関: oral poliovirus vaccine

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immunogen consisting of a suspension of weakened or dead pathogenic cells injected in order to stimulate the production of antibodies (同)vaccinum
United States microbiologist (born in Poland) who developed the Sabin vaccine that is taken orally against poliomyelitis (born 1906) (同)Albert Sabin, Albert Bruce Sabin
a unit of acoustic absorption equivalent to the absorption by a square foot of a surface that absorbs all incident sound

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牛痘種,痘苗(牛痘を起こすビールスで,天然痘予防のために人体に接種される) / (伝染病の病原菌から作った)ワクチン

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出典(authority):フリー百科事典『ウィキペディア（Wikipedia）』「2014/11/29 17:05:28」(JST)

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Two polio vaccines are used throughout the world to combat poliomyelitis (or polio). The first was developed by Jonas Salk through the use of HeLa cells and first tested in 1952. Announced to the world by Dr Thomas Francis Jr. on 12 April 1955,^[1] it consists of an injected dose of inactivated (dead) poliovirus. An oral vaccine was developed by Albert Sabin using attenuated poliovirus. Human trials of Sabin's vaccine began in 1957, and it was licensed in 1962.^[2] There is no long term carrier state for poliovirus in immunocompetent individuals, polioviruses have no non-primate reservoir in nature (although they have been induced in transgenic mice),^[3] and survival of the virus in the environment for an extended period of time appears to be remote. Therefore, interruption of person to person transmission of the virus by vaccination is the critical step in global polio eradication.^[4] The two vaccines have eradicated polio from most countries in the world,^[5]^[6] and reduced the worldwide incidence from an estimated 350,000 cases in 1988 to just 223 cases in 2012.^[7]^[8]

In November 2013, the World Health Organization announced a polio outbreak in Syria. In response, the Armenian government put out a notice asking Syrian Armenians under age 15 to get the polio vaccine.^[9] It is on the World Health Organization's List of Essential Medicines, a list of the most important medication needed in a basic health system.^[10]

Inactivated vaccine

Administration of the polio inoculation, including by Salk himself, in 1957 at the University of Pittsburgh where he and his team had developed the vaccine

The first effective polio vaccine was developed in 1952 by Jonas Salk at the University of Pittsburgh, but it would require years of testing. To encourage patience, Salk went on CBS radio to report a successful test on a small group of adults and children on 26 March 1953; two days later the results were published in JAMA.^[11]

The Salk vaccine, or inactivated poliovirus vaccine (IPV), is based on three wild, virulent reference strains, Mahoney (type 1 poliovirus), MEF-1 (type 2 poliovirus), and Saukett (type 3 poliovirus), grown in a type of monkey kidney tissue culture (Vero cell line), which are then inactivated with formalin.^[12] The injected Salk vaccine confers IgG-mediated immunity in the bloodstream, which prevents polio infection from progressing to viremia and protects the motor neurons, thus eliminating the risk of bulbar polio and post-polio syndrome.

Beginning 23 February 1954, the vaccine was tested at Arsenal Elementary School and the Watson Home for Children in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania.^[13] Salk's vaccine was then used in a test called the Francis Field Trial, led by Thomas Francis; the largest medical experiment in history. The test began with some 4,000 children at Franklin Sherman Elementary School in McLean, Virginia,^[14] and would eventually involve 1.8 million children, in 44 states from Maine to California.^[15] By the conclusion of the study, roughly 440,000 received one or more injections of the vaccine, about 210,000 children received a placebo, consisting of harmless culture media, and 1.2 million children received no vaccination and served as a control group, who would then be observed to see if any contracted polio.^[16] The results of the field trial were announced 12 April 1955 (the tenth anniversary of the death of President Franklin D. Roosevelt, whose paralysis was generally believed to have been caused by polio). The Salk vaccine had been 60–70% effective against PV1 (poliovirus type 1), over 90% effective against PV2 and PV3, and 94% effective against the development of bulbar polio.^[17] Soon after Salk's vaccine was licensed in 1955 children's vaccination campaigns were launched. In the U.S, following a mass immunization campaign promoted by the March of Dimes, the annual number of polio cases fell from 35,000 in 1953 to 5,600 by 1957.^[18]^{[unreliable medical source?]} By 1961 only 161 cases were recorded in the United States.^[19]

A Somali boy is injected with inactivated poliovirus vaccine (Mogadishu, 1993)

An enhanced-potency IPV was licensed in the United States in November 1987, and is currently the vaccine of choice in the United States.^[20] The first dose of polio vaccine is given shortly after birth, usually between 1–2 months of age, a second dose is given at 4 months of age.^[20] The timing of the third dose depends on the vaccine formulation but should be given between 6–18 months of age.^[21] A booster vaccination is given at 4 to 6 years of age, for a total of four doses at or before school entry.^[22] In some countries, a fifth vaccination is given during adolescence.^[21] Routine vaccination of adults (18 years of age and older) in developed countries is neither necessary nor recommended because most adults are already immune and have a very small risk of exposure to wild poliovirus in their home countries.^[20]

In 2002, a pentavalent (5-component) combination vaccine (called Pediarix) containing IPV was approved for use in the United States. The vaccine also contains combined diphtheria, tetanus, and acellular pertussis vaccines (DTaP) and a pediatric dose of hepatitis B vaccine.^[20] In the UK, IPV is combined with tetanus, diphtheria, pertussis and Haemophilus influenzae type b vaccines.^[21] When the current formulation of IPV is used, 90% or more of individuals develop protective antibody to all three serotypes of poliovirus after two doses of inactivated polio vaccine (IPV), and at least 99% are immune to poliovirus following three doses. The duration of immunity induced by IPV is not known with certainty, although a complete series is thought to provide protection for many years.^[23]

Oral vaccine

This 1963 poster featured CDC’s national symbol of public health, the "Wellbee", encouraging the public to receive an oral polio vaccine.

Oral polio vaccine (OPV) is an attenuated vaccine, produced by the passage of the virus through non-human cells at a sub-physiological temperature, which produces spontaneous mutations in the viral genome.^[24] Oral polio vaccines were developed by several groups, one of which was led by Albert Sabin. Other groups, led by Hilary Koprowski and H.R. Cox, developed their own attenuated vaccine strains. In 1958, the National Institutes of Health created a special committee on live polio vaccines. The various vaccines were carefully evaluated for their ability to induce immunity to polio, while retaining a low incidence of neuropathogenicity in monkeys. Large-scale clinical trials performed in the Soviet Union in late 1950s — early 1960s by Mikhail Chumakov and his colleagues demonstrated safety and high efficacy of the vaccine.^[25]^[26] Based on these results, the Sabin strains were chosen for worldwide distribution.^[16]

There are 57 nucleotide substitutions which distinguish the attenuated Sabin 1 strain from its virulent parent (the Mahoney serotype), two nucleotide substitutions attenuate the Sabin 2 strain, and 10 substitutions are involved in attenuating the Sabin 3 strain.^[12] The primary attenuating factor common to all three Sabin vaccines is a mutation located in the virus's internal ribosome entry site (IRES)^[27] which alters stem-loop structures, and reduces the ability of poliovirus to translate its RNA template within the host cell.^[28] The attenuated poliovirus in the Sabin vaccine replicates very efficiently in the gut, the primary site of infection and replication, but is unable to replicate efficiently within nervous system tissue. OPV also proved to be superior in administration, eliminating the need for sterile syringes and making the vaccine more suitable for mass vaccination campaigns. OPV also provided longer lasting immunity than the Salk vaccine.

In 1961, type 1 and 2 monovalent oral poliovirus vaccine (MOPV) was licensed, and in 1962, type 3 MOPV was licensed. In 1963, trivalent OPV (TOPV) was licensed, and became the vaccine of choice in the United States and most other countries of the world, largely replacing the inactivated polio vaccine.^[29] A second wave of mass immunizations led to a further dramatic decline in the number of polio cases. Between 1962 and 1965 about 100 million Americans (roughly 56% of the population at that time) received the Sabin vaccine. The result was a substantial reduction in the number of poliomyelitis cases, even from the much reduced levels following the introduction of the Salk vaccine.^[30]

OPV is usually provided in vials containing 10-20 doses of vaccine. A single dose of oral polio vaccine (usually two drops) contains 1,000,000 infectious units of Sabin 1 (effective against PV1), 100,000 infectious units of the Sabin 2 strain, and 600,000 infectious units of Sabin 3. The vaccine contains small traces of antibiotics— neomycin and streptomycin—but does not contain preservatives.^[31] One dose of OPV produces immunity to all three poliovirus serotypes in approximately 50% of recipients.^[20] Three doses of live-attenuated OPV produce protective antibody to all three poliovirus types in more than 95% of recipients. OPV produces excellent immunity in the intestine, the primary site of wild poliovirus entry, which helps prevent infection with wild virus in areas where the virus is endemic.^[22] The live virus used in the vaccine is shed in the stool and can be spread to others within a community. IPV produces less gastrointestinal immunity than does OPV, and primarily acts by preventing the virus from entering the nervous system. In regions without wild poliovirus, inactivated polio vaccine is the vaccine of choice.^[22] In regions with higher incidence of polio, and thus a different relative risk between efficacy and reversion of the vaccine to a virulent form, live vaccine is still used. The live virus also has stringent requirements for transport and storage, which are a problem in some hot or remote areas. As with other live-virus vaccines, immunity initiated by OPV is probably lifelong.^[23]

Iatrogenic (vaccine-induced) polio

A major concern about the oral polio vaccine (OPV) is its known ability to revert to a form that can achieve neurological infection and cause paralysis.^[32] Clinical disease, including paralysis, caused by vaccine-derived poliovirus (VDPV) is indistinguishable from that caused by wild polioviruses.^[33] This is believed to be a rare event, but outbreaks of vaccine-associated paralytic poliomyelitis (VAPP) have been reported, and tend to occur in areas of low coverage by OPV, presumably because the OPV is itself protective against the related outbreak strain.^[34]^[35]

Doses of oral polio vaccine are added to sugar cubes for use in a 1967 vaccination campaign in Bonn, West Germany

As the incidence of wild polio diminishes, nations transition from use of the oral vaccine back to the injected vaccine because the direct risk of iatrogenic polio (VAPP) due to OPV outweighs the indirect benefit of immunization via subclinical transmission of OPV. When IPV is used, reversion is not possible but there remains a small risk of clinical infection upon exposure to reverted OPV or wild polio virus. Following the widespread use of polio vaccines in the mid-1950s, the incidence of poliomyelitis declined rapidly in many industrialized countries. The use of OPV was discontinued in the United States in 2000 and in 2004 in the UK, but it continues to be used around the globe.^[20]^[21] At least four cases of VDPV type 2 occurred in India in 2013.^[36]

The rate of vaccine-associated paralytic poliomyelitis (VAPP) varies by region but is generally about 1 case per 750,000 vaccine recipients.^[37] VAPP is more likely to occur in adults than in children. In immunodeficient children, the risk of VAPP is almost 7,000 times higher, particularly for persons with B-lymphocyte disorders (e.g., agammaglobulinemia and hypogammaglobulinemia), which reduce the synthesis of protective antibodies.^[33] The World Health Organization considers the benefits of vaccination to far outweigh the risk of vaccine derived polio. Outbreaks of vaccine derived polio have been stopped by multiple rounds of high-quality vaccination, in order to immunize the entire population.^[38]

Outbreaks of VAPP occurred independently in Belarus (1965–66), Canada (1966–68), Egypt (1983–1993), Hispaniola (2000–2001), Philippines (2001), Madagascar (2001–2002),^[39] and in Haiti (2002), where political strife and poverty have interfered with vaccination efforts.^[40] In 2006 an outbreak of vaccine-derived poliovirus occurred in China.^[41] Cases have been reported from Cambodia (2005–2006), Myanmar (2006–2007), Iran (1995, 2005–2007), Syria, Kuwait and Egypt.^[42] Since 2005, The World Health Organization has been tracking vaccine-caused polio in northern Nigeria caused by a mutation in live oral polio vaccines.^[43]

Contamination concerns

In 1960, it was determined that the rhesus monkey kidney cells used to prepare the poliovirus vaccines were infected with the SV40 virus (Simian Virus-40).^[44] SV40 was also discovered in 1960 and is a naturally occurring virus that infects monkeys. In 1961, SV40 was found to cause tumors in rodents.^[45] More recently, the virus was found in certain forms of cancer in humans, for instance brain and bone tumors, pleural and peritoneal mesothelioma, and some types of non-Hodgkin's lymphoma.^[46]^[47] However, it has not been determined that SV40 causes these cancers.^[48]

SV40 was found to be present in stocks of the injected form of the polio vaccine (IPV) in use between 1955 to 1963.^[44] It is not found in the OPV form.^[44] Over 98 million Americans received one or more doses of polio vaccine between 1955 to 1963 when a proportion of vaccine was contaminated with SV40; it has been estimated that 10–30 million Americans may have received a dose of vaccine contaminated with SV40.^[44] Later analysis suggested that vaccines produced by the former Soviet bloc countries until 1980, and used in the USSR, China, Japan, and several African countries, may have been contaminated; meaning hundreds of millions more may have been exposed to SV40.^[49]

In 1998, the National Cancer Institute undertook a large study, using cancer case information from the Institute's SEER database. The published findings from the study revealed that there was no increased incidence of cancer in persons who may have received vaccine containing SV40.^[50] Another large study in Sweden examined cancer rates of 700,000 individuals who had received potentially contaminated polio vaccine as late as 1957; the study again revealed no increased cancer incidence between persons who received polio vaccines containing SV40 and those who did not.^[51] The question of whether SV40 causes cancer in humans remains controversial however, and the development of improved assays for detection of SV40 in human tissues will be needed to resolve the controversy.^[48]

During the race to develop an oral polio vaccine several large scale human trials were undertaken. By 1958, the National Institutes of Health had determined that OPV produced using the Sabin strains were the safest.^[16] Between 1957 and 1960, however, Hilary Koprowski continued to administer his vaccine around the world. In Africa, the vaccines were administered to roughly one million people in the Belgian territories, now the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Rwanda and Burundi.^[52]^[53] The results of these human trials have been controversial,^[54] and accusations in the 1990s arose that the vaccine had created the conditions necessary for transmission of SIV from chimpanzees to humans, causing HIV/AIDS. These hypotheses have, however, been refuted in some studies.^[52] By 2004, cases of poliomyelitis in Africa had been reduced to just a small number of isolated regions in the western portion of the continent, with sporadic cases elsewhere. However, recent opposition to vaccination campaigns has evolved,^[55]^[56] often relating to fears that the vaccine might induce sterility.^[57] The disease has since resurged in Nigeria and in several other African nations, which epidemiologists believe is due to refusals by certain local populations to allow their children to receive the polio vaccine.^[58]

History

In generic sense, vaccination works by priming the immune system with an 'immunogen'. Stimulating immune response, via use of an infectious agent, is known as immunization. The development of immunity to polio efficiently blocks person-to-person transmission of wild poliovirus, thereby protecting both individual vaccine recipients and the wider community.^[4]

In 1936, Maurice Brodie, a research assistant at New York University, attempted to produce a formaldehyde-killed polio vaccine from ground-up monkey spinal cords. His initial attempts were hampered by the difficulty of obtaining enough virus. Brodie first tested the vaccine on himself and several of his assistants. He then gave the vaccine to three thousand children. Many of these children developed allergic reactions, but none developed immunity to polio.^[29] Philadelphia pathologist John Kolmer also claimed to have developed a vaccine that same year, but it too produced no immunity and was blamed for causing cases of paralytic polio, nine of them fatal.^[59]

Mass polio vaccination in Columbus, Georgia during the early days of the National Polio Immunization Program.

A breakthrough came in 1948 when a research group headed by John Enders at the Children's Hospital Boston successfully cultivated the poliovirus in human tissue in the laboratory.^[60] This group had recently successfully grown mumps in cell culture. In March 1948 Thomas H. Weller was attempting to grow varicella virus in embryonic lung tissue. He had inoculated the planned number of tubes when he noticed that there were a few unused tubes. He retrieved a sample of mouse brain infected with polio virus and added it to the remaining test tubes, on the off chance that the virus might grow. The varicella cultures failed to grow but the polio cultures were successful.

This development greatly facilitated vaccine research and ultimately allowed for the development of vaccines against polio. Enders and his colleagues, Thomas H. Weller and Frederick C. Robbins, were recognized in 1954 for their labors with a Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine.^[61] Other important advances that led to the development of polio vaccines were: the identification of three poliovirus serotypes (Poliovirus type 1 — PV1, or Mahoney; PV2, Lansing; and PV3, Leon); the finding that prior to paralysis, the virus must be present in the blood; and the demonstration that administration of antibodies in the form of gamma globulin protects against paralytic polio.^[12]^[62]

Albert Sabin (right) with Robert Gallo, circa 1985

In 1952 and 1953, the U.S. experienced an outbreak of 58,000 and 35,000 polio cases, respectively, up from a typical number of some 20,000 a year. Amid this U.S. polio epidemic, millions of dollars were invested in finding and marketing a polio vaccine by commercial interests, including Lederle Laboratories in New York under the direction of H. R. Cox. Also working at Lederle was Polish-born virologist and immunologist Hilary Koprowski, who claims to have created the first successful polio vaccine, in 1950. His vaccine, however, being a live attenuated virus taken orally, was still in the research stage and would not be ready for use until five years after Jonas Salk's polio vaccine (a dead-virus injectable vaccine) had reached the market. Koprowski's attenuated vaccine was prepared by successive passages through the brains of Swiss albino mice. By the seventh passage, the vaccine strains could no longer infect nervous tissue or cause paralysis. After one to three further passages on rats, the vaccine was deemed safe for human use.^[16]^[63] On 27 February 1950, Koprowski's live, attenuated vaccine was tested for the first time on an 8-year-old boy living at Letchworth Village, an institution for the physically and mentally disabled located in New York. After the child suffered no side effects, Koprowski enlarged his experiment to include 19 other children.^[16]^[64]

The development of two polio vaccines led to the first modern mass inoculations. The last cases of paralytic poliomyelitis caused by endemic transmission of wild virus in the United States occurred in 1979, with an outbreak among the Amish in several Midwest states.^[20] A global effort to eradicate polio, led by the World Health Organization, UNICEF, and The Rotary Foundation, began in 1988 and has relied largely on the oral polio vaccine developed by Albert Sabin.^[65] The disease was entirely eradicated in the Americas by 1994.^[66] Polio was officially eradicated in 36 Western Pacific countries, including China and Australia in 2000.^[67]^[68] Europe was declared polio-free in 2002.^[69] Since January 2011, there were no reported cases of the disease in India, and hence in February 2012, the country was taken off the WHO list of polio endemic countries. It is reported that if there are no cases of polio in the country for two more years, it will be declared as a polio-free country.^[70]^[71] As of 2008, polio remains endemic in only three countries: Nigeria, Pakistan, and Afghanistan.^[72]^[73] Although poliovirus transmission has been interrupted in much of the world, transmission of wild poliovirus does continue and creates an ongoing risk for the importation of wild poliovirus into previously polio-free regions. If importations of poliovirus occurs, outbreaks of poliomyelitis may develop, especially in areas with low vaccination coverage and poor sanitation. As a result, high levels of vaccination coverage must be maintained.^[66]

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^ ^a ^b Plotkin SA; Modlin, J. F.; Plotkin, S. A. (2001). "CHAT oral polio vaccine was not the source of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 group M for humans". Clin. Infect. Dis. 32 (7): 1068–84. doi:10.1086/319612. PMID 11264036.
^ Koprowski H (July 1960). "Historical Aspects of the Development of Live Virus Vaccine in Poliomyelitis". Br Med J 2 (5192): 85–91. doi:10.1136/bmj.2.5192.85. PMC 2096806. PMID 14410975.
^ Collins, Huntly (2000-11-06). "The Gulp Heard Round the World". Philadelphia Inquirer. pp. Section D, page 1. Archived from the original on 2004-04-05. Retrieved 2008-11-29.
^ "Nigeria Muslims oppose polio vaccination". Africa (BBC News). 2002-06-27. Retrieved 2008-11-29.
^ Dugger CW, McNeil DG (2006-03-20). "Rumor, Fear and Fatigue Hinder Final Push to End Polio". New York Times. Retrieved 2008-11-29.
^ "Anti-polio vaccine Malians jailed". Africa (BBC News). 2005-05-12. Retrieved 2008-11-29.
^ Jegede AS (March 2007). "What Led to the Nigerian Boycott of the Polio Vaccination Campaign?". PLoS Med. 4 (3): e73. doi:10.1371/journal.pmed.0040073. PMC 1831725. PMID 17388657.
^ Rainsberger M (2005-06-27). "More than a March of Dimes". The University of Texas at Austin.
^ Enders JF, Weller TH, Robbins FC (January 1949). "Cultivation of the Lansing Strain of Poliomyelitis Virus in Cultures of Various Human Embryonic Tissues". Science 109 (2822): 85–87. doi:10.1126/science.109.2822.85. PMID 17794160.
^ "The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1954". The Nobel Foundation. Retrieved 2008-11-29.
^ Hammon W, Coriell L, Wehrle P, Stokes J (1953). "Evaluation of Red Cross gamma globulin as a prophylactic agent for poliomyelitis. IV. Final report of results based on clinical diagnoses". J Am Med Assoc 151 (15): 1272–85. PMID 13034471.
^ "Weekly Reports for OCTOBER 10, 1947". Public Health Rep 62 (41): 1467–1498. October 1947. PMC 1995293. PMID 19316151.
^ Koprowski, Hilary (15 October 2010). "Interview with Hilary Koprowski, sourced at History of Vaccines website". College of Physicians of Philadelphia. Retrieved 15 October 2010.
^ Mastny, Lisa (1999-01-25). "Eradicating Polio: A Model for International Cooperation". Worldwatch Institute. Retrieved 2008-11-29.
^ ^a ^b Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) (1994). "International Notes Certification of Poliomyelitis Eradication — the Americas, 1994". Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention) 43 (39): 720–722. PMID 7522302.
^ , (2001). "General News. Major Milestone reached in Global Polio Eradication: Western Pacific Region is certified Polio-Free" (PDF). Health Educ Res 16 (1): 109. doi:10.1093/her/16.1.109.
^ D'Souza R, Kennett M, Watson C (2002). "Australia declared polio free". Commun Dis Intell 26 (2): 253–60. PMID 12206379.
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^ Rafael, Pedro (2012-12-20). "Polio Campaign Crisis in Pakistan - Video - The New York Times". 40.755978;-73.990396: Nytimes.com. Retrieved 2013-01-03.

External links

	Medicine portal
	Viruses portal

History of Vaccines Website – History of Polio History of Vaccines, a project of the College of Physicians of Philadelphia
CGDev.org — 'Vaccines for Development', Center for Global Development
PBS.org — 'People and Discoveries: Salk Produces Polio Vaccine 1952', PBS
Conquering Polio, Smithsonian Magazine, April 2005
The Global Effort To Eradicate Polio, Dream 2047 Magazine, April 2004

UpToDate Contents

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1. 健康成人における予防接種に対するアプローチ approach to immunizations in healthy adults
2. ポリオワクチン poliovirus vaccination
3. 旅行者のための予防接種 immunizations for travel
4. B型肝炎ウイルスワクチン hepatitis b virus vaccination
5. 小児における季節性インフルエンザ：ワクチン接種による予防 seasonal influenza in children prevention with vaccines

English Journal

Allele-specific PCR for quantitative analysis of mutants in live viral vaccines.

Bidzhieva B1, Laassri M1, Chumakov K2.Author information 1Center for Biologics Evaluation and Research, US Food and Drug Administration, 1401 Rockville Pike, HFM 470, Rockville, MD 20852, USA.2Center for Biologics Evaluation and Research, US Food and Drug Administration, 1401 Rockville Pike, HFM 470, Rockville, MD 20852, USA. Electronic address: konstantin.chumakov@fda.hhs.gov.AbstractMonitoring consistency of genetic composition of oral polio vaccine (OPV) is a part of its quality control. It is performed by mutant analysis by PCR and restriction enzyme cleavage (MAPREC) used to quantify neurovirulent revertants in the viral genome. Here an alternative method based on quantitative PCR is proposed. Allele-specific quantitative polymerase chain reaction (asqPCR) uses a "tethered" oligonucleotide primer consisting of two specific parts connected by a polyinosine stretch. Homogeneous DNA from plasmids containing wild Leon/37 and attenuated Sabin 3 sequences with 100% 472C and 100% 472T could only be amplified using homologous primers. Real-time implementation of the allele-specific PCR resulted in sensitive detection of 472C revertants with the limit of quantitation of less than 0.05%. Monovalent vaccine batches and international viral references for MAPREC test were used to validate the method. asqPCR performed with the WHO references and monovalent batches of vaccine showed that the new method could measure accurately and reproducibly the content of revertants producing values comparable to MAPREC results. This suggests that asqPCR could be used as an alternative to MAPREC for lot release of OPV. The method could also be used for the quantitation of other mutants in populations of microorganisms.
Journal of virological methods.J Virol Methods.2014 Jun;201:86-92. doi: 10.1016/j.jviromet.2014.02.012. Epub 2014 Mar 7.
Monitoring consistency of genetic composition of oral polio vaccine (OPV) is a part of its quality control. It is performed by mutant analysis by PCR and restriction enzyme cleavage (MAPREC) used to quantify neurovirulent revertants in the viral genome. Here an alternative method based on quantitati
PMID 24607431

Vaccine-associated paralytic poliomyelitis in the postelimination era in latin america and the Caribbean, 1992-2011.

Landaverde JM1, Trumbo SP, Danovaro-Holliday MC, Cochi SE, Gandhi R, Ruiz-Matus C.Author information 1Comprehensive Family Immunization Unit, Pan American Health Organization/World Health Organization, Washington, D. C.AbstractThe Americas interrupted the transmission of poliovirus in 1991; most Latin American and Caribbean (LAC) countries rely on the oral polio vaccine (OPV) to maintain elimination. We estimated the risk of vaccine-associated paralytic polio (VAPP) in LAC for 1992-2011. VAPP cases were identified using LAC's acute flaccid paralysis (AFP) surveillance system. VAPP was defined as any AFP case with residual paralysis 60 days following onset that did not have a clear alternative etiology and with isolation of vaccine-strain poliovirus. Recipient VAPP cases were defined as those with paralysis onset 4-40 days following OPV; cases meeting these criteria but with unknown residual paralysis were added. Nonrecipient VAPP cases were defined as those in individuals with an unknown vaccination status, those in individuals who received 0 doses, or those with paralysis onset outside the 4-40-day interval. Of 40 926 AFP cases reported in LAC from 1992-2011, we identified 72 recipient and 119 nonrecipient VAPP cases. The estimated risk of recipient VAPP was 1 case per 3.15 million newborns (95% confidence interval [CI], 1 case per 2.56-4.10 million newborns), and the estimated overall risk was 1 case per 1.19 million newborns (95% CI, 1 case per 1.04-1.39 million newborns). In this multicountry VAPP analysis in a postelimination period, we found that the risk of VAPP in LAC was lower than previously estimated.
The Journal of infectious diseases.J Infect Dis.2014 May;209(9):1393-402. doi: 10.1093/infdis/jit602. Epub 2014 Feb 11.
The Americas interrupted the transmission of poliovirus in 1991; most Latin American and Caribbean (LAC) countries rely on the oral polio vaccine (OPV) to maintain elimination. We estimated the risk of vaccine-associated paralytic polio (VAPP) in LAC for 1992-2011. VAPP cases were identified using L
PMID 24520126

Investigation of the prevalence of antibody immunodeficiency in a polio endemic area in India.

Mohanty MC1, Deshpande JM.Author information 1Enterovirus Research Centre, Indian Council of Medical Research, Haffkine Institute Campus, Acharya Donde Marg, Parel, Mumbai 400012, India.AbstractBACKGROUND: Protection against paralytic poliomyelitis is provided mainly by antibody mediated host defense. Despite intensive oral polio vaccine (OPV) immunization campaigns wild poliovirus transmission could not be stopped in Uttar Pradesh (UP) and Bihar states of India by the end of 2010. The objective of our study was to quantitate serum IgG and IgA in children of western UP, India, to determine the prevalence of antibody immunodeficiency.
Transactions of the Royal Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene.Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg.2014 May;108(5):258-63. doi: 10.1093/trstmh/tru041. Epub 2014 Mar 20.
BACKGROUND: Protection against paralytic poliomyelitis is provided mainly by antibody mediated host defense. Despite intensive oral polio vaccine (OPV) immunization campaigns wild poliovirus transmission could not be stopped in Uttar Pradesh (UP) and Bihar states of India by the end of 2010. The obj
PMID 24652773

Japanese Journal

ポリオウイルスワクチン

清水博之
ウイルス 62(1), 57-66, 2012
　ポリオワクチン関連麻痺（VAPP）およびワクチン由来ポリオウイルス伝播によるポリオ流行のリスクを避けるため，ポリオ流行のリスクが低い多くの国々では，不活化ポリオウイルスワクチン（IPV）が定期予防接種に導入されている．我が国では，現在，単独IPVと二種類の百日せきジフテリア破傷風不活化ポリオ（セービン株由来IPV; sIPV）混合ワクチンの製造承認申請が提出されており，2012年秋の導入が予 …
NAID 130004922965

Growth and poliovirus production of Vero cells on a novel microcarrier with artificial cell adhesive protein under serum-free conditions(METHODS)

Kurokawa Masato,Sato Shigehiro
Journal of bioscience and bioengineering 111(5), 600-604, 2011-05
… The serum-free culture of Vero cells for vaccine production using the microcarrier increased the number of Vero cells by approximately 30% compared with the existing dextran beads coated with porcine Type I collagen, which resulted in approximately a 30% to 40% increase in the infectivity titer of the Sabin 2 strain of poliovirus. … These results suggested that the developed microcarrier should be unprecedented in permitting high-yield vaccine production by means of a serum-free culture. …
NAID 110008661212

世界ポリオ根絶の失われた１０年とポリオ根絶計画のこれから

清水博之
ウイルス 60(1), 49-58, 2010
… -2010年にかけて，ナイジェリアの1型および3型野生株ポリオウイルス伝播は顕著に減少ししつつある．さらに，ハイリスク地域における追加接種活動の質を改善し，より簡便化するための効果的な手段として，Sabin 1 型と3型を含む二価経口生ポリオワクチンが2010年に導入された．2000-2009年の10年間，ポリオ症例数の上では顕著な減少は認められていないが，「世界ポリオ根絶の失われた10年」の間に得られた経験を十分に …
NAID 130004470943

Related Pictures

★リンクテーブル★

リンク元	「経口生ポリオワクチン」「oral poliovirus vaccine」

「経口生ポリオワクチン」

Polio vaccine
Vaccine description
Target disease	Polio virus
Type	?
Clinical data
AHFS/Drugs.com	Multum Consumer Information
Pregnancy cat.	C (both OPV and IPV);
Legal status	Administered by or under the supervision of a health care professional.;
Routes	Parenteral (IPV), Oral drops (OPV)
Identifiers
ATC code	J07BF01 J07BF02 J07BF03
(what is this?) (verify)

　　[★]

英: live oral poliomyelitis vaccine
同: セービン・ワクチンセービンワクチン Sabin vaccine、経口ポリオワクチン？ oral poliovirus vaccine, OPV
関: ポリオウイルス、ポリオワクチン

[show details]

経口生ポリオワクチン : 約 55,400 件
経口ポリオ生ワクチン : 約 8,120 件

「oral poliovirus vaccine」

　　[★]

経口・リオワクチン

関: Sabin vaccine

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