WordNet

(mechanics) the equal and opposite force that is produced when any force is applied to a body; "every action has an equal and opposite reaction"
a response that reveals a persons feelings or attitude; "he was pleased by the audiences reaction to his performance"; "John feared his mothers reaction when she saw the broken lamp"
a bodily process occurring due to the effect of some antecedent stimulus or agent; "a bad reaction to the medicine"; "his responses have slowed with age" (同)response
doing something in opposition to another way of doing it that you dont like; "his style of painting was a reaction against cubism"
an idea evoked by some experience; "his reaction to the news was to start planning what to do"
extreme conservatism in political or social matters; "the forces of reaction carried the election"
English poet best remembered for love sonnets written to her husband Robert Browning (1806-1861) (同)Elizabeth Barrett Browning
United States inventor of firearms (especially automatic pistols and repeating rifles and a machine gun called the Peacemaker) (1855-1926) (同)John M. Browning, John Moses Browning
English poet and husband of Elizabeth Barrett Browning noted for his dramatic monologues (1812-1889) (同)Robert Browning

PrepTutorEJDIC

{名}(…に対する)『反応』《+『to』+『名』》 / 〈U〉(…に対する)(政治的・社会的な)『反動』,逆コース《+『against』+『名』》 / 〈U〉〈C〉化学反応,化学変化 / 〈U〉〈C〉(物理学で)反作用
ブラウニング(Robert Brown・ing;1812‐89;英国の詩人)
ブローニング(一種の自動または半自動銃;アメリカ人J.M.Browningが発明)

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出典(authority):フリー百科事典『ウィキペディア（Wikipedia）』「2015/12/31 21:45:08」(JST)

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Caramelization in sucrose: the brown color in the photograph is entirely a result of caramelization, as sucrose is normally colorless

Browning is the process of becoming brown, especially referring to food. Browning foods may be desirable, as in caramelization, or undesirable, as in an apple turning brown after being cut. Foods, including beverages, can turn brown through either enzymatic or non-enzymatic processes.

Browning has an important economic cost, causing deterioration of the value of products in the market of food.

Enzymatic browning

An example of enzymatic browning in the skin of a banana

Enzymatic browning is a chemical process, involving polyphenol oxidase, catechol oxidase, and other enzymes that create melanins and benzoquinone from natural phenols, resulting in a brown colour. In general, enzymatic browning requires exposure to oxygen, for example the browning that occurs when an apple is cut.

Enzymatic browning can be beneficial for:

Developing flavour in tea
Developing colour and flavour in dried fruit such as figs and raisins.

Enzymatic browning is often detrimental to:

Fresh fruit and vegetables, including apples, potatoes, bananas and avocados
Seafood such as shrimp

A variety of techniques for preventing enzymatic browning exist, each exploiting a different aspect of the biochemical process.

Lemon juice and other acids lower the pH and remove the copper cofactor necessary for the responsible enzymes to function
Blanching or roasting, to denature enzymes and destroy responsible reactants, as used in the "kill green" phase of tea processing
Low temperatures can also prevent enzymatic browning by reducing rate of reaction.
Inert gas, like nitrogen, prevent necessary oxygen from reacting
Chemicals such as sodium bisulfite and citrates

Arctic Apples are a suite of trademarked apples that contain a nonbrowning trait. Specifically, gene silencing is used to turn down the expression of polyphenol oxidase (PPO), thus preventing the fruit from browning.

Non-enzymatic browning

The crust of brioche bread, which is golden-brown due to the Maillard reaction

Contrary to enzymatic or oxidative browning, non-enzymatic browning is a chemical process that produces a brown color in foods without the activity of enzymes. The two main forms of non-enzymatic browning are caramelization and the Maillard reaction. Both vary in reaction rate as a function of water activity.

Caramelization is the pyrolysis of sugar. It is used extensively in cooking for the resulting nutty flavor and brown color. As the process occurs, volatile chemicals are released, producing the characteristic caramel flavor.

The Maillard reaction is a chemical reaction between an amino acid and a reducing sugar, usually requiring the addition of heat. The sugar interacts with the amino acid, producing a variety of odors and flavors. The Maillard reaction is the basis of the flavoring industry, since the type of amino acid involved determines the resulting flavor; it also produces toast.

Aged white wine with brown color.

The wine color is altered with wine aging by reactions between different active molecules present in the wine, these reactions, in general, giving rise to a browning of the wine, leading from red to a more tawny color.

Melanoidins are brown, high molecular weight heterogeneous polymers that are formed when sugars and amino acids combine (through the Maillard reaction) at high temperatures and low water activity. Melanoidins are commonly present in foods that have undergone some form of non-enzymatic browning, such as barley malts (Vienna and Munich), bread crust, bakery products and coffee. They are also present in the wastewater of sugar refineries, necessitating treatment in order to avoid contamination around the outflow of these refineries.

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English Journal

Antioxidant activity of Maillard reaction products (MRPs) derived from fructose-lysine and ribose-lysine model systems.

Vhangani LN, Van Wyk J.SourceDepartment of Food Technology, Cape Peninsula University of Technology, Bellville 7535, South Africa. Electronic address: vhanganil@cput.ac.za.
Food chemistry.Food Chem.2013 Apr 15;137(1-4):92-8. doi: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2012.09.030. Epub 2012 Sep 16.
Maillard reaction products (MRPs) were prepared from aqueous ribose-lysine (RL) and fructose-lysine (FL) model systems at pH 9, heated at 60, 80 and 120°C for 15, 60 and 120min. Browning intensity (BI) and pH reduction were monitored throughout the reaction. 1,1-Diphenyl-2-picryl-hydrazyl (DPPH-RS)
PMID 23199995

Purification and characterization of membrane-bound polyphenoloxidase (mPPO) from Snake fruit [Salacca zalacca (Gaertn.) Voss].

Zaini NA, Osman A, Hamid AA, Ebrahimpour A, Saari N.SourceFaculty of Food Science and Technology, Universiti Putra Malaysia, 43400 Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia.
Food chemistry.Food Chem.2013 Jan 15;136(2):407-14. doi: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2012.08.034. Epub 2012 Aug 29.
Membrane-bound polyphenoloxidase (mPPO) an oxidative enzyme which is responsible for the undesirable browning reaction in Snake fruit (Salacca zalacca (Gaertn.) Voss) was investigated. The enzyme was extracted using a non-ionic detergent (Triton X-114), followed by temperature-induced phase partitio
PMID 23122078

Japanese Journal

ホタテガイ白干し加工における褐変反応

山﨑雅夫
日本食品保蔵科学会誌 = Food preservation science 39(3), 137-142, 2013-05
NAID 40019755734

カットリンゴの熱風乾燥における溶液散布処理が表面硬化および褐変に及ぼす影響

森房素乃子,折笠貴寛,村松良樹 [他],田川彰男
日本食品科学工学会誌 : Nippon shokuhin kagaku kogaku kaishi = Journal of the Japanese Society for Food Science and Technology 59(11), 583-590, 2012-11-15
… The hardening and browning effects of spraying with various solutions during hot air drying were evaluated between sprayed and non-sprayed sample surfaces. … The results showed that spraying the sample surfaces during drying inhibited hardening and color change, and the total color difference (ΔE) during the drying process could be analyzed using an equation to describe the reaction kinetics. …
NAID 10031130368

Determination of Furosine and Fluorescence as Markers of the Maillard Reaction for the Evaluation of Meat Products during Actual Cooking Conditions

YAMAGUCHI Keiko,NOMI Yuri,HOMMA Takeshi,KASAI Midori,OTSUKA Yuzuru
Food science and technology research 18(1), 67-76, 2012-01-01
… During food processing and cooking, various flavor compounds, colored substances and toxic substances are produced by the Maillard reaction. … It is important to investigate the relationship between the Maillard reaction products and the actual cooking conditions. … Therefore, we investigated the effects of seasonings and reaction conditions on the Maillard reaction of meat using furosine and fluorescent compounds. …
NAID 10030897905