can be either eukaryotic or prokaryotic.^[1] They can take advantage of different environmental conditions.^[2]

If a trophic mode is obligate, then it is always necessary for sustaining growth and maintenance; if facultative, it can be used as a supplemental source.^[1] Some organisms have incomplete Calvin cycles, so they are incapable of fixing carbon dioxide and must use organic carbon sources.

Types of Mixotrophy

Organisms may employ mixotrophy obligately or facultatively.

Obligate mixotrophy: in order to support growth and maintenance, an organism must utilize both heterotrophic and autotrophic means.
Obligate autotrophy with facultative heterotrophy: Autotrophy alone is sufficient for growth and maintenance, but heterotrophy may be used as a supplementary strategy when autotrophic energy is not enough, for example, when light intensity is low.
Facultative autotrophy with obligate heterotrophy: Heterotrophy is sufficient for growth and maintenance, but autotrophy may be used to supplement, for example, when prey availability is very low.
Facultative mixotrophy: Maintenance and growth may be obtained by heterotrophic or autotrophic means alone, and mixotrophy is used only when necessary.^[3]

In order to characterize the sub-domains within mixotrophy, several very similar categorization schemes have been suggested.

Consider the example of a marine protist with heterotrophic and photosynthetic capabilities: In the breakdown put forward by Jones,^[4] there are four mixotrophic groups based on relative roles of phagotrophy and phototrophy.

A: Heterotrophy (phagotrophy) is the norm, and phototrophy is only used when prey concentrations are limiting.
B: Phototrophy is the dominant strategy, and phagotrophy is employed as a supplement when light is limiting.
C: Phototrophy results in substances for both growth and ingestion, phagotrophy is employed when light is limiting.
D: Phototrophy is most common nutrition type, phagotrophy only used during prolonged dark periods, when light is extremely limiting.

An alternative scheme by Stoeker^[5] also takes into account the role of nutrients and growth factors, and includes mixotrophs who have a photosynthetic symbiont or who retain chloroplasts from their prey. This scheme characterizes mixotrophs by their efficiency.

Type 1: "Ideal Mixotrophs" who utilize prey and sunlight equally well
Type 2: Supplement phototrophic activity with food consumption
Type 3: Primarily heterotrophic, use phototrophic activity during times of very low prey abundance.^[6]

Examples

Paracoccus pantotrophus is a bacterium that can live chemoorganoheterotrophically, whereby a large variety of organic compounds can be metabolized. Also a facultative chemolithoautotrophic metabolism is possible, as seen in colorless sulfur bacteria (some Thiobacillus), whereby sulfur compounds such as hydrogen sulfide, elemental sulfur, or thiosulfate are oxidized to sulfate. The sulfur compounds serve as electron donors and are consumed to produce ATP. The carbon source for these organisms can be carbon dioxide (autotrophy) or organic carbon (heterotrophy).^[7]^[8]^[9]
Organoheterotrophy can occur under aerobic or under anaerobic conditions; lithoautotrophy takes place aerobically.^[10]^[11]
zooxanthellate soft corals^[12]
Many examples of the genus Euglena.
Oriental hornet Vespa orientalis (putative)
Venus Flytrap Dionaea muscipula

Plants

Amongst plants, mixotrophy classically applies to carnivorous, hemi-parasitic and partially hetero-mycotrophic species. However, this could be extended to a higher number of clades as research proves that organic forms of nitrogen and phosphorus such as DNA, proteins, amino-acids or carbohydrates also are part of a number of plants' nutrient supplies.^[13]

Notes

^ ^a ^b Eiler A (December 2006). "Evidence for the Ubiquity of Mixotrophic Bacteria in the Upper Ocean: Implications and Consequences". Appl Environ Microbiol. 72 (12): 7431–7. doi:10.1128/AEM.01559-06. PMC 1694265. PMID 17028233.
^ Katechakis A, Stibor H (July 2006). "The mixotroph Ochromonas tuberculata may invade and suppress specialist phago- and phototroph plankton communities depending on nutrient conditions". Oecologia. 148 (4): 692–701. doi:10.1007/s00442-006-0413-4. PMID 16568278.
^ Schoonhoven, Erwin (January 19, 2000). "Ecophysiology of Mixotrophs" (PDF). Thesis.
^ Jones, H.J.L. (1997). "A classification of mixotrophic protists based on their behaviour". Freshwater Biology. 37: 35–43. doi:10.1046/j.1365-2427.1997.00138.x.
^ Stoecker, D.K. (1998). "Conceptual models of mixotrophy in planktonic protists and some ecological and evolutionary implications". European Journal of Protistology. 34: 281–290. doi:10.1016/s0932-4739(98)80055-2.
^ Tarangkoon, Woraporn (29 April 2010). "Mixtrophic Protists among Marine Ciliates and Dinoflagellates: Distribution, Physiology and Ecology" (PDF). Thesis.
^ Libes, Susan M. (2009). Introduction to marine biogeochemistry (2 ed.). Academic Press. p. 192. ISBN 978-0-7637-5345-0.
^ Dworkin, Martin (2006). The Prokaryotes: Ecophysiology and biochemistry. 2 (3rd ed.). Springer. p. 988. ISBN 978-0-387-25492-0.
^ Lengeler, Joseph W.; Drews, Gerhart; Schlegel, Hans Günter (1999). Biology of the Prokaryotes. Georg Thieme Verlag. p. 238. ISBN 978-3-13-108411-8.
^ Bartosik D, Sochacka M, Baj J (July 2003). "Identification and Characterization of Transposable Elements of Paracoccus pantotrophus". J Bacteriol. 185 (13): 3753–63. doi:10.1128/JB.185.13.3753-3763.2003. PMC 161580. PMID 12813068.
^ Friedrich, Cornelius G.; et al. (2007). "Redox Control of Chemotrophic Sulfur Oxidation of Paracoccus pantotrophus". Microbial Sulfur Metabolism. Springer. pp. 139–150. PDF
^ Fabricius, Katharina (2015). "Mixotrophy in soft corals of the Great Barrier Reef". http://data.aims.gov.au/. Australian Institute of Marine Science. Retrieved 11 November 2015. External link in |website= (help)
^ Schmidt, Susanne; John A. Raven; Chanyarat Paungfoo-Lonhienne (2013). "The mixotrophic nature of photosynthetic plants". Functional Plant Biology. 40 (5): 425. doi:10.1071/FP13061. ISSN 1445-4408. Retrieved 2013-11-26.

External links

Troost TA, Kooi BW, Kooijman SA (February 2005). "When do mixotrophs specialize? Adaptive dynamics theory applied to a dynamic energy budget model". Math Biosci. 193 (2): 159–82. doi:10.1016/j.mbs.2004.06.010. PMID 15748728.
Sanders, Robert W. Mixotrophic Nutrition of Phytoplankton: Venus Fly Traps of the microbial world. Temple University.

English Journal

Profiling of lipid and glycogen accumulations under different growth conditions in the sulfothermophilic red alga Galdieria sulphuraria.

Sakurai T1, Aoki M1, Ju X2, Ueda T1, Nakamura Y3, Fujiwara S1, Umemura T1, Tsuzuki M4, Minoda A5.
Bioresource technology.Bioresour Technol.2016 Jan;200:861-6. doi: 10.1016/j.biortech.2015.11.014. Epub 2015 Nov 14.
The unicellular red alga Galdieria sulphuraria grows efficiently and produces a large amount of biomass in acidic conditions at high temperatures. It has great potential to produce biofuels and other beneficial compounds without becoming contaminated with other organisms. In G. sulphuraria, biomass
PMID 26595665

Synchronized growth and neutral lipid accumulation in Chlorella sorokiniana FC6 IITG under continuous mode of operation.

Kumar V1, Muthuraj M2, Palabhanvi B2, Das D3.
Bioresource technology.Bioresour Technol.2016 Jan;200:770-9. doi: 10.1016/j.biortech.2015.11.004. Epub 2015 Nov 10.
Synchronized growth and neutral lipid accumulation with high lipid productivity under mixotrophic growth of the strain Chlorella sorokiniana FC6 IITG was achieved via manipulation of substrates feeding mode and supplementation of lipid elicitors in the growth medium. Screening and optimization of li
PMID 26575619

Production, extraction and stabilization of lutein from microalga Chlorella sorokiniana MB-1.

Chen CY1, Jesisca2, Hsieh C3, Lee DJ4, Chang CH2, Chang JS5.
Bioresource technology.Bioresour Technol.2016 Jan;200:500-5. doi: 10.1016/j.biortech.2015.10.071. Epub 2015 Oct 24.
The efficiencies of extraction and preservation of lutein from microalgae are critical for the success of its commercialization. In this study, lutein was produced by Chlorella sorokiniana MB-1 via semi-batch mixotrophic cultivation. The microalgal biomass with a lutein content of 5.21mg/g was pretr
PMID 26519703

Japanese Journal

Pseudomonas yangmingensis sp. nov., an alkaliphilic denitrifying species isolated from a hot spring(ENVIRONMENTAL BIOTECHNOLOGY)

Wong Biing-Teo,Lee Duu-Jong
Journal of bioscience and bioengineering 117(1), 71-74, 2014-01
… The strain CRS1 is a facultative autotrophic bacterium that has capability of mixotrophic and heterotrophic denitrification. …
NAID 110009766607

Optimization of Dilute Alkali Extraction of Crude Polysaccharides from Mixotrophic Chlorella sp.-XJY

He Yingying,Xu Xiaolin,Wang Siyu,Wang Changhai,Dai Bin
Food Science and Technology Research 20(1), 51-58, 2014
… Chlorella sp.-XJY isolated from the Ili River in Northern Xinjiang was cultivated under mixotrophic conditions. … The maximum biomass and crude polysaccharide production significantly increased (2.06 g/L and 145.5 mg/L, respectively) under mixotrophic conditions than under photoautotrophic conditions. …
NAID 130003392418

Biochemical composition of green alga Chlorella minutissima in mixotrophic cultures under the effect of different carbon sources(BIOCHEMICAL ENGINEERING)

Gautam Kshipra,Pareek Ashwani,Sharma Durlubh Kumar
Journal of bioscience and bioengineering 116(5), 624-627, 2013-11
… Mixotrophic growth of Chlorella minutissima with carbon supplements such as glucose, glycerol, succinate, molasses and press mud resulted in maximum biomass accumulation in glucose supplemented culture. …
NAID 110009685216

Related Pictures

★リンクテーブル★

リンク元	「混合栄養」「mixotrophism」

「混合栄養」

　　[★]

英: mixotrophism、mixotrophic

「mixotrophism」

　　[★]

混合栄養

関: mixotrophic

[Eiler-1] Eiler A (December 2006). "Evidence for the Ubiquity of Mixotrophic Bacteria in the Upper Ocean: Implications and Consequences". Appl Environ Microbiol. 72 (12): 7431–7. doi:10.1128/AEM.01559-06. PMC 1694265. PMID 17028233.

[2] Katechakis A, Stibor H (July 2006). "The mixotroph Ochromonas tuberculata may invade and suppress specialist phago- and phototroph plankton communities depending on nutrient conditions". Oecologia. 148 (4): 692–701. doi:10.1007/s00442-006-0413-4. PMID 16568278.

[3] Schoonhoven, Erwin (January 19, 2000). "Ecophysiology of Mixotrophs" (PDF). Thesis.

[4] Jones, H.J.L. (1997). "A classification of mixotrophic protists based on their behaviour". Freshwater Biology. 37: 35–43. doi:10.1046/j.1365-2427.1997.00138.x.

[5] Stoecker, D.K. (1998). "Conceptual models of mixotrophy in planktonic protists and some ecological and evolutionary implications". European Journal of Protistology. 34: 281–290. doi:10.1016/s0932-4739(98)80055-2.

[6] Tarangkoon, Woraporn (29 April 2010). "Mixtrophic Protists among Marine Ciliates and Dinoflagellates: Distribution, Physiology and Ecology" (PDF). Thesis.

[7] Libes, Susan M. (2009). Introduction to marine biogeochemistry (2 ed.). Academic Press. p. 192. ISBN 978-0-7637-5345-0.

[8] Dworkin, Martin (2006). The Prokaryotes: Ecophysiology and biochemistry. 2 (3rd ed.). Springer. p. 988. ISBN 978-0-387-25492-0.

[9] Lengeler, Joseph W.; Drews, Gerhart; Schlegel, Hans Günter (1999). Biology of the Prokaryotes. Georg Thieme Verlag. p. 238. ISBN 978-3-13-108411-8.

[10] Bartosik D, Sochacka M, Baj J (July 2003). "Identification and Characterization of Transposable Elements of Paracoccus pantotrophus". J Bacteriol. 185 (13): 3753–63. doi:10.1128/JB.185.13.3753-3763.2003. PMC 161580. PMID 12813068.

[11] Friedrich, Cornelius G.; et al. (2007). "Redox Control of Chemotrophic Sulfur Oxidation of Paracoccus pantotrophus". Microbial Sulfur Metabolism. Springer. pp. 139–150. PDF

[12] Fabricius, Katharina (2015). "Mixotrophy in soft corals of the Great Barrier Reef". http://data.aims.gov.au/. Australian Institute of Marine Science. Retrieved 11 November 2015. External link in |website= (help)

[13] Schmidt, Susanne; John A. Raven; Chanyarat Paungfoo-Lonhienne (2013). "The mixotrophic nature of photosynthetic plants". Functional Plant Biology. 40 (5): 425. doi:10.1071/FP13061. ISSN 1445-4408. Retrieved 2013-11-26.

v t e Ecology: Modelling ecosystems: Trophic components

General	Abiotic component Abiotic stress Behaviour Biogeochemical cycle Biomass Biotic component Biotic stress Carrying capacity Competition Ecosystem Ecosystem ecology Ecosystem model Keystone species List of feeding behaviours Metabolic theory of ecology Productivity Resource

Producers	Autotrophs Chemosynthesis Chemotrophs Foundation species Mixotrophs Myco-heterotrophy Mycotroph Organotrophs Photoheterotrophs Photosynthesis Photosynthetic efficiency Phototrophs Primary nutritional groups Primary production

Consumers	Apex predator Bacterivore Carnivores Chemoorganotroph Foraging Generalist and specialist species Intraguild predation Herbivores Heterotroph Heterotrophic nutrition Insectivore Mesopredator release hypothesis Omnivores Optimal foraging theory Predation Prey switching

Decomposers	Chemoorganoheterotrophy Decomposition Detritivores Detritus

Microorganisms	Archaea Bacteriophage Environmental microbiology Lithoautotroph Lithotrophy Microbial cooperation Microbial ecology Microbial food web Microbial intelligence Microbial loop Microbial mat Microbial metabolism Phage ecology

Food webs	Biomagnification Ecological efficiency Ecological pyramid Energy flow Food chain Trophic level

Example webs	Cold seeps Hydrothermal vents Intertidal Kelp forests Lakes North Pacific Subtropical Gyre Rivers San Francisco Estuary Soil Tide pool

Processes	Ascendency Bioaccumulation Cascade effect Climax community Competitive exclusion principle Consumer-resource systems Copiotrophs Dominance Ecological network Ecological succession Energy quality Energy Systems Language f-ratio Feed conversion ratio Feeding frenzy Mesotrophic soil Nutrient cycle Oligotroph Paradox of the plankton Trophic cascade Trophic mutualism Trophic state index

Defense/counter	Animal coloration Antipredator adaptations Camouflage Deimatic behaviour Herbivore adaptations to plant defense Mimicry Plant defense against herbivory Predator avoidance in schooling fish

v t e Ecology: Modelling ecosystems: Other components

Population ecology	Abundance Allee effect Depensation Ecological yield Effective population size Intraspecific competition Logistic function Malthusian growth model Maximum sustainable yield Overpopulation in wild animals Overexploitation Population cycle Population dynamics Population modeling Population size Predator–prey (Lotka–Volterra) equations Recruitment Resilience Small population size Stability

Species	Biodiversity Density-dependent inhibition Ecological effects of biodiversity Ecological extinction Endemic species Flagship species Gradient analysis Indicator species Introduced species Invasive species Latitudinal gradients in species diversity Minimum viable population Neutral theory Occupancy–abundance relationship Population viability analysis Priority effect Rapoport's rule Relative abundance distribution Relative species abundance Species diversity Species homogeneity Species richness Species distribution Species-area curve Umbrella species

Species interaction	Antibiosis Biological interaction Commensalism Community ecology Ecological facilitation Interspecific competition Mutualism Storage effect

Spatial ecology	Biogeography Cross-boundary subsidy Ecocline Ecotone Ecotype Disturbance Edge effects Foster's rule Habitat fragmentation Ideal free distribution Intermediate Disturbance Hypothesis Island biogeography Landscape ecology Landscape epidemiology Landscape limnology Metapopulation Patch dynamics r/K selection theory Source–sink dynamics

Niche	Ecological niche Ecological trap Ecosystem engineer Environmental niche modelling Guild Habitat Marine habitats Limiting similarity Niche apportionment models Niche construction Niche differentiation

Other networks	Assembly rules Bateman's principle Bioluminescence Ecological collapse Ecological debt Ecological deficit Ecological energetics Ecological indicator Ecological threshold Ecosystem diversity Emergence Extinction debt Kleiber's law Liebig's law of the minimum Marginal value theorem Thorson's rule Xerosere

Other	Allometry Alternative stable state Balance of nature Biological data visualization Constructal theory Ecocline Ecological economics Ecological footprint Ecological forecasting Ecological humanities Ecological stoichiometry Ecopath Ecosystem based fisheries Endolith Evolutionary ecology Functional ecology Industrial ecology Macroecology Microecosystem Natural environment Regime shift Systems ecology Urban ecology Theoretical ecology

List of ecology topics

匿名

検索

案内

案内

mixotrophic