lapse rate

　

WordNet

1. lie partly over or alongside of something or of one another
2. an area of control or responsibility; "the job fell right in my lap"
3. movement once around a course; "he drove an extra lap just for insurance" (同)circle, circuit
4. the part of a piece of clothing that covers the thighs; "his lap was covered with food stains" (同)lap covering
5. a flap that lies over another part; "the lap of the shingles should be at least ten inches" (同)overlap
6. the upper side of the thighs of a seated person; "he picked up the little girl and plopped her down in his lap"
7. take up with the tongue; "The cat lapped up the milk"; "the cub licked the milk from its mothers breast" (同)lap up, lick
8. move with or cause to move with a whistling or hissing sound; "The bubbles swoshed around in the glass"; "The curtain swooshed open" (同)swish, swosh, swoosh
9. be worthy of or have a certain rating; "This bond rates highly"
10. amount of a charge or payment relative to some basis; "a 10-minute phone call at that rate would cost $5" (同)charge per unit
11. a magnitude or frequency relative to a time unit; "they traveled at a rate of 55 miles per hour"; "the rate of change was faster than expected"
12. a quantity or amount or measure considered as a proportion of another quantity or amount or measure; "the literacy rate"; "the retention rate"; "the dropout rate"
13. assign a rank or rating to; "how would you rank these students?"; "The restaurant is rated highly in the food guide" (同)rank, range, order, grade, place
14. estimate the value of; "How would you rate his chances to become President?"; "Gold was rated highly among the Romans" (同)value
15. let slip; "He lapsed his membership"
16. drop to a lower level, as in ones morals or standards (同)backslide
17. a break or intermission in the occurrence of something; "a lapse of three weeks between letters"
18. end, at least for a long time; "The correspondence lapsed"
19. give (hair) the appearance of being fuller by using a rat
20. a pad (usually made of hair) worn as part of a womans coiffure
21. any of various long-tailed rodents similar to but larger than a mouse
22. catch rats, especially with dogs
23. desert ones party or group of friends, for example, for ones personal advantage
24. employ scabs or strike breakers in
25. standing or position on a scale

PrepTutorEJDIC

1. (高度の上昇に伴う)気温低下率
2. 『ひざ』(座ったときの大腿部の上からひざがしらまでの部分) / (スカートなどの)ひざの部分 / 《比喩(ひゆ)的に》責任,管理 / 安楽な場所
3. (…に)折り重なる,かぶさる《+『around』(『over』)+『名』》 / (競技で)トラックを1周する / 《文》…‘を'折りたたむ,折り重ねる / (競技などで)〈相手〉‘を'1周抜く / 重なり合っている部分 / (競技でトラックの)1周
4. 〈犬などが〉〈液体〉‘を'『なめて飲む』,ペロペロなめる《+『up』+『名,』+『名』+『up』》 / 〈波が〉〈岸など〉‘を'軽く打つ,洗う / (液体を)〈犬などが〉ペロペロなめる / (岸などを)〈波が〉軽く打つ,洗う《+『against』(『on』)+『名』》 / 〈C〉(犬などがミルクなどを)ペチャペチャ飲むこと / 〈U〉《the~》パチャパチャという波の音
5. 〈C〉『割合』,『率』 / 〈C〉《the~,a~》『速度』(speed),進度 / 〈C〉『値段』,『相場』;料金 / 〈U〉等級(class),(…)等 / 《複数形ぃ》《英》地方税 / (…の金額に)…‘の'『値段を決める』,見積もる《+『名』+『at』+『名』》 / …‘を'『評価する』,みなす / 《米話》…‘に'値する,‘の'価値がある / 『評価される』;みなされる
6. …‘を'どなりつける
7. 『ちょっとした誤り』(失策) / (時の)『経過』《+『of』+『名』》 / (道徳的に正しい道を)踏みはずすこと,堕落《+『from』+『名』》 / (…への)転落,(…に)陥ること《+『into』+『名』》 / (…が)しだいに消滅すること《+『of』+『名』》 / (道徳的に正しい道を)踏みはずす《+『from』+『名』》 / (ある状態に)陥る,なる《+『into』+『名』(do『ing』)》 / 消滅する,使われなくなる / (時が)過ぎていく
8. 『ネズミ』 / ひきょう者,裏切り者 / ネズミをつかまえる / 《話》(人を)裏切る,密告する《+『on』+『名』〈人〉》
9. 〈C〉〈U〉（品質・技量などによる）格づけ,評価 / 〈C〉（個人・会社の経済的な）信用度 / 〈C〉(トン・馬力による)(船舶・車)の等級 / 〈C〉(テレビ・ラジオの)視聴率

Wikipedia preview

出典(authority):フリー百科事典『ウィキペディア（Wikipedia）』「2017/10/23 07:19:45」(JST)

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[Wiki en表示]

Lapse rate is the rate at which Earth's atmospheric temperature decreases with an increase in altitude, or increases with the decrease in altitude. Lapse rate arises from the word lapse, in the sense of a gradual change.

Although this concept is most often applied to Earth's troposphere, lapse rate can be extended to any gravitationally supported parcel of gas.

Definition

A formal definition from the Glossary of Meteorology is:

The decrease of an atmospheric variable with height, the variable being temperature unless otherwise specified.

In general, a lapse rate is the negative of the rate of temperature change with altitude change, thus:

$\Gamma =-{\frac {dT}{dz}}$

where $\Gamma$ is the lapse rate given in units of temperature divided by units of altitude, T = temperature, and z = altitude.

Convection and adiabatic expansion

Emagram diagram showing variation of dry adiabats (bold lines) and moist adiabats (dash lines) according to pressure and temperature

The temperature profile of the atmosphere is a result of an interaction between radiation and convection. Sunlight hits the ground and heats it. The ground then heats the air at the surface. If radiation were the only way to transfer heat from the ground to space, the greenhouse effect of gases in the atmosphere would keep the ground at roughly 333 K (60 °C; 140 °F), and the temperature would decay exponentially with height.

However, when air is hot, it tends to expand, which lowers its density. Thus, hot air tends to rise and transfer heat upward. This is the process of convection. Convection comes to equilibrium when a parcel of air at a given altitude has the same density as the other air at the same elevation.

When a parcel of air expands, it pushes on the air around it, doing work (thermodynamics). Since the parcel does work but gains no heat, it loses internal energy so that its temperature decreases. The process of expanding and contracting without exchanging heat is an adiabatic process. The term adiabatic means that no heat transfer occurs into or out of the parcel. Air has low thermal conductivity, and the bodies of air involved are very large, so transfer of heat by conduction is negligibly small.

The adiabatic process for air has a characteristic temperature-pressure curve, so the process determines the lapse rate. When the air contains little water, this lapse rate is known as the dry adiabatic lapse rate: the rate of temperature decrease is 9.8 °C/km (5.38 °F per 1,000 ft) (3.0 °C/1,000 ft). The reverse occurs for a sinking parcel of air.

Note that only the troposphere (up to approximately 12 kilometres (39,000 ft) of altitude) in the Earth's atmosphere undergoes convection: the stratosphere does not generally convect. However, some exceptionally energetic convection processes -- notably volcanic eruption columns and overshooting tops associated with severe supercell thunderstorms -- may locally and temporarily inject convection through the tropopause and into the stratosphere.

The mathematics of the adiabatic lapse rate can be derived from thermodynamics, which defines an adiabatic process via:

$PdV=-VdP/\gamma$

the first law of thermodynamics can be written as

$mc_{v}dT-Vdp/\gamma =0$

Also, since $\alpha =V/m$ and $\gamma =c_{p}/c_{v}$, we can show that:

$c_{p}dT-\alpha dP=0$

where $c_{p}$ is the specific heat at constant pressure and $\alpha$ is the specific volume.

Assuming an atmosphere in hydrostatic equilibrium:

$dP=-\rho gdz$

where g is the standard gravity and $\rho$ is the density. Combining these two equations to eliminate the pressure, one arrives at the result for the dry adiabatic lapse rate (DALR),

$\Gamma _{d}=-{\frac {dT}{dz}}={\frac {g}{c_{p}}}=9.8\ ^{\circ }\mathrm {C} /\mathrm {km}$

Moist adiabatic lapse rate

The presence of water within the atmosphere complicates the process of convection. Water vapor contains latent heat of vaporization. As air rises and cools, it eventually becomes saturated and cannot hold its quantity of water vapor. The water vapor condenses, forming clouds, and releasing heat. Before saturation, the rising air follows the dry adiabatic lapse rate. After saturation, the rising air follows the moist adiabatic lapse rate. The release of latent heat is an important source of energy in the development of thunderstorms.

While the dry adiabatic lapse rate is a constant 9.8 °C/km (5.38 °F per 1,000 ft, 3 °C/1,000 ft), the moist adiabatic lapse rate varies strongly with temperature. A typical value is around 5 °C/km, (9 °F/km, 2.7 °F/1,000 ft, 1.5 °C/1,000 ft). The formula for the moist adiabatic lapse rate is given by:

$\Gamma _{w}=g\,{\frac {1+{\dfrac {H_{v}\,r}{R_{sd}\,T}}}{c_{pd}+{\dfrac {H_{v}^{2}\,r}{R_{sw}\,T^{2}}}}}=g\,{\frac {R_{sd}\,T^{2}+H_{v}\,r\,T}{c_{pd}\,R_{sd}\,T^{2}+H_{v}^{2}\,r\,\epsilon }}$

where:
$$ Γ w {\displaystyle \Gamma _{w}}	= Wet adiabatic lapse rate, K/m
$$ g {\displaystyle g}	= Earth's gravitational acceleration = 9.8076 m/s2
$$ H v {\displaystyle H_{v}}	= Heat of vaporization of water, = 2501000 J/kg
$$ R s d {\displaystyle R_{sd}}	= Specific gas constant of dry air = 287 J kg−1 K−1
$$ R s w {\displaystyle R_{sw}}	= Specific gas constant of water vapour = 461.5 J kg−1 K−1
$$ ϵ = R s d R s w {\displaystyle \epsilon ={\frac {R_{sd}}{R_{sw}}}}	=The dimensionless ratio of the specific gas constant of dry air to the specific gas constant for water vapour = 0.622
$$ e {\displaystyle e}	= The water vapour pressure of the saturated air
$$ p {\displaystyle p}	= The pressure of the saturated air
$$ r = ϵ e / ( p − e ) {\displaystyle r=\epsilon e/(p-e)}	= The mixing ratio of the mass of water vapour to the mass of dry air
$$ T {\displaystyle T}	= Temperature of the saturated air, K
$$ c p d {\displaystyle c_{pd}}	= The specific heat of dry air at constant pressure, = 1003.5 J kg−1 K−1

Environmental lapse rate

The environmental lapse rate (ELR), is the rate of decrease of temperature with altitude in the stationary atmosphere at a given time and location. As an average, the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) defines an international standard atmosphere (ISA) with a temperature lapse rate of 6.49 K/km (3.56 °F or 1.98 °C/1,000 ft) from sea level to 11 km (36,090 ft or 6.8 mi). From 11 km up to 20 km (65,620 ft or 12.4 mi), the constant temperature is −56.5 °C (−69.7 °F), which is the lowest assumed temperature in the ISA. The standard atmosphere contains no moisture. Unlike the idealized ISA, the temperature of the actual atmosphere does not always fall at a uniform rate with height. For example, there can be an inversion layer in which the temperature increases with altitude.

Effect on weather

The latent heat of vaporization adds energy to clouds and storms.

The varying environmental lapse rates throughout the Earth's atmosphere are of critical importance in meteorology, particularly within the troposphere. They are used to determine if the parcel of rising air will rise high enough for its water to condense to form clouds, and, having formed clouds, whether the air will continue to rise and form bigger shower clouds, and whether these clouds will get even bigger and form cumulonimbus clouds (thunder clouds).

As unsaturated air rises, its temperature drops at the dry adiabatic rate. The dew point also drops (as a result of decreasing air pressure) but much more slowly, typically about −2 °C per 1,000 m. If unsaturated air rises far enough, eventually its temperature will reach its dew point, and condensation will begin to form. This altitude is known as the lifting condensation level (LCL) when mechanical lift is present and the convective condensation level (CCL) when mechanical lift is absent, in which case, the parcel must be heated from below to its convective temperature. The cloud base will be somewhere within the layer bounded by these parameters.

The difference between the dry adiabatic lapse rate and the rate at which the dew point drops is around 8 °C per 1,000 m. Given a difference in temperature and dew point readings on the ground, one can easily find the LCL by multiplying the difference by 125 m/°C.

If the environmental lapse rate is less than the moist adiabatic lapse rate, the air is absolutely stable — rising air will cool faster than the surrounding air and lose buoyancy. This often happens in the early morning, when the air near the ground has cooled overnight. Cloud formation in stable air is unlikely.

If the environmental lapse rate is between the moist and dry adiabatic lapse rates, the air is conditionally unstable — an unsaturated parcel of air does not have sufficient buoyancy to rise to the LCL or CCL, and it is stable to weak vertical displacements in either direction. If the parcel is saturated it is unstable and will rise to the LCL or CCL, and either be halted due to an inversion layer of convective inhibition, or if lifting continues, deep, moist convection (DMC) may ensue, as a parcel rises to the level of free convection (LFC), after which it enters the free convective layer (FCL) and usually rises to the equilibrium level (EL).

If the environmental lapse rate is larger than the dry adiabatic lapse rate, it has a superadiabatic lapse rate, the air is absolutely unstable — a parcel of air will gain buoyancy as it rises both below and above the lifting condensation level or convective condensation level. This often happens in the afternoon mainly over land masses. In these conditions, the likelihood of cumulus clouds, showers or even thunderstorms is increased.

Meteorologists use radiosondes to measure the environmental lapse rate and compare it to the predicted adiabatic lapse rate to forecast the likelihood that air will rise. Charts of the environmental lapse rate are known as thermodynamic diagrams, examples of which include Skew-T log-P diagrams and tephigrams. (See also Thermals).

The difference in moist adiabatic lapse rate and the dry rate is the cause of foehn wind phenomenon (also known as "Chinook winds" in parts of North America). The phenomenon exists because warm moist air rises through orographic lifting up and over the top of a mountain range or large mountain. The temperature decreases with the dry adiabatic lapse rate, until it hits the dew point, where water vapor in the air begins to condense. Above that altitude, the adiabatic lapse rate decreases to the moist adiabatic lapse rate as the air continues to rise. Condensation is also commonly followed by precipitation on the top and windward sides of the mountain. As the air descends on the leeward side, it is warmed by adiabatic compression at the dry adiabatic lapse rate. Thus, the foehn wind at a certain altitude is warmer than the corresponding altitude on the windward side of the mountain range. In addition, because the air has lost much of its original water vapor content, the descending air creates an arid region on the leeward side of the mountain.

See also

• Adiabatic process
• Atmospheric thermodynamics
• Fluid dynamics
• Foehn wind

Additional reading

• Beychok, Milton R. (2005). Fundamentals Of Stack Gas Dispersion (4th ed.). author-published. ISBN 0-9644588-0-2.  www.air-dispersion.com
• R. R. Rogers and M. K. Yau (1989). Short Course in Cloud Physics (3rd ed.). Butterworth-Heinemann. ISBN 0-7506-3215-1. 

External links

• Definition, equations and tables of lapse rate from the Planetary Data system.
• National Science Digital Library glossary:
  • Lapse Rate
  • Environmental lapse rate
  • Absolute stable air
• An introduction to lapse rate calculation from first principles from U. Texas

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関連記事	「rate」「lapse」「rat」「lap」

「rate」

　　[★]

• n.

• (全体に対する部分などの割合を示す)率　　　⇔　(率を率で除すような比 ratioとは区別するでしょう)

• vi.

• 格付けされる、等級に分けられる
• 影響力がある、重要な地位にある

• vt.

• ～を値踏みする、～の価格を査定する
• (～の重要性や価値を)評価する
• (性能などによって)～を格付けする(等級に分ける)
• (金融)(不動産の)課税額を決める
• ～に値する、～の価値がある

　 　 　 　 　 　 　 　

「lapse」

　　[★]

• n.

• ふとした間違い、過失、失策。堕落、つまづき
• (時の)経過、推移。空白、中断
• (法)(権利・特権の)消失、失行。(習慣などの)衰退、廃止
• (高度増加に伴う気圧・気温などの)低下。(地位・数量などの)減少、下降

• vi.

関

course、elapse、fall、incur、pass

　 　 　 　 　

「rat」

　　[★]

• n.

• (げっ歯類)ラット、(マウスも含めての総称)ネズミ、ラットの

関

laboratory rat、mouse、Norway rat、Rattus、Rattus norvegicus

　 　 　 　 　 　 　

「lap」

　　[★]