vt.

(～と)同じ/同様にする(to)。(模範・範例に)従わせる(to)。(行為を法律・風俗などに)適合させる、順応させる(to,with)

vi.

(～と)同じ/同様になる、一致する(to,with)。(規則・習俗に)従う(to)。国教に従う、(特に)英国教会の習わしに従う

adj.

関: conformer, conformism

WordNet

be similar, be in line with
provide funds complementary to; "The company matched the employees contributions"
the score needed to win a match
lighter consisting of a thin piece of wood or cardboard tipped with combustible chemical; ignites with friction; "he always carries matches to light his pipe"; "as long youve a lucifer to light your fag" (同)lucifer, friction match
an exact duplicate; "when a match is found an entry is made in the notebook" (同)mate
a burning piece of wood or cardboard; "if you drop a match in there the whole place will explode"
a formal contest in which two or more persons or teams compete
something that resembles or harmonizes with; "that tie makes a good match with your jacket"
make correspond or harmonize; "Match my sweater" (同)fit
be compatible, similar or consistent; coincide in their characteristics; "The two stories dont agree in many details"; "The handwriting checks with the signature on the check"; "The suspects fingerprints dont match those on the gun" (同)fit, correspond, check, jibe, gibe, tally, agree
bring two objects, ideas, or people together; "This fact is coupled to the other one"; "Matchmaker, can you match my daughter with a nice young man?"; "The student was paired with a partner for collaboration on the project" (同)mate, couple, pair, twin
be equal or harmonize; "The two pieces match"
give or join in marriage
physically and mentally sound or healthy; "felt relaxed and fit after their holiday"; "keeps fit with diet and exercise"
a display of bad temper; "he had a fit"; "she threw a tantrum"; "he made a scene" (同)tantrum, scene, conniption
insert or adjust several objects or people; "Can you fit the toy into the box?"; "This man cant fit himself into our work environment"
make fit; "fit a dress"; "He fitted other pieces of paper to his cut-out"
the manner in which something fits; "I admired the fit of her coat"
be the right size or shape; fit correctly or as desired; "This piece wont fit into the puzzle" (同)go
(usually followed by `to or `for' (同)primed, set
conform to some shape or size; "How does this shirt fit?"
meeting adequate standards for a purpose; "a fit subject for discussion"; "it is fit and proper that you be there"; "water fit to drink"; "fit for duty"; "do as you see fit to"
to travel behind, go after, come after; "The ducklings followed their mother around the pond"; "Please follow the guide through the museum"
behave in accordance or in agreement with; "Follow a pattern"; "Follow my example" (同)conform_to
come after in time, as a result; "A terrible tsunami followed the earthquake" (同)come after
come as a logical consequence; follow logically; "It follows that your assertion is false"; "the theorem falls out nicely" (同)fall_out
travel along a certain course; "follow the road"; "follow the trail" (同)travel along
accept and follow the leadership or command or guidance of; "Lets follow our great helmsman!"; "She followed a guru for years"
adhere to or practice; "These people still follow the laws of their ancient religion"
be next; "Mary plays best, with John and Sue following"
grasp the meaning; "Can you follow her argument?"; "When he lectures, I cannot follow"
to bring something about at a later time than; "She followed dinner with a brandy"; "He followed his lecture with a question and answer period"
show grammatical agreement; "Subjects and verbs must always agree in English"
be in accord; be in agreement; "We agreed on the terms of the settlement"; "I cant agree with you!"; "I hold with those who say life is sacred"; "Both philosophers concord on this point" (同)hold, concur, concord
achieve harmony of opinion, feeling, or purpose; "No two of my colleagues would agree on whom to elect chairman"
be agreeable or suitable; "White wine doesnt agree with me"
consent or assent to a condition, or agree to do something; "She agreed to all my conditions"; "He agreed to leave her alone"
compatibility of observations; "there was no agreement between theory and measurement"; "the results of two tests were in correspondence" (同)correspondence
harmony of peoples opinions or actions or characters; "the two parties were in agreement" (同)accord
the determination of grammatical inflection on the basis of word relations (同)concord
the thing arranged or agreed to; "they made arrangements to meet in Chicago" (同)arrangement
the statement (oral or written) of an exchange of promises; "they had an agreement that they would not interfere in each others business"; "there was an understanding between management and the workers" (同)understanding
the verbal act of agreeing
failure to conform to accepted standards of behavior (同)nonconformance
unorthodoxy as a consequence of not conforming to expected standards or values
a lack of orthodoxy in thoughts or beliefs (同)nonconformism, nonconformance
lack of harmony or correspondence
not conforming to some norm or socially approved pattern of behavior or thought; "their rabidly nonconformist deportment has made them legendary"; "the old stubborn nonconformist spirit of the early settlers" (同)unconformist
someone who refuses to conform to established standards of conduct (同)recusant
the practice of nonconformity
a Protestant in England who is not a member of the Church of England (同)chapelgoer
not correspondent; "a description unconformable to previous accounts"
adhering to established customs or doctrines (especially in religion) (同)conformist

PrepTutorEJDIC

(慣例・規範などに)『従って行動する』(『考える』)《+『to』(『with』)+『名』》・〈物事が〉(…と)一鋳する,符合する《+『to』+『名』》・(…に)…'を'一致させる,適応させる《+『名』+『to』+『名』》
(1本の)『まっち』 / (昔の)火縄[銃]
《単数形で》(…に)『匹敵する相手』,(…の)好敵手《+『for』+『名』》 / 《単数形で》対[の一方],片われ,生き写し / 《単数形で》(…と)『よくつり合うもの』《+『for』+『名』》 / 『試合』,競技 / 《古》縁組,結婚;結婚相手 / (…で)…‘に'『匹敵する』,‘と'対等である《+『名』+『in』(『for』)+『名』》 / (…と)…‘を'対抗させる,試合させる《+『名』+『against』(『with』)+『名』》 / 〈物が〉…‘と'『調和する』,つり合う / 〈人が〉…‘に'調和するものを見つける / 《古》(…と)…‘を'結婚させる《+『名』+『to』(『with』)+『名』》 / (…と)『調和がとれている』,つり合う《+『up with』+『名』》
『適した』,適切な,ぴったりの / 《補語にのみ用いて》よい調子で;健康で / 《be fit to do》いまにも…しそうである《explode,burst,fall,dropなど危険な意 / を含む動詞と共に用いる》 / 〈意図・目的など〉‘に'『合う』,ふさわしい / (…に)…‘を'『合わせる』,はめ込む,取り付ける《+『名』+『to』(『into,in,on』)+『名』》;(…を)…‘に'合わせる《+『名』+『with』+『名』》 / 〈人〉‘に'資格をつける,‘を'適させる / 適する,合う(服・靴などの)でき具合;体に合うもの / 〈U〉適合,対応
(病気の)『発作』 / (感情などの)『一時的な爆発』《+『of』+『名』》
…‘の'『後について行く』;…‘の'後に続く(来る) / 〈道など〉‘を'『たどる』,‘に'沿って行く / 〈規則など〉‘に'『従う』 / 〈動きなど〉‘を'じっと見詰める,観察する / …‘を'理解する(understand) / …‘を'まねる,模範とする / 〈職業〉‘に'従事する / …‘から'起こる(result from) / 〈人・動物など〉‘を'追跡する,追う / 『後について行く』(『来る』) / 『続いて起こる』,次に来る / (論理的に)…という結論になる,当然の結果として…となる
〈人が〉『意見が一致する』,合意する;『同意する』,賛成する / 〈物事が〉(…と)合致する,一致する《+『with』+『名』》 / (…と)いっしょにうまくやる《+『with』+『名』》 / (文章で)〈人称・性・数・格が〉一致する / …に意見が一致する,同意する
〈U〉(意見・感情などの)(…についての)『一致』,調和,同意《+『on』(『upon,about,with』)+『名』(『wh-節・句』)》 / 〈C〉(2者以上の間で結ばれた)『協定』,協約 / 〈U〉(人称・性・格の)一致(concord)
(規則などに)従わないこと,協調(順応)しないこと《+『to』(『with』)+『名』》 / 《しばしば『N-』》非国教主義;非国教徒
《しばしば『N-』》非国教徒(英国国教会に属さないプロテスタント)・既存の教会(制度など)に従わない人
非同調主義;非国教主義

Wikipedia preview

出典(authority):フリー百科事典『ウィキペディア（Wikipedia）』「2012/02/21 00:50:12」(JST)

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This article is about the psychological concept of conformity. For other uses, see Conformity (disambiguation).

Conformity is the act of matching attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors to what individuals perceive as normal to their society or social group. This influence occurs in small groups and/or society as a whole, and may result from subtle unconscious influences, or direct and overt social pressure. Conformity can occur in the presence of others, or when an individual is alone. For example, people tend to follow social norms when eating or watching television, even when alone.

People often conform from a desire for security within a group—typically a group of a similar age, culture, religion, or educational status. This is often referred to as group think: a particular way of thinking individuals engage in that succeeds realistic appraisal of other courses of action.^[1] Unwillingness to conform carries the risk of social rejection. In this respect, conformity can be a means of avoiding bullying or deflecting criticism from peers, though it can also reflect suppression of personality. Conformity is often associated with adolescence and youth culture, but strongly affects humans of all ages. Peer pressure or group pressure exists within the social aspect of humans' lives and can be seen in different live situations, for example persuasion, teasing, bullying, criticism, etc.^[2]

Although peer pressure may manifest negatively, conformity can have good or bad effects depending on the situation. Driving on the correct side of the road could be seen as beneficial conformity. Conformity influences formation and maintenance of social norms, and helps societies function smoothly and predictably via the self-elimination of behaviors seen as contrary to unwritten rules. In this sense it can be perceived as (though not proven to be) a positive force that prevents acts that are perceptually disruptive or dangerous.

However, the societal urge to conform and spread conformity generally does not discern between traits that are harmful, and those that merely disrupt a group sense of what is 'normal' or 'predictable' behavior. Examples of this include, but are not limited to:

Expectations regarding clothing
Hair length
Gender roles
Social and class roles
Parental expectations for offspring
Localization of accent and slang

Other, less mutable aspects are not necessarily controllable, such as differing skin color or ethnic background, or 'unusual' body shape.

Because conformity is a group phenomenon, factors such as group size, unanimity, cohesion, status, prior commitment, and public opinion help determine the level of conformity an individual displays.^[3]

Varieties

Harvard psychologist Herbert Kelman identified three major types of social influence:^[4]

Compliance is public conformity, while possibly keeping one's own private beliefs.
Identification is conforming to someone who is liked and respected, such as a celebrity or a favorite uncle.
Internalization is accepting the belief or behavior and conforming both publicly and privately.

Although Kelman's distinction has been influential, research in social psychology has focused primarily on two varieties of conformity. These are informational conformity, or informational social influence, and normative conformity, also called normative social influence.^[3] In Kelman's terminology, these correspond to internalization and compliance, respectively. There are naturally more than two or three variables in society influential on human psychology and conformity; the notion of "varieties" of conformity based upon "social influence" is ambiguous and undefinable in this context.

Informational influence

Main article: Informational social influence

Informational social influence occurs when one turns to the members of one's group to obtain accurate information. A person is most likely to use informational social influence in certain situations: when a situation is ambiguous, people become uncertain about what to do and they are more likely to depend on others for the answer; and during a crisis when immediate action is necessary, in spite of panic. Looking to other people can help ease fears, but unfortunately they are not always right. The more knowledgeable a person is, the more valuable they are as a resource. Thus people often turn to experts for help. But once again people must be careful, as experts can make mistakes too. Informational social influence often results in internalization or private acceptance, where a person genuinely believes that the information is right.

Informational social influence was first documented in Muzafer Sherif's autokinetic experiment.^[5] He was interested in how many people change their opinions to bring them in line with the opinion of a group. Participants were placed in a dark room and asked to stare at a small dot of light 15 feet away. They were then asked to estimate the amount it moved. The trick was there was no movement, it was caused by a visual illusion known as the autokinetic effect. Every person perceived different amounts of movement. Over time, the same estimate was agreed on and others conformed to it. Sherif suggested this was a simulation for how social norms develop in a society, providing a common frame of reference for people.

Subsequent experiments were based on more realistic situations. In an eyewitness identification task, participants were shown a suspect individually and then in a lineup of other suspects. They were given one second to identify him, making it a difficult task. One group was told that their input was very important and would be used by the legal community. To the other it was simply a trial. Being more motivated to get the right answer increased the tendency to conform. Those who wanted to be most accurate conformed 51% of the time as opposed to 35% in the other group.^[6]

Which line matches the first line, A, B, or C? In the Asch conformity experiments, people frequently followed the majority judgment, even when the majority was wrong.

Economists have suggested that fads and trends in society form as the result of individuals making rational choices based on information received from others. These informational cascades form quickly as people decide to ignore their internal signals and go along with what other people are doing.^[7] Cascades are presumed fragile, because people are aware that they are based on limited information. This is why fads often end as quickly as they begin. According to How I Met Your Mother conformity is the one who is different that gets left out in the cold.

Normative influence

Main article: Normative social influence

Normative social influence occurs when one conforms to be liked or accepted by the members of the group. It usually results in public compliance, doing or saying something without believing in it. Solomon E. Asch was the first psychologist to study this phenomenon in the laboratory. He conducted a modification of Sherif’s study, assuming that when the situation was very clear, conformity would be drastically reduced. He exposed people in a group to a series of lines, and the participants were asked to match one line with a standard line. All participants except one were secretly told to give the wrong answer in 12 of the 18 trials. The results showed a surprisingly high degree of conformity. 76% of the participants conformed on at least one trial. On average people conformed one third of the time.^[8] After Asch's first test, the replication of Muzafer Sherif’s test, Asch wanted to investigate whether the size or unanimity of the majority had greater influence on test subjects.

“Which aspect of the influence of a majority is more important – the size of the majority or its unanimity? The experiment was modified to examine this question. In one series the size of the opposition was varied from one to 15 persons.”^[9]

The results clearly showed that as more people opposed the subject, the subject became more likely to conform. However, the increasing majority was only influential up to a point.

In a reinterpretation of the original data from these experiments Hodges and Geyer (2006)^[10] found that Asch's subjects were not so conformist after all:

The experiments provide powerful evidence for people's tendency to tell the truth even when others do not. They also provide compelling evidence of people's concern for others and their views.^[10]^:2

By closely examining the situation in which Asch's subjects find themselves they find that

the situation places multiple demands on participants: They include truth (i.e., expressing one's own view accurately), trust (i.e., taking seriously the value of others' claims), and social solidarity (i.e., a commitment to integrate the views of self and others without deprecating either). In addition to these epistemic values, there are multiple moral claims as well: These include the need for participants to care for the integrity and well-being of other participants, the experimenter, themselves, and the worth of scientific research.^[10]^:5

Normative influence, a function of social impact theory, has three components.^[11] The number of people in the group has a surprising effect. As the number increases, each person has less of an impact. A group's strength is how important the group is to a person. Groups we value generally have more social influence. Immediacy is how close the group is in time and space when the influence is taking place. Psychologists have constructed a mathematical model using these three factors and are able to predict the amount of conformity that occurs with some degree of accuracy.^[12]

Baron and his colleagues conducted a second eyewitness study that focused on normative influence.^[6] In this version, the task was easier. Each participant had five seconds to look at a slide instead of just one second. Once again, there were both high and low motives to be accurate, but the results were the reverse of the first study. The low motivation group conformed 33% of the time (similar to Asch's findings). The high motivation group conformed less at 16%. These results show that when accuracy is not very important, it is better to get the wrong answer than to risk social disapproval.

An experiment using procedures similar to Asch's found that there was significantly less conformity in six-person groups of friends as compared to six-person groups of strangers.^[13] Because friends already know and accept each other, there may be less normative pressure to conform in some situations. Field studies on cigarette and alcohol abuse, however, generally demonstrate evidence of friends exerting normative social influence on each other.^[14]

Minority influence

Main article: Minority influence

Although conformity generally leads individuals to think and act more like groups, individuals are occasionally able to reverse this tendency and change the people around them. This is known as minority influence, a special case of informational influence. Minority influence is most likely when people can make a clear and consistent case for their point of view. If the minority fluctuates and shows uncertainty, the chance of influence is small. However, a minority that makes a strong, convincing case increases the probability of changing the majority's beliefs and behaviors.^[15] Minority members who are perceived as experts, are high in status, or have benefited the group in the past are also more likely to succeed.

Another form of minority influence can sometimes override conformity effects and lead to unhealthy group dynamics. A 2007 review of two dozen studies by the University of Washington found that a single "bad apple" (an inconsiderate or negligent group member) can substantially increase conflicts and reduce performance in work groups. Bad apples often create a negative emotional climate that interferes with healthy group functioning. They can be avoided by careful selection procedures and managed by reassigning them to positions that require less social interaction.^[16]

Gender

Societal norms often establish gender differences.^[17]^[18]^[19]^[20]

There are differences in the way men and women conform to social influence. Social psychologists, Alice Eagly and Linda Carli performed a meta-analysis of 148 studies of influenceability. They found that women are more persuadable and more conforming than men in group pressure situations that involve surveillance. In situations not involving surveillance, women are less likely to conform.

In a study by Sistrunk and McDavid at a private university, a public junior college, and at a high school, overall, females were more susceptible to social pressures than males. In fact, females conformed more than males 3 out of 4 times when they were presented masculine questions. Males conformed more than females 2 out of 4 times when they were presented feminine questions.^[21]^{[clarification needed]}

The composition of the group plays a role in conformity as well. In a study by Reitan and Shaw, it was found that men and women conformed more when there were participants of both sexes involved versus participants of the same sex. Subjects in the groups with both sexes were more apprehensive when there was a discrepancy amongst group members, and thus the subjects reported that they doubted their own judgments.^[20]

Eagly has proposed that this sex difference may be due to different sex roles in society. Women are generally taught to be more agreeable whereas men are taught to be more independent.

Normative social influence explains women's attempt to create the ideal body through dieting, and also by eating disorders such as anorexia nervosa and bulimia. Men, in contrast, are likely to pursue their ideal body image through dieting, steroids, and overworking their bodies, rather than developing eating disorders. Both men and women probably learn what kind of body is considered attractive by their culture through the process of informational social influence.^{[original research?]}

Neuroimaging

Main article: Neuroimaging

fMRI studies show that conformity to the opinion of others about faces and objects involves activity within a network of brain regions including the anterior cingulate cortex, striatum, insula cortex, temporoparietal junction and prefrontal cortex at the time of conflict.^[22]^[23]^[24] Moreover, they show that agreement with others activates the same regions of the brain as receiving money.^[24] Evidence for conformity towards the values of others can be observed in activity of the human ventral striatum as the evaluated item is received.^[24] Both animal and human neuroscience studies previously implicated some of these brain areas into the fundamental process of performance monitoring: Activity of these regions triggers automatic corrections of behaviour.^[25]^[26] Perhaps when we notice that our opinion deviates from the opinions held by the majority of other people then these brain regions automatically produce a neural “error” signal triggering conformity – conformal adjustments of our behaviour or opinion.^[22]^[27] Interestingly after transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) of the cingulate cortex both the extent and probability of conformity decreased significantly relative to a control stimulation over another brain area.^[28]

References

^ Aronson, Elliot (2008). The Social Animal 10th Edition. New York, NY: Worth Publishers. pp. 18. ISBN 1-4292-0316-1.
^ Mcleod, Saul. "Conformity". Simply Psychology. http://www.simplypsychology.org/conformity.html. Retrieved 23 November 2011.
^ ^a ^b Aronson, Elliot; Wilson, Timothy D.; Akert, Robin M. (2007). Social Psychology (6th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Prentice Hall. ISBN 978-0-13-233487-7. ^{[page needed]}
^ Kelman, Herbert C. (1958). "Compliance, identification, and internalization: three processes of attitude change". Journal of Conflict Resolution 2 (1): 51–60. doi:10.1177/002200275800200106. JSTOR 172844. http://scholar.harvard.edu/hckelman/files/Compliance_identification_and_internalization.pdf.
^ Sherif, Muzafer (1936). The psychology of social norms. New York: Harper. OCLC 734061518. ^{[page needed]}
^ ^a ^b Baron, Robert S.; Vandello, Joseph A.; Brunsman, Bethany (1996). "The forgotten variable in conformity research: Impact of task importance on social influence". Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 71 (5): 915–27. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.71.5.915.
^ Bikhchandani, Sushil; Hirshleifer, David; Welch, Ivo (1992). "A Theory of Fads, Fashion, Custom, and Cultural Change as Informational Cascades". Journal of Political Economy 100 (5): 992–1026. doi:10.1086/261849. JSTOR 2138632.
^ Asch, Solomon E. (1955). "Opinions and Social Pressure". Scientific American 193 (5): 31–5. doi:10.1038/scientificamerican1155-31.
^ Asch, Solomon (November 1955). "Opinions and Social Pressure". Scientific American 193 (5): 31–35.
^ ^a ^b ^c Hodges, Bert H.; Geyer, Anne L. (2006). "A Nonconformist Account of the Asch Experiments: Values, Pragmatics, and Moral Dilemmas". Personality and Social Psychology Review 10 (1): 2–19. doi:10.1207/s15327957pspr1001_1. PMID 16430326.
^ Latané, Bibb (1981). "The psychology of social impact". American Psychologist 36 (4): 343–56. doi:10.1037/0003-066X.36.4.343.
^ Latané, Bibb; Bourgeois, Martin J. (2001). "Successfully simulating dynamic social impact: Three levels of prediction". In Forgas, Joseph P.; Williams, Kipling D.. Social influence: Direct and indirect processes. The Sydney symposium of social psychology. New York: Psychology Press. pp. 61–76. ISBN 978-1-84169-038-4. http://psycnet.apa.org/psycinfo/2001-01427-003.
^ McKelvey, Wendy; Kerr, Nancy H. (1988). "Differences in conformity among friends and strangers". Psychological Reports 62 (3): 759–62. doi:10.2466/pr0.1988.62.3.759.
^ Urberg, Kathryn A.; Degirmencioglu, Serdar M.; Pilgrim, Colleen (1997). "Close friend and group influence on adolescent cigarette smoking and alcohol use". Developmental Psychology 33 (5): 834–44. doi:10.1037/0012-1649.33.5.834. PMID 9300216.
^ Moscovici, Serge; Nemeth (1974). "Minority influence". Social psychology: Classic and contemporary integrations. Chicago: Rand McNally. pp. 217–49. OCLC 608321056. http://psycnet.apa.org/psycinfo/1974-32232-004.
^ Felps, Will; Mitchell, Terence R.; Byington, Eliza (2006). Staw, Barry M. ed. "How, When, and Why Bad Apples Spoil the Barrel: Negative Group Members and Dysfunctional Groups". Research in Organizational Behavior 27: 175–222. doi:10.1016/S0191-3085(06)27005-9. ISBN 978-0-7623-1335-8. http://books.google.com/books?id=5ncYTZrpYR8C&pg=PA175. Lay summary – Science Daily (February 13, 2007).
^ Applezweig, Mortimer H.; Moeller, George (1958). Conforming behavior and personality variables. New London: Connecticut College. OCLC 8490578.
^ Beloff, Halla (1958). "Two forms of social conformity: Acquiescence and conventionality". The Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology 56 (1): 99–104. doi:10.1037/h0046604. PMID 13501978.
^ Coleman, Janet Fagan; Blake, Robert R.; Mouton, Jane Srygley (1958). "Task difficulty and conformity pressures". The Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology 57 (1): 120–2. doi:10.1037/h0041274. PMID 13563057.
^ ^a ^b Reitan, Harold; Shaw, Marvin (1964). "Group Membership, Sex-Composition of the Group, and Conformity Behavior". The Journal of Social Psychology 64: 45–51. doi:10.1080/00224545.1964.9919541. PMID 14217456.
^ Sistrunk, Frank; McDavid, John W. (1971). "Sex variable in conforming behavior". Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 17 (2): 200. doi:10.1037/h0030382.
^ ^a ^b Klucharev, Vasily; Hytönen, Kaisa; Rijpkema, Mark; Smidts, Ale; Fernández, Guillén (2009). "Reinforcement Learning Signal Predicts Social Conformity". Neuron 61 (1): 140–51. doi:10.1016/j.neuron.2008.11.027. PMID 19146819.
^ Berns, Gregory S.; Capra, C. Monica; Moore, Sara; Noussair, Charles (2010). "Neural mechanisms of the influence of popularity on adolescent ratings of music". NeuroImage 49 (3): 2687–96. doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2009.10.070. PMC 2818406. PMID 19879365. http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=2818406.
^ ^a ^b ^c Campbell-Meiklejohn, Daniel K.; Bach, Dominik R.; Roepstorff, Andreas; Dolan, Raymond J.; Frith, Chris D. (2010). "How the Opinion of Others Affects Our Valuation of Objects". Current Biology 20 (13): 1165–70. doi:10.1016/j.cub.2010.04.055. PMC 2908235. PMID 20619815. http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=2908235.
^ Matsumoto, K.; Tanaka, K (2004). "NEUROSCIENCE: Enhanced: Conflict and Cognitive Control". Science 303 (5660): 969–70. doi:10.1126/science.1094733. PMID 14963319.
^ McCoy, Allison N.; Platt, Michael L. (2004). "Expectations and outcomes: Decision-making in the primate brain". Journal of Comparative Physiology A 191 (3): 201–11. doi:10.1007/s00359-004-0565-9. PMID 15759141.
^ Montague, P. Read; Lohrenz, Terry (2007). "To Detect and Correct: Norm Violations and Their Enforcement". Neuron 56 (1): 14–8. doi:10.1016/j.neuron.2007.09.020. PMID 17920011.
^ Klucharev, V.; Munneke, M. A. M.; Smidts, A.; Fernandez, G. (2011). "Downregulation of the Posterior Medial Frontal Cortex Prevents Social Conformity". Journal of Neuroscience 31 (33): 11934–40. doi:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.1869-11.2011. PMID 21849554.

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1. 爪の手術 nail surgery
2. 進行性多巣性白質脳症：疫学、臨床症状、および診断 progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy epidemiology clinical manifestations and diagnosis
3. 肺機能検査の基準値 reference values for pulmonary function testing
4. 変形性関節症の臨床症状 clinical manifestations of osteoarthritis
5. 放射線療法誘発性肺障害 radiation induced lung injury

English Journal

A comparison of motivations for use among users of crack cocaine and cocaine powder in a sample of simultaneous cocaine and alcohol users.

Martin G1, Macdonald S2, Pakula B3, Roth EA4.Author information 1Centre for Addictions Research of British Columbia, University of Victoria, Canada. Electronic address: gcmartin@uvic.ca.2Centre for Addictions Research of British Columbia, University of Victoria, Canada; School of Health Information Science, University of Victoria, Canada.3School of Population and Public Health, University of British Columbia, Canada.4Centre for Addictions Research of British Columbia, University of Victoria, Canada; Department of Anthropology, University of Victoria, Canada.AbstractThis study examined the motivations for using cocaine and alcohol comparing those who primarily smoked crack and those who primarily used cocaine powder when using simultaneously with alcohol. Motivations examined included: 1) to cope with a negative affect, 2) enhancement, 3) to be social and 4) to conform. The research design was a cross-sectional study in which clients in treatment for cocaine and alcohol problems completed a self-administered questionnaire about their substance use. Among those who primarily smoked crack or snorted cocaine when also using alcohol (n=153), there were 93 participants who reported primarily snorting cocaine and 60 participants who primarily reported smoking crack. Bivariate analyses found that those who primarily smoked crack reported lower social motivations to use alcohol and cocaine. When adjusting for other covariates in a multivariate analysis, social motivation was still significantly different between groups. Additionally, those who primarily smoked crack were more likely to be older, report higher cocaine dependence severity, be unemployed and were less likely to have completed some post-secondary education, than those who primarily snorted cocaine. No differences were found in enhancement, coping or conformity motivations between the two groups. These results suggest that simultaneous cocaine and alcohol use may have social importance to those who primarily snort cocaine, but that this importance is less evident to those who smoke crack. Consequently, future studies examining motivations for simultaneous cocaine and alcohol use should distinguish between different routes of cocaine administration.
Addictive behaviors.Addict Behav.2014 Mar;39(3):699-702. doi: 10.1016/j.addbeh.2013.10.029. Epub 2013 Oct 31.
This study examined the motivations for using cocaine and alcohol comparing those who primarily smoked crack and those who primarily used cocaine powder when using simultaneously with alcohol. Motivations examined included: 1) to cope with a negative affect, 2) enhancement, 3) to be social and 4) to
PMID 24290877

Data generation for the Cox proportional hazards model with time-dependent covariates: a method for medical researchers.

Hendry DJ.Author information Center for the Study of American Politics, Institution for Social and Policy Studies, Yale University, New Haven, CT 06520-8209, U.S.A.AbstractThe proliferation of longitudinal studies has increased the importance of statistical methods for time-to-event data that can incorporate time-dependent covariates. The Cox proportional hazards model is one such method that is widely used. As more extensions of the Cox model with time-dependent covariates are developed, simulations studies will grow in importance as well. An essential starting point for simulation studies of time-to-event models is the ability to produce simulated survival times from a known data generating process. This paper develops a method for the generation of survival times that follow a Cox proportional hazards model with time-dependent covariates. The method presented relies on a simple transformation of random variables generated according to a truncated piecewise exponential distribution and allows practitioners great flexibility and control over both the number of time-dependent covariates and the number of time periods in the duration of follow-up measurement. Within this framework, an additional argument is suggested that allows researchers to generate time-to-event data in which covariates change at integer-valued steps of the time scale. The purpose of this approach is to produce data for simulation experiments that mimic the types of data structures applied that researchers encounter when using longitudinal biomedical data. Validity is assessed in a set of simulation experiments, and results indicate that the proposed procedure performs well in producing data that conform to the assumptions of the Cox proportional hazards model. Copyright © 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Statistics in medicine.Stat Med.2014 Feb 10;33(3):436-54. doi: 10.1002/sim.5945. Epub 2013 Sep 9.
The proliferation of longitudinal studies has increased the importance of statistical methods for time-to-event data that can incorporate time-dependent covariates. The Cox proportional hazards model is one such method that is widely used. As more extensions of the Cox model with time-dependent cova
PMID 24014094

Protective behavioral strategy use and motivations for drinking: exploring Alternatives to Drinking strategies.

Linden AN, Kite BA, Braitman AL, Henson JM.Author information Department of Psychology, Old Dominion University, 250 Mills Godwin Building, Norfolk, VA 23529-0267, USA. Electronic address: alind016@odu.edu.AbstractProtective behavioral strategy (PBS) use is associated with less alcohol consumption and fewer alcohol-related problems. Further, greater endorsement of social or enhancement drinking motives (i.e., positive motives) is associated with less frequent PBS use. Limited research has, however, explored coping or conformity motives (i.e., negative motives) in relation to PBS. Consequently, the present study aimed to (1) identify the types of PBS most strongly associated with negative and positive motives and (2) examine different types of PBS as mediators of the relationship between each drinking motive and alcohol outcomes. Participants were college students (n=303; 70% women) who completed measures of drinking motives, PBS, alcohol use, and alcohol-related problems. Results indicated that greater endorsement of positive drinking motives were more strongly associated with less frequent use of PBS while drinking whereas negative motives were more strongly related to less frequent Alternatives to Drinking strategy use. Further, strategies used while drinking were more relevant in a model of positive drinking motives and Alternatives to Drinking strategies were more relevant in a model of negative motives. These findings may suggest that whereas individuals with stronger positive motives have difficulty using strategies while drinking, individuals who drink to cope or conform have greater difficulty utilizing Alternatives to Drinking strategies. Based on our results demonstrating that different types of PBS are more relevant for various types of drinkers, it may be important for future interventions to discuss not only the participant's PBS use but also their motivations for consuming alcohol.
Addictive behaviors.Addict Behav.2014 Feb;39(2):469-72. doi: 10.1016/j.addbeh.2013.10.008. Epub 2013 Oct 9.
Protective behavioral strategy (PBS) use is associated with less alcohol consumption and fewer alcohol-related problems. Further, greater endorsement of social or enhancement drinking motives (i.e., positive motives) is associated with less frequent PBS use. Limited research has, however, explored c
PMID 24229844

Variation between Self- and Mutual Assessment in Animal Contests.

Mesterton-Gibbons M, Heap SM.Author information Department of Mathematics, Florida State University, Tallahassee, Florida 32306.AbstractAbstract Limited resources lead animals into conflicts of interest, which are resolved when an individual withdraws from a direct contest. Current theory suggests that the decision to withdraw can be based on a threshold derived from an individual's own state (self-assessment) or on a comparison between their own state and their opponent's (mutual assessment). The observed variation between these assessment strategies in nature does not conform to theory. Thus, we require theoretical developments that explain the functional significance of different assessment strategies. We consider a hawk-dove game with two discrete classes that differ in fighting ability, in which the players strategically decide on their investment toward mutual assessment. Analysis of the model indicates that there are simultaneous trade-offs relating to assessment strategies. First, weak individuals in a population must decide on whether to acquire information about their opponents at the cost of providing opponents with information about themselves. Secondly, all individuals must decide between investing in mutual assessment and being persistent in contests. Our analysis suggests that the potential for individuals to make errors during contests and differences in the consequences of sharing information within a population may serve as fundamental concepts for explaining variation in assessment strategy.
The American naturalist.Am Nat.2014 Feb;183(2):199-213. doi: 10.1086/674443. Epub 2013 Dec 24.
Abstract Limited resources lead animals into conflicts of interest, which are resolved when an individual withdraws from a direct contest. Current theory suggests that the decision to withdraw can be based on a threshold derived from an individual's own state (self-assessment) or on a comparison bet
PMID 24464195

Japanese Journal

知的障害概念の成立過程に関する研究　－ヘバー定義の成立およびその意義と特徴－

シミズサダオ,タマムラクニヒコ,清水貞夫,玉村公二彦,SHIMIZU Sadao,TAMAMURA Kunihiko
奈良教育大学紀要（人文・社会科学） 63(1), 67-76, 2014-11-30
… They are (a) attenuated general intellectual functioning, (b) subnormal level in adaption behavior which refers to a person's ability to live independently, to hold a job, and to conform to the social standards of the community, (c) developmental period. …
NAID 120005515407

北京パラリンピック50m平泳ぎ金メダリストに対する競技力向上のための取り組み : ロンドンパラリンピックに向けて

藤谷光順,桜井伸二
障害者スポーツ科学 12(1), 33-42, 2014-06-30
… Suggestions for the athletic performance improvement derived from the motion analysis were as follows: (1) increase stroke length and decrease stroke rate, (2) conform stroke motion in non-breath stroke to the motion in on-breath stroke, and (3) decrease drag force in recovery phase, and shorten stroke length of right arm in late in-sweep phase. …
NAID 110009862960

茨城県小貝川沖積低地の水分系列上の水田土壌断面の特徴と分類(ペドン・ペーパー)

小原洋,前島勇治,高田裕介,大倉利明,レオン愛,池羽正晴
ペドロジスト 58(1), 17-29, 2014-06-30
茨城県つくばみらい市の水田土壌3断面について,断面形態,理化学的性質,土壌分類を検討した。3土壌断面は関東平野中部における沖積低地の代表的な地形系列上に位置し,自然堤防近くのA断面では集積層の発達しつつある褐色低地土が認められ,中間部のB断面では水田化作用が進みつつある灰色低地土,台地縁近くのC断面は地下水の影響を受けたグライ化灰色低地土が認められた。A,B両断面とも灌漑水湿性の特徴である鉄集積層 …
NAID 110009841757

Specimen- and grain-size dependence of compression deformation behavior in nanocrystalline copper

Okamoto Norihiko L.,Kashioka Daisuke,Hirato Tetsuji,Inui Haruyuki
International Journal of Plasticity 56, 173-183, 2014-05
… The critical (D/d)∗ values determined for nanocrystalline Cu pillars with d = 360 and 100 nm increases with the decrease in grain size so as to conform to the same power law scaling obtained for coarse-grained Cu polycrystals. …
NAID 120005434967

Related Pictures

★リンクテーブル★

リンク元	「fit」「agree」「一致」「match」「agreement」
拡張検索	「staggered conformation」「conformal radiotherapy」「conformational space」「PCR-single strand conformation polymorphism」

「fit」

　　[★]

adj.

適当な、ふさわしい。至当な、穏当な。(任に)耐えうる、適任の
(生物)(環境に対して)適応した、(生存)適者の
体調がよい、健康で
(いつでも～する)用意ができて、今にも～しそうな

vt.

～に適合する、合う、フィットする。～と調和/一致する、～に相応する

vi.

合う、びったりする、フィットする。(～に)収まる(into)。調和/適合する(in, with)。

n.

適合。(衣服などの)合いぐあい。体に合う衣服。(機械)(部品の)嵌め合い。(統計)適合度

関: accord, accordance, adequate, adequately, adjust, agree, agreement, apply, apt, coincide, coincidence, concert, concerted, concordance, concur, concurrent, conform, conformity, congruence, congruent, consensus, consistent, consonant, correspond, correspondence, corresponding, instrument, match, matching, proper, suit, true, unanimous, unity, wear

n.(病気の)発作。引きつけ、痙攣。(感情の)激発、一時的興奮、気まぐれ

「agree」

　　[★]

vi.

応諾する(to)、同意/賛同する(to, with, in)。合意に達する、折り合いがつく(about, on)
一致/符号する(with)。適合する、似合う(with)。一緒に仲良く行動/生活する
(気候・食べ物などが)(人に)適する(with)
(文法)(人称・数・格・性など)呼応/一致する(with)

vt.

(本当であると)認める。(提案など)是認/承認する。協議して決める、(紛争など)和解に持ち込む、(勘定など)一致させる

関: accord、accordance、agreement、approval、approve、coincide、coincidence、concert、concerted、concordance、concur、concurrent、conform、congruence、congruent、consensus、consent、consistent、consonant、correspond、correspondence、corresponding、fit、match、unanimous、unity

「一致」

　　[★]

英: agreement、consensus、coincidence、concert、concordance、correspondence、accordance、unity、congruence、correspond、coincide、accord、agree、conform、fit、concur、match、consistent、concurrent、corresponding、concerted、congruent、consonant、unanimous
関: 合う、あてはまる、一貫性、協奏的、協定、コンセンサス、賛成、従う、相当、対応、単一、調和、適当、同意、同時、同時的、同時発生、同時発生的、同調、匹敵、フィット、併発、併用、約束、似ている、一貫した、適合、整合、装着、合意、合同、統一性、単一体、マッチ、子音

-congruence

「match」

　　[★]

v.

調和する、一致させる、匹敵する、整合する、対応する、マッチする

関: accord、accordance、agree、agreement、coincide、coincidence、comparable、compare、concert、concerted、concordance、concur、concurrent、conform、congruence、congruent、consensus、consistent、consonant、correspond、correspondence、corresponding、equal、equivalent、fit、harmonic、harmonization、harmonize、management、matching、parallel、reconcile、unanimous、unity

「agreement」

　　[★]

n.

一致、賛成、同意、合意、約束、協定

関: accord、accordance、agree、appointment、approval、approve、arrangement、coincide、coincidence、concert、concerted、concordance、concur、concurrent、conform、congruence、congruent、consensus、consent、consistent、consonant、convention、correspond、correspondence、corresponding、engage、engagement、fit、match、promise、unanimous、unity

「staggered conformation」

　　[★]

ねじれ形配座、ねじれ形、ねじれ型

関: staggered

「conformal radiotherapy」

　　[★]

原体照射、原体照射法

関: conformal radiation therapy

「conformational space」

　　[★]

立体配座空間、配座空間

「PCR-single strand conformation polymorphism」

　　[★]

同: PCR-SSCP
同: PCR-SSCP

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案内

conform