WordNet

cover with a canopy
a covering (usually of cloth) that serves as a roof to shelter an area from the weather
the transparent covering of an aircraft cockpit
the umbrellalike part of a parachute that fills with air
the trees and other plants in a large densely wooded area (同)wood, woods
land that is covered with trees and shrubs (同)woodland, timberland, timber
situated at or toward the bow of a vessel
near or toward the bow of a ship or cockpit of a plane; "the captain went fore (or forward) to check the instruments" (同)forward
covered with forest; "efforts to protect forested lands of the northwest"

PrepTutorEJDIC

〈C〉天がい(寝台・玉座・入口などの上につけるおおい) / 〈U〉〈C〉天がいのようにおおう物 / 〈寝台・玉座など〉'を'天がいでおおう
〈C〉〈U〉(広い地域にわたる)『森林』,山林 / 〈C〉《通例単数形で》(…の)林《+『of』+『名』》
(乗り物の)前部の,前方の / 船首に,(へ) / 前部,前面

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出典(authority):フリー百科事典『ウィキペディア（Wikipedia）』「2013/07/13 07:09:51」(JST)

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A canopy of a forest in Sabah, Malaysia

Canopy of a forest

In biology, the canopy is the aboveground portion of a plant community or crop, formed by plant crowns.^[1]^[2]^[3]

For forests, canopy also refers to the upper layer or habitat zone, formed by mature tree crowns and including other biological organisms (epiphytes, lianas, arboreal animals, etc.).^[4]

Sometimes the term canopy is used to refer to the extent of the outer layer of leaves of an individual tree or group of trees. Shade trees normally have a dense canopy that blocks light from lower growing plants.

Canopy structure[edit]

Cartography of canopy structure is important for studies of relations between tree species ^[5] .

Canopy structure is the organization or spatial arrangement (three-dimensional geometry) of a plant canopy. Leaf area index (LAI), leaf area per unit ground area, is a key measure used to understand and compare plant canopies.

A Monkey Ladder Vine canopy over a road

Canopy layer of forests[edit]

Dominant and co-dominant canopy trees form the uneven canopy layer. Canopy trees are able to photosynthesize relatively rapidly due to abundant light, so it supports the majority of primary productivity in forests.^{[citation needed]} The canopy layer provides protection from strong winds and storms, while also intercepting sunlight and precipitation, leading to a relatively sparsely vegetated understory layer.

Forest canopies are home to unique flora and fauna not found in other layers of forests. The highest terrestrial biodiversity resides in the canopy of tropical rainforests.^[6] Many rainforest animals have evolved to live solely in the canopy, and never touch the ground.

The canopy of a rainforest is typically about 10m thick, and intercepts around 95% of sunlight.^{[citation needed]} The canopy is below the emergent layer, a sparse layer of very tall trees, typically one or two per hectare. With an abundance of water and a near ideal temperature in rainforests, light and nutrients are two factors that limit tree growth from the understory to the canopy.

In the permaculture and forest gardening community, the canopy is the highest of seven layers.

References[edit]

^ Campbell, G.S., and J.M. Norman. 1990. The description and measurement of plant canopy structure. pp. 1-19 In: Russell, G., B. Marshall, and P.G. Jarvis (editors). Plant Canopies: Their Growth, Form and Function. Cambridge University Press.
^ Moffett, M.W. 2000. What's up? A critical look at the basic terms of canopy biology. Biotropica 32:569-596.
^ Hay, R., and R. Porter. 2006 Physiology of Crop Yield (Second edition). Wiley-Blackwell. ISBN 1-4051-0859-2, ISBN 978-1-4051-0859-1
^ Parker, G.G. 1995. Structure and microclimate of forest canopies. pp. 73-106 In: Lowman, M.D. and N.M. Nadkarni (editors). Forest Canopies. Academic Press, San Diego, CA.
^ R. Hédl, M. Svátek, M. Dancak, Rodzay A.W., M. Salleh A.B., Kamariah A.S. A new technique for inventory of permanent plots in tropical forests: a case study from lowland dipterocarp forest in Kuala Belalong, Brunei Darussalam, In Blumea 54, 2009.
^ Lowman, M.D. and M.W. Moffett. 1993. The ecology of tropical rain forest canopies. Trees 8:104-107.

External links[edit]

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Tree canopies

Canopy Database
International Canopy Access Network

UpToDate Contents

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English Journal

Seasonal ozone uptake by a warm-temperate mixed deciduous and evergreen broadleaf forest in western Japan estimated by the Penman-Monteith approach combined with a photosynthesis-dependent stomatal model.

Kitao M, Komatsu M, Hoshika Y, Yazaki K, Yoshimura K, Fujii S, Miyama T, Kominami Y.Author information Department of Plant Ecology, Forestry and Forest Products Research Institute, Matsunosato 1, Tsukuba 305-8687, Japan. Electronic address: kitao@ffpri.affrc.go.jp.AbstractCanopy-level stomatal conductance over a warm-temperate mixed deciduous and evergreen broadleaf forest in Japan was estimated by the Penman-Monteith approach, as compensated by a semi-empirical photosynthesis-dependent stomatal model, where photosynthesis, relative humidity, and CO2 concentration were assumed to regulate stomatal conductance. This approach, using eddy covariance data and routine meteorological observations at a flux tower site, permits the continuous estimation of canopy-level O3 uptake, even when the Penman-Monteith approach is unavailable (i.e. in case of direct evaporation from soil or wet leaves). Distortion was observed between the AOT40 exposure index and O3 uptake through stomata, as AOT40 peaked in April, but with O3 uptake occurring in July. Thus, leaf pre-maturation in the predominant deciduous broadleaf tree species (Quercus serrata) might suppress O3 uptake in springtime, even when the highest O3 concentrations were observed.
Environmental pollution (Barking, Essex : 1987).Environ Pollut.2014 Jan;184:457-63. doi: 10.1016/j.envpol.2013.09.023. Epub 2013 Oct 10.
Canopy-level stomatal conductance over a warm-temperate mixed deciduous and evergreen broadleaf forest in Japan was estimated by the Penman-Monteith approach, as compensated by a semi-empirical photosynthesis-dependent stomatal model, where photosynthesis, relative humidity, and CO2 concentration we
PMID 24121421

Canopy carbon budget of Siebold's beech (Fagus crenata) sapling under free air ozone exposure.

Watanabe M, Hoshika Y, Inada N, Koike T.Author information Silviculture and Forest Ecological Studies, Hokkaido University, Sapporo, Hokkaido 060-8589, Japan.AbstractTo determine the effects of ozone (O3) on the canopy carbon budget, we investigated photosynthesis and respiration of leaves of Siebold's beech saplings under free air O3 exposure (60 nmol mol(-1), during daytime) in relation to the within-canopy light gradient; we then calculated the canopy-level photosynthetic carbon gain (PCG) and respiratory carbon loss (RCL) using a canopy photosynthesis model. Susceptibilities of photosynthesis and respiration to O3 were greater in leaves of upper canopy than in the lower canopy. The canopy net carbon gain (NCG) was reduced by O3 by 12.4% during one growing season. The increased RCL was the main factor for the O3-induced reduction in NCG in late summer, while contributions of the reduced PCG and the increased RCL to the NCG were almost the same in autumn. These results indicate contributions of changes in PCG and RCL under O3 to NCG were different between seasons.
Environmental pollution (Barking, Essex : 1987).Environ Pollut.2014 Jan;184:682-9. doi: 10.1016/j.envpol.2013.04.018. Epub 2013 May 9.
To determine the effects of ozone (O3) on the canopy carbon budget, we investigated photosynthesis and respiration of leaves of Siebold's beech saplings under free air O3 exposure (60 nmol mol(-1), during daytime) in relation to the within-canopy light gradient; we then calculated the canopy-level
PMID 23664480

Anthropogenic nitrogen deposition in boreal forests has a minor impact on the global carbon cycle.

Gundale MJ, From F, Bach LH, Nordin A.Author information Department of Forest Ecology and Management, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, SE-901 83, Umeå, Sweden.AbstractIt is proposed that increases in anthropogenic reactive nitrogen (Nr ) deposition may cause temperate and boreal forests to sequester a globally significant quantity of carbon (C); however, long-term data from boreal forests describing how C sequestration responds to realistic levels of chronic Nr deposition are scarce. Using a long-term (14-year) stand-scale (0.1 ha) N addition experiment (three levels: 0, 12.5, and 50 kg N ha(-1) yr(-1) ) in the boreal zone of northern Sweden, we evaluated how chronic N additions altered N uptake and biomass of understory communities, and whether changes in understory communities explained N uptake and C sequestration by trees. We hypothesized that understory communities (i.e. mosses and shrubs) serve as important sinks for low-level N additions, with the strength of these sinks weakening as chronic N addition rates increase, due to shifts in species composition. We further hypothesized that trees would exhibit nonlinear increases in N acquisition, and subsequent C sequestration as N addition rates increased, due to a weakening understory N sink. Our data showed that understory biomass was reduced by 50% in response to the high N addition treatment, mainly due to reduced moss biomass. A (15) N labeling experiment showed that feather mosses acquired the largest fraction of applied label, with this fraction decreasing as the chronic N addition level increased. Contrary to our hypothesis, the proportion of label taken up by trees was equal (ca. 8%) across all three N addition treatments. The relationship between N addition and C sequestration in all vegetation pools combined was linear, and had a slope of 16 kg C kg(-1) N. While canopy retention of Nr deposition may cause C sequestration rates to be slightly different than this estimate, our data suggest that a minor quantity of annual anthropogenic CO2 emissions are sequestered into boreal forests as a result of Nr deposition.
Global change biology.Glob Chang Biol.2014 Jan;20(1):276-86. doi: 10.1111/gcb.12422. Epub 2013 Nov 13.
It is proposed that increases in anthropogenic reactive nitrogen (Nr ) deposition may cause temperate and boreal forests to sequester a globally significant quantity of carbon (C); however, long-term data from boreal forests describing how C sequestration responds to realistic levels of chronic Nr d
PMID 24115224

Japanese Journal

Effects of canopy phenology on deciduous overstory and evergreen understory carbon budgets in a cool-temperate forest ecosystem under ongoing climate change (SPECIAL FEATURE : Long-term and interdisciplinary research on forest ecosystem functions : Challenges at Takayama site since 1993)

Saitoh Taku M.,Nagai Shin,Yoshino Jun [他]
Ecological research 30(2), 267-277, 2015-03
NAID 40020440706

Phenology of leaf morphological, photosynthetic, and nitrogen use characteristics of canopy trees in a cool-temperate deciduous broadleaf forest at Takayama, central Japan (SPECIAL FEATURE : Long-term and interdisciplinary research on forest ecosystem functions : Challenges at Takayama site since 1993)

Noda Hibiki M.,Muraoka Hiroyuki,Nishida Nasahara Kenlo [他]
Ecological research 30(2), 247-266, 2015-03
NAID 40020440692

Estimation of forest canopy height using orthoimage-refined digital elevation models

Park Wan-yong,Sohn Hong-Gyoo,Heo Joon
Landscape and ecological engineering : official journal of the International Consortium of Landscape and Ecological Engineering (ICLEE) 11(1), 73-86, 2015-01
NAID 40020374312