bisexuality

• 両性素質、バイセクシャル

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bisexual

　

WordNet

1. sexual activity with both men and women
2. sexually attracted to both sexes
3. a person who is sexually attracted to both sexes (同)bisexual person
4. having an ambiguous sexual identity (同)epicene

PrepTutorEJDIC

1. 雌雄両性の;雌雄同体の / 両性愛の / 両性具有者(男女いずれにも性的反応を示す人)

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出典(authority):フリー百科事典『ウィキペディア（Wikipedia）』「2013/01/17 18:57:21」(JST)

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性的指向
指向
異性愛 · 同性愛 · 両性愛 · 多性愛 · 全性愛 · 非性愛 · 対物性愛 · 無性愛
性の他の概念
女性の性的能力 男性の性的能力 · 半陰陽 · 第3の性 · トゥー・スピリット
研究
生物学と性的指向 · 性的指向の人口統計 · 環境と性的指向 · キンゼイスケール · クライン・グリッド · 神経科学と性的指向 · 非異性愛 · 同性愛と心理学 · クィア学会 · 性科学 · 性的指向に関する医学の年表 人間を除いた動物: 動物の同性愛 (一覧)

両性愛（りょうせいあい、バイセクシュアル、英語 bisexuality）は、男性にも女性にも見られる、いずれの性の人に対しても、美的な憧れや情緒的・精神的な魅惑、あるいは性的・肉体的な欲望を抱くような性的指向をいう語。略してバイとも呼称される。この場合、男性・女性という「性」は、身体的な性（セックス）に加えて、ジェンダーのことも同時に指している。両性愛という語は同性愛および異性愛と並ぶ性的指向の類型であるが、他方、両性愛とは同性愛と異性愛との混合状態であるとする見解もある。

男か女かという男女二元論の立場よりも、あらゆる人々に魅力を感じたり恋をしたり、性的願望を抱いたりすることを強く意識する場合、全性愛（パンセクシュアル）という用語が使われる場合もある（詳細は後述）。

両性愛は歴史上、人間社会および動物社会においてもさまざまな形態で観察されてきたものであるが、20世紀後半に入って初めてまじめな研究の対象となった。それでもなお、両性愛が広範囲に存在していた事実や、両性愛の定義については異議が唱えられている。

概説

両性愛とは何か

両性愛という語は、同性愛および異性愛を両極端とする、その他のすべての性的指向を指している。両性愛の人々は必ずしも双方のジェンダーに同じように魅力を感じるわけではない。むしろ、いずれかのジェンダーをより好む傾向が見られることが多い。また、両方のジェンダーを好むが、セックスとしては一方を好んだり、両方のセックスへの指向をもちつつも一方のジェンダーのみに魅力を感じる、という形態も存在する。両性愛という語は同時に、同性愛および異性愛といった単性愛指向を内包するものであると定義されることもあるが、両性愛自体を独立した性指向とみなすべきだという議論も少なくない[1]。

両性愛者のアイデンティティ

自らのことを同性愛者や異性愛者とみなす人でも、他者からその性的指向に基づき両性愛者であるとみなされることもある。たとえば、自身を同性愛者とみなす両性愛者の女性を考える。「同性愛とは、自らと同じ性を愛することである」という定義に従えばこの女性は同性愛者といえる。このような女性がたまたま最初に女性に恋愛感情を抱いた場合には、両性愛者であるとは認識しにくいであろう。同様に両性愛者の男性であっても、自らが男性に対し恋愛感情を抱くことがありつつも、アナルセックスはしないという立場から自らを異性愛者であるとみなしていることがある。このように両性愛という概念はあいまいなものなのである。一部の人は、単性愛は「両性愛を除く」と否定的に定義されたものであるとの立場を示すし、また一部の人は実際に個人がどのような状況にあるかだけが両性愛に該当するか否かを決定するという立場を示す一方で、またある人は両性愛の存在自体を否定する（両性愛は本来同性愛で、社会的適応のために異性愛的指向を持つようになったのが異性愛であるとする立場）ために大変厄介な議論となる。

一部の両性愛者は、自身を同性愛者とは異なるものだとみなしつつ、両性愛は広義でのLGBT（Lesbian、Gay、Bisexual、Transgender personの略）に属すると考える。またある人々は、レズビアンやゲイという概念を尊重しつつ、自らはいずれにも属さないと考え、またいかなるレッテルも自身の状況を的確に表現していないと考える。

しかし以上の議論は現代に入り、キリスト教の教義に基いて同性愛がタブーとされたことにより、異性愛のみが一般社会で認められる様になった為であると考えられる。後述の両性愛の歴史に見られるとおり、近代以前においては両性愛が異性愛以上に一般的な性的指向であったとさえ言える。自らを同性、異性の一方のみの愛ではなく両性を同様に愛する、両性愛者と自認する人も多い。

用語

両性愛という語は、元々19世紀に両性具有の者をいう時に用いられ出した語である。遅くとも1914年までには、両性愛は一つの性的指向を指す語として用いられるようになっていた。一部の両性愛者および性に関する調査に携わる者の中には、「両性愛」という語の定義に不満を抱き、多様な代替語を用いるようになったり、両性愛のあり方やある一面を適切に説明できるように追加的な用語をたくさん用いた。しかしながらそうして作り出された語は、まだ社会に広く認識されているとは言えない。

例えば、英語においては以下のような代替語、拡張語が提唱されている。

パンセクシュアル・オムニセクシュアル（pansexual, omnisexual）

日本語にはまだ対応する語は存在しないが、以下この記事においては仮に全性愛と訳すこととする。バイセクシュアル(bisexual)という語に含まれる「バイ」という接頭語を避けて、両方の性に惹かれるというよりもあらゆる性に魅力を感じるとする立場から作られた。これらの語は主に、トランスジェンダーの人々や性転換をした人々をも含むあらゆるジェンダーの存在を尊重する立場の人が好んで用いる。全性愛という語は、時にはBDSMのような特殊な性行動を含意することがある。また、全性愛に分類されるのが適当である人であっても、両性愛という語の方がより一般的に浸透している語であり、かつ両性愛という語がアイデンティティ政治において重要な意味を持つ語であるという理由から、自らを両性愛と称することがまだ多い。

バイ・パーミッシブ（bi-permissive）

日本語にはまだ対応する訳語は存在しない。この語は、積極的に自らのジェンダーに性的な意味を見いだそうとすることはないながら、時に特定のジェンダーの人と性行為を行うこともあるという人々を指している。このような人々は自らを異性愛であるとか同性愛であると認識し、また圧倒的に多く同じジェンダーの人と性行動をとることもあるだろう。

アンビセクシュアル（ambisexual）

日本語にはまだ対応する訳語は存在しない。この語は本来、いずれの性に対しても全く同様に魅力を感じる状況を指してきた。自らをアンビセクシュアルであると認識する人は、身体面でも、感情面でも、知性の面でも、また精神的な面においても、パートナーの性やジェンダーに左右されることなく同じように相手に惹かれる。またある人は、パートナーのある性的な、もしくはジェンダー的な特徴（e.g.異性であるということ）によって引き起こされるようなものとまったくかわらない、激しい恋愛感情をもつこともある。

トリセクシュアル（trisexual）

この語はバイセクシュアルという語の拡張であり、また単なる語呂合わせでもある。もっと重要な用法で用いられた時には、この語は遺伝学的・ジェンダー的な男性や女性に加え、トランスジェンダーの人にも同様に性的魅力を感じる状況を指す。

バイフォビア（biphobia）

バイフォビアは、両性愛者であることについて非難されるのではないかという両性愛者の恐れを示す。ほとんどの場合、これは異性愛もしくは同性愛だけがふつうな性指向で、適切なライフスタイルであるという信条に基づく。両性愛という性的指向は同時に、異性愛だけが適切だと考える異性愛者にとってはホモフォビアの対象でもある。これとは逆に、両性愛の人がヘテロフォビアの対象となりうること、また同性愛の人々からの差別の対象であるという時にもあてはまる。

近代西洋における両性愛の普及

近代に入ってまとめられたいくつか調査によれば、西洋に住む人々のうち約2%から6%が両性愛者である。しかしながらこの調査には回答者の無作為抽出や回答者の規模などに関して方法的な難点が存在するし、回答を自己分析に頼ることによって正確性も疑問視されている。従って、この調査が報告する両性愛者の人口は論争の対象である。さらに、個々の調査で両性愛の基準が統一されていないことも問題である。ある調査は両性愛という現象の存在自体を無視しているし、同性愛と異性愛の括りに入れてしまう調査も存在する。報告されている結果を検討しても、語の定義が統一されていないことから、同性愛と異性愛とどちらがより多く見られるのかを決定することはできない。ちなみに、西洋以外の地域からの逸話的報告では、両性愛を示す割合が同性愛よりはるかに高いことが示唆されている。

おそらく人間の性についての統計を初めて記述した精神科医ジークムント・フロイトは、あらゆる人間は誰でも、人生のうちのある時期において両性愛者になりうる可能性を持っていると考えた。彼は、人間の社会的成長の過程において、同一のジェンダー（それが自然に得たものか努力で得たものかにはよらない）における性的経験が、その人のもつであろう必要と欲望、特に性的欲望を愛着のもてるものとするか否かを決定する、という考えに基づいているのである。

両性愛に関する諸研究

Main article：キンゼイ報告

アルフレッド・キンゼイのSexual Behavior in the Human Male（1948）、Sexual Behavior in the Human Female（1953）（人間男性の性行動・人間女性の性行動）に代表される数件の論文は、ほとんどの人はある程度両性愛的傾向を持つと述べている。つまり、異性愛を自覚する人は、ただ単に異性を同性より好むというだけであって、本来は同性に対する性的魅力も持っていると述べるのである。その他の調査によれば、完全な異性愛または同性愛と断定出来る人は全人口に対して5%ないし10%にすぎないという。一方で、ごく少数の人々は一方の性をより好むという自分の傾向をはっきりとは自覚していない。

この誤解はよくあることなのだが、両性愛はある人がいずれの性に対しても同じように性的魅力を感じるということのみを意味するのではない。実際、一方の性を明確に好みながらも他方の性への魅力を排除しようとはしないという人は、両性愛者となりうるし実際自身が両性愛者であると認識していることも多い。2005年にメディアの注目を集めた、心理学者ジョン・マイケル・ベイリーによる今後議論を呼びそうな研究を含むいくつかのごく最近の研究は、両性愛は男性にきわめて少ないものであるとする見解を提示している。しかしながらこのような研究は、異性と同性の双方に、全く同様な性的興奮を実際に示したときのみその人が両性愛であると見なす方法に典型的に則っていることから、この基準に則っていえば一方の性への指向が緩いと認められた人の、両性愛者であるという自己認識を結果的に却下してしまうこととなった。ちなみにベイリーは、彼が研究した全男性のうち約3分の1（異性愛、両性愛、同性愛のいずれのグループでもほぼ同じ割合）が、彼の提示したいかなる性の性的な画像に対しても興奮を示さないという結果を見いだしていたが、これは結論に関係ないものであるとして彼は無視している。

両性愛の社会的地位

両性愛と同性愛

歴史的に見て、両性愛は同性愛から俗に連想されるような社会的汚名とは一般に縁がなかったどころか、両性愛が普通のことだと見なされている社会においてはむしろ広く流行していることであった。古代ギリシャでは、男性が最終的には結婚して子どもを作る限りにおいて、少年愛ということ自体は全く問題視されなかった。世界中の、いわゆる良い社会的地位にある上流階級の男性たち、つまりきちんと結婚している男性たちの間では、同性愛の問題は比較的平穏に受け入れられている。その一方で、両性愛者のうちにも、異なるジェンダーの者と生活していくことによりお互いにないものを補完しあえるということを価値あることと見なし、異性のパートナーと結婚したり同棲したりする者もある。このような者の中には、一夫一婦制および開かれた関係から結婚することと同じくらい、同性愛的関係によって自らの存在が豊かなものとなったと感じている者もいる。

同性愛社会の一部の人は、自らを両性愛者と考える人々のことを「裏表がある」として非難するが、そのような同性愛者は、自分たちは異性愛的関係を単に社会的に受容されやすくするためだけに用いる本当の同性愛者であると考えている。両性愛者はたしかに「真の」同性愛が社会で認知を勝ち取るために「自らの義務を果たしていない」として批判されるかも知れない。また一部の同性愛者は、自発的に自分を両性愛だとみなす考えは、異性愛者としてのアイデンティティが揺らいだ人が至る考えで、単なる同性愛の初期段階に過ぎないと疑い、このような人々は結局自らが同性愛者であることを認めると考えている（同性愛者が陥りやすいこの種の誤解は、"Bi now, gay later."という揶揄的な言い回しに端的に表されている）。こういった状況は起こりうるし実際起こっているが、両性愛を自己認識する人の大部分に真実として適用されるわけではないようだ。それでも確かに、両性愛者は時々同性愛の人々からあまり受け入れられないことがある。また、両性愛的に「実践」を試してみるということも、どのような性的指向をもった思春期の少年少女にとってもごく一般的なことである[2][3]。

同性愛と異性愛

両性愛という語は、同性愛であることをカミングアウトしないままに異性愛的な結婚をして、なお同性愛的性行動をとる男性のこととしばしば結びつけて考えられるが、このような男性たち（"men living on the down-low"）の大部分は自分のことを両性愛者だとは認識していない[4][5]。

両性愛の象徴

Bisexual pride flag

両性愛者のうちいくらかは異性愛社会にも同性愛社会にもあてはまらないと感じ、また公にはしばしば「見えない」存在となってしまうために（同性愛社会と異性愛社会との両方に所属してどっちつかずな存在に見えてしまうために）、コミュニティ、文化および政治的動議を1から形成せざるを得ない状況におかれている。

両性愛者としてのアイデンティティの一般的象徴は、最上段に濃い桃色で同性愛を、最下段に青色で異性愛を、中段に桃色と青色の合成色である紫色を配した旗"bisexual pride flag"である[6][7]。

この旗と同じ配色を用いているその他の象徴的記号には、図のような一組のオーバーラップした桃色と青色の三角形でつくられる図形がある（桃色の三角形は、同性愛者のコミュニティの象徴としてよく知られている）。重複している部分の紫色はもちろん両性愛を象徴する。

The overlapping triangles

三角形に代わる象徴としては、男女の性的分化の象徴としても用いられる火星と金星の天文学的記号が、両側の切れた2つの円に変更されてうまれた"bisexual double moon symbol"がある。このような図形に変更されたことで、この記号は両性愛者がどちらの性社会にも開かれたものであることを象徴しているのである[8]。

"bisexual double moons"の配色は様々なものがある。しばしば、両性愛者が同性愛者のコミュニティに属することを強調して虹色で表されることもあるし[9]、上で述べた他の象徴記号のように、桃色・紫・青の3色で構成されることもある。

両性愛の歴史

教養的な社会における歴史的および文学的な記録は、古代より男性の両性愛が日常的なことであって、実際に望ましいことであったのだと示している。このような性的関係は一般に年齢的構造をとったり（古代ローマ帝国時代までの少年愛や、中世から近代の日本における衆道のようなもの）、もしくはジェンダー的構造を取ったり（同じ身体に2つの異なるジェンダーが存在すると考えた北アメリカに伝統的なものや、中央アジア地方のイスラム社会における少年愛のようなもの）していた。男性の異性愛や同性愛は記録に残ってはいるが、そのほとんどがむしろ例外的なものとして現れている（アブラハムの宗教のように、異性愛者を特権化し、同性愛や両性愛を強く弾圧する宗教に影響を受けている社会のように非常に特殊な例がまれに存在するが）。先の文化における男性「同性愛」の例としてしばしば引用されるものの多くは、実のところはどちらかというと両性愛に分類した方が適切であるのだ。

女性による両性愛の歴史を確定することはもっと厄介な問題である。というのも、研究されている社会の大部分で女性は男性より社会的に低い身分に置かれ、かつ移動や表現の自由が制限されて自分自身を考えることも少なく、他方では女性が歴史を文字に記し伝える立場になかったからである。

古代ギリシャでは、一般に男性は、思春期のうちに同性愛的指向を示す段階を経験し、続いて青年期において少年愛に特徴を見いだせる両性愛的指向を示す段階を経験し、そこから人生の遅い時期に結婚し子どもを作る時になって初めて異性愛的指向を示す段階に至るのだと考えられていた。古代ローマ帝国や、中国、日本、また現在もその慣習の残るアラブ諸国においても男性は類似の両性愛的振る舞いを見せていた。特に日本においては、衆道にみられる実践とそれに関連する美術作品や文学作品が莫大な数遺されてきていたために、本来なされてきた両性愛的ライフスタイルはとても詳細に記述されているし、なんと19世紀に至るまで実際にその習慣が続いてきているのである。

おそらく最も有名な例は複数の妻と愛妾を持っていたアレクサンドロス大王であろう。多くの歴史作家は彼には少なくとも2人の男性の恋人がいたのだと断言している。そのうちのひとりヘファイスティオンは彼の古い友人である。両性愛的振る舞いはローマ皇帝や中国皇帝、日本の将軍・戦国大名たちの間ではしばしば見られることであった。

プラトンの著作『饗宴』はアルキビアデス（ソクラテスの元恋人）のくだりから同性愛の書物とされることも多いが、同時に両性愛に関する有名な寓話も含む。男女（アンドロギュノス）の話がそれで人間は両性に分かれる前は一体であったが、神によって今の男と女に切り離されたため以前の状態に戻ることを渇望して互いに求め合う、というものである。ギリシアの彫刻ではこの寓話に基づいて男女の美点を繋ぎ合わせた「ヘルムアプロディテ」という像が作られた。プラトンのイデア説から禁欲主義が発達したように、後の宗教界でも異性愛をも含めた禁欲の概念が無いではなかったが抑圧したものとして続いていた。

古代ギリシャ

古代ギリシアの都市国家スパルタの伝統法は、年頃の若者との同性愛関係は、男性が最終的には結婚して子供を作る限りにおいて、成人男性の判断に任せていた。スパルタ市民は、経験豊富な兵と未熟な兵との間の恋愛関係および肉体関係は、国家に対する忠誠心を強固なものとし、またパートナーを感動させようと兵士たちが互いに競いあうことで、英雄的戦術に積極的に取り組むようし向けるものであると考えたのである。

ひとたび年下の兵が成熟した年齢に達したならば、同性愛関係は肉体的なものでなくなるのが望ましいとされたが、この暗黙的ルールがどれくらい厳格に守られたのかということは明らかではない。成人した兵と性的関係を続けたことで汚名を着せられた若い男性に関する話も残っている。しかしながら古代ギリシャ世界のほとんどの地域においては、例えばアテネを例としてあげると、年老いた男性と、かなり若い少年とが少年の成人まで性的関係を続けると言うことは社会的に厳しく蔑まれていたのである。このような関係は、少年に対し男性が優位に立っているものと見なされ、奨励されていなかった。

ギリシャ世界におけるいくつかの宗教的書物は、両性愛の話題をまとめる試みを行っている。その論理は、ミステリー的なものから帰納的なものまで多岐にわたってはいるが。

中東および中央アジア

イスラム諸国においては、対象のジェンダーが何であっても、イスラームの教えに背かない限り愛は絶対的な善であるとみなす文化が発達した。男性が美しい少年に魅力を感じるということはイスラム世界において万国共通であり、ごく普通のこととしてかなり寛容に理解されていた。このような逸話がある。イブン・アル＝ジャウージという13世紀の学者は「あの、美しい少年を見ても何にも感じないとか言う男はうそつきだ。奴を信じることができるとしたら奴は人間じゃない。動物でしかあり得ない」と述べたことで有名なのである。

宗教的書物の一部は、少年に対する感情は女性に対するものよりしばしば強いものであったので、この感情にのめり込まないよう若い男性に警鐘をならすほどであった。スーフィズムは、議論の分かれる所であるのだが、男の子の美しさをじっと見つめることは神と交流する方法なのだと教えている。詩人やアーティストは中世から20世紀初頭に至るまで、受け入れられたか否かは別問題としても、繰り返し少年の愛を表現してきた。クルアーンに男性とのアナルセックスを厳しく禁じる規定（リワート）があることは一部の人により愚弄され、またこのような関係に耽った人により曲解されてきたが、性交以外の行為は思いとどまらせてきた。男性はしばしばこのリワートが原因でパートナーもろとも有罪宣告を受け、折を見て処刑された。

しかしながらクルアーンは、犯罪者を有罪とするために、犯罪現場が4人の男性または8人の女性により押さえられていることを必要としているのである。

動物の両性愛行動

人間以外の多くの動物も両性愛行動を示す。これはもちろん両生類の間では一般的であるが、他の種でも知られていることである。哺乳類ではボノボ、シャチ、バンドウイルカが挙げられる。生物学的な実例は魚類、甲殻類、扁形動物に豊富に見られる[10]。両性愛は、行動としても生物学的にも、500以上の動物種においてその存在が確認されている。

脚注

関連書籍

• フリッツ・クライン 『バイセクシュアルという生き方』 河野貴代美訳、現代書館、1997年。ISBN 4-7684-6716-4。

関連事項

• 性的指向
• 性的少数者
• 異性愛
• 同性愛
• 無性愛
• 全性愛
• 少年性愛
• 少年愛 (制度的少年愛)
• 人間の性
• レズビアン、 ゲイ
• 百合 (ジャンル)
• ボーイズラブ
• ゲイ向け風俗店

外部リンク

• Bisexual Resource Center (international)
• Bi Tribune Magazine (US)
• The Bisexual Foundation
• Bi Magazine (US)
• BiSquish daily news & events (international)
• BiNet USA
• Bi Flag.
• soc.bi newsgroup FAQ Bi newsgroup.
• BiTheWay.org Bi community online resource (international)
• Bi.org Serving the World Bisexual Community (international)
• BCN magazine. The long-running UK bi cultural/political magazine.
• Exploring Biphobia. (144 KB PDF). Report on the problems caused by stereotyping of bisexuals.
• Bi / Bi-curious Women's Forum
• Bi Married Men's Support Group
• Bi Men's Support Group
• Bisexual Playground Bisexual Online Community
• Bi Cafe International Bisexual forum
• Bisexual Online Community Bisxual Community it the Philippines
• The Androphile Project Extensive resource of gay and bisexual history.
• New York Area Bisexual Network (US)
• AfterEllen.com News, Reviews and Commentary on Lesbian and Bisexual Women in Entertainment and the Media.
• 森奈津子の白百合城　小説家の森奈津子のサイト。彼女は自分がバイセクシュアルであるとカミングアウトしており、セクシャリティをテーマにした作品を多く発表している。
• 特集「バイセクシュアル」　第8回国際バイセクシュアリティ会議（2004年8月@米国ミネソタ）で基調講演もした日本の活動家、ひびのまことのサイト。同性愛者のコミュニティー内部における「バイセクシュアル」への差別についても積極的に発言している。

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"Bisexual" redirects here. For other uses, see Bisexual (disambiguation).

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Bisexuality is romantic attraction, sexual attraction or behavior toward males and females. The term is mainly used in the context of human attraction to denote romantic or sexual feelings toward men and women. Pansexuality may or may not be subsumed under bisexuality, as the terms are often treated as synonyms and people may consider bisexuality, like pansexuality, to encompass romantic or sexual attraction to all gender identities or romantic or sexual attraction to a person irrespective of that person's biological sex or gender.

Bisexuality is one of the three main classifications of sexual orientation, along with a heterosexual and a homosexual orientation, all a part of the heterosexual–homosexual continuum. People who have a distinct but not exclusive sexual preference for one sex over the other may identify themselves as bisexual.

Bisexuality has been observed in various human societies and elsewhere in the animal kingdom throughout recorded history. The term bisexuality, however, like the terms hetero- and homosexuality, was coined in the 19th century.

Definitions

Sexual orientation, identity, behavior

Main articles: Sexual orientation, Sexual orientation identity, and Human sexual activity

See also: Situational sexual behavior

Threesome involving two men and a woman. Miniature from an Urdu text, Mughal India.

Bisexuality is the romantic or sexual attraction to males and females. The American Psychological Association states that "sexual orientation falls along a continuum. In other words, someone does not have to be exclusively homosexual or heterosexual, but can feel varying degrees of both. Sexual orientation develops across a person's lifetime–different people realize at different points in their lives that they are heterosexual, bisexual or homosexual." Sexual attraction, behavior and identity may also be incongruent, as sexual attraction or behavior may not necessarily be consistent with identity. Some individuals identify themselves as heterosexual, homosexual or bisexual without having had any sexual experience. Others have had homosexual experiences but do not consider themselves to be gay, lesbian, or bisexual. Likewise, self-identified gay or lesbian individuals may occasionally sexually interact with members of the opposite sex but do not identify as bisexual. The terms queer and polysexual, or heteroflexible and homoflexible, as well as the titles "men who have sex with men" and "women who have sex with women," may also be used.

Pansexuality may or may not be subsumed under bisexuality, with some sources stating that bisexuality encompasses romantic or sexual attraction to all gender identities or that it is romantic or sexual attraction to a person irrespective of that person's biological sex or gender. The concept of pansexuality deliberately rejects the gender binary, the "notion of two genders and indeed of specific sexual orientations", as pansexual people are open to relationships with people who do not identify as strictly men or women. The term pansexuality is used interchangeably with bisexuality, and, similarly, people who identify as bisexual may "feel that gender, biological sex, and sexual orientation should not be a focal point in potential [romantic/sexual] relationships".

According to Rosario, Schrimshaw, Hunter, Braun (2006):

...the development of a lesbian, gay, or bisexual (LGB) sexual identity is a complex and often difficult process. Unlike members of other minority groups (e.g., ethnic and racial minorities), most LGB individuals are not raised in a community of similar others from whom they learn about their identity and who reinforce and support that identity. Rather, LGB individuals are often raised in communities that are either ignorant of or openly hostile toward homosexuality.

In a longitudinal study about sexual identity development among lesbian, gay, and bisexual (LGB) youths, its authors "found evidence of both considerable consistency and change in LGB sexual identity over time". Youths who had identified as both gay/lesbian and bisexual prior to baseline were approximately three times more likely to identify as gay/lesbian than as bisexual at subsequent assessments. Of youths who had identified only as bisexual at earlier assessments, 60–70% continued to thus identify, while approximately 30–40% assumed a gay/lesbian identity over time. Authors suggested that "although there were youths who consistently self-identified as bisexual throughout the study, for other youths, a bisexual identity served as a transitional identity to a subsequent gay/lesbian identity."

Label accuracy

Like other LGBT sexualities, bisexuality has been discriminated against. Most of the discrimination has surrounded the application of the word "bisexual" and scrutiny of the bisexual identity as a whole. The belief that bisexuality does not exist is common, and stems from two views. In the heterosexist view, people are presumed to be attracted to the opposite sex and it is sometimes reasoned that only heterosexuality truly exists. In the monosexist view, it is believed that people cannot be bisexual unless they are equally sexually attracted to both sexes. In this view, people are either exclusively homosexual (gay/lesbian) or exclusively heterosexual (straight), closeted homosexual people who wish to appear heterosexual, or heterosexuals who are experimenting with their sexuality.

The belief that one cannot be bisexual unless equally sexually attracted to both sexes is disputed by various researchers, who have reported bisexuality to fall on a continuum, like sexuality in general. In 2005, the belief that bisexuality must involve equal sexual/romantic attraction was further perpetuated by researchers Gerulf Rieger, Meredith L. Chivers, and J. Michael Bailey, who concluded that bisexuality is extremely rare in men. This was based on results of controversial penile plethysmograph testing when viewing pornographic material involving only men and pornography involving only women. Critics state that this study works from the assumption that a person is only truly bisexual if he or she exhibits virtually equal arousal responses to both opposite-sex and same-sex stimuli, and have consequently dismissed the self-identification of people whose arousal patterns showed even a mild preference for one sex. Some researchers say that the technique used in the study to measure genital arousal is too crude to capture the richness (erotic sensations, affection, admiration) that constitutes sexual attraction. The National Gay and Lesbian Task Force called the study and The New York Times coverage of it flawed and biphobic. FAIR also criticized the study. In 2008, Bailey stated he regretted repeating the notion that people are gay, straight or lying, especially with regard to men. In a new study with the same technology but different recruiting criteria and stimuli, he said he found bisexual genital arousal patterns in men. In 2011, he and other researchers reported that specifically among men with a history of several romantic and sexual relationships with members of both sexes, high levels of sexual arousal were found in response to both male and female sexual imagery. The authors noted this change in recruitment strategy was an important difference, but there was not enough data to establish a protocol to attain a representative sample of bisexual-identified men. Noting these factors, they concluded, "Bisexual-identified men with bisexual arousal patterns do indeed exist, however, and they present an interesting opportunity to illuminate the development and expression of male sexual orientation." A further study found a stronger bisexual arousal pattern in bisexual-identified men, compared to heterosexual and homosexual men, but that not all such identified men exhibited such arousal patterns.

Kinsey scale

Main article: Kinsey scale

The Kinsey scale attempts to describe a person's sexual experience or response at a given time. It uses a scale from 0, meaning exclusively heterosexual, to 6, meaning exclusively homosexual.

Prevalence

Main articles: Demographics of sexual orientation and Kinsey Reports

Alfred Kinsey's 1948 work Sexual Behavior in the Human Male found that "46% of the male population had engaged in both heterosexual and homosexual activities, or 'reacted to' persons of both sexes, in the course of their adult lives". Kinsey himself disliked the use of the term bisexual to describe individuals who engage in sexual activity with both males and females, preferring to use "bisexual" in its original, biological sense as hermaphroditic: "Until it is demonstrated [that] taste in a sexual relation is dependent upon the individual containing within his anatomy both male and female structures, or male and female physiological capacities, it is unfortunate to call such individuals bisexual" (Kinsey et al., 1948, p. 657). Dr. Fritz Klein believed that social and emotional attraction are very important elements in bisexual attraction.

The Janus Report on Sexual Behavior, published in 1993, showed that 5 percent of men and 3 percent of women considered themselves bisexual and 4 percent of men and 2 percent of women considered themselves homosexual.

A 2002 survey in the United States by National Center for Health Statistics found that 1.8 percent of men ages 18–44 considered themselves bisexual, 2.3 percent homosexual, and 3.9 percent as "something else". The same study found that 2.8 percent of women ages 18–44 considered themselves bisexual, 1.3 percent homosexual, and 3.8 percent as "something else".

In 2007, an article in the 'Health' section of The New York Times stated that "1.5 percent of American women and 1.7 percent of American men identify themselves [as] bisexual." Also in 2007, it was reported that 14.4% of young US women identified themselves as bisexual/lesbian, with 5.6% of the men identifying as gay or bisexual.

A study in the journal Biological Psychology in 2011 reported that there were men who identify themselves as bisexuals and who were aroused by both men and women.

Studies, theories and social responses

Main articles: Biology and sexual orientation and Environment and sexual orientation

Further information: Prenatal hormones and sexual orientation, Fraternal birth order and sexual orientation, and Innate bisexuality

There is no consensus among scientists about the exact reasons that an individual develops a heterosexual, bisexual or homosexual orientation. Proposed reasons include a combination of genetic factors and environmental factors (including fraternal birth order, where the number of older brothers a boy has increases the chances of homosexuality; specific prenatal hormone exposure, where hormones play a role in determining sexual orientation as they do with sex differentiation; and prenatal stress on the mother).

The American Academy of Pediatrics has stated that "sexual orientation probably is not determined by any one factor but by a combination of genetic, hormonal, and environmental influences." The American Psychological Association has stated that "there are probably many reasons for a person's sexual orientation and the reasons may be different for different people". It further stated that, for most people, sexual orientation is determined at an early age. The American Psychiatric Association stated: "To date there are no replicated scientific studies supporting any specific biological etiology for homosexuality. Similarly, no specific psychosocial or family dynamic cause for homosexuality has been identified, including histories of childhood sexual abuse." Research into how sexual orientation may be determined by genetic or other prenatal factors plays a role in political and social debates about homosexuality, and also raises fears about genetic profiling and prenatal testing.

Sigmund Freud theorized that every person has the ability to become bisexual at some time in his or her life. He based this on the idea that enjoyable experiences of sexuality with the same sex, whether sought or unsought, acting on it or being fantasized, become an attachment to his or her needs and desires in social upbringing. Psychoanalyst Dr. Joseph Merlino, editor of Freud at 150: 21st Century Essays on a Man of Genius, stated in an interview:

“

Freud maintained that bisexuality was a normal part of development.... Freud felt there were a number of homosexuals he encountered who did not have a variety of complex problems that homosexuality was a part of. He found people who were totally normal in every other regard except in terms of their sexual preference. In fact, he saw many of them as having higher intellects, higher aesthetic sensibilities, higher morals; those kinds of things. He did not see it as something to criminalize or penalize, or to keep from psychoanalytic training. A lot of the psychoanalytic institutes felt if you were homosexual you should not be accepted; that was not Freud's position.

”

In 1995, Harvard Shakespeare professor Marjorie Garber made the academic case for bisexuality with her Vice Versa: Bisexuality and the Eroticism of Everyday Life, in which she argued that most people would be bisexual if not for "repression, religion, repugnance, denial, laziness, shyness, lack of opportunity, premature specialization, a failure of imagination, or a life already full to the brim with erotic experiences, albeit with only one person, or only one gender."

Human bisexuality has mainly been studied alongside homosexuality. Van Wyk & Geist argue that this is a problem for sexuality research because the few studies that have observed bisexuals separately have found that bisexuals are often different from both heterosexuals and homosexuals. Furthermore, bisexuality does not always represent a halfway point between the dichotomy. Research indicates that bisexuality is influenced by biological, cognitive and cultural variables in interaction, and this leads to different types of bisexuality.

In the current debate around influences on sexual orientation, biological explanations have been questioned by social scientists, particularly by feminists who encourage women to make conscious decisions about their life and sexuality. A difference in attitude between homosexual men and women has also been reported, with men more likely to regard their sexuality as biological, "reflecting the universal male experience in this culture, not the complexities of the lesbian world." There is also evidence that women's sexuality may be more strongly affected by cultural and contextual factors.

Social factors

Freud has famously summarized on the basis of clinical observations: "[W]e have come to know that all human beings are bisexual—and that their libido is distributed between objects of both sexes, either in a manifest or a latent form." According to Freud, people remain bisexual all their lives in a repression to monosexuality of fantasy and behavior. This idea was taken up in the 1940s by the zoologist Alfred Kinsey who was the first to create a scale to measure the continuum of sexual orientation from hetero to homosexuality. Kinsey studied human sexuality and argued that people have the capability of being hetero or homosexual even if this trait does not present itself in the current circumstances.

From an anthropological perspective, there is large variation in the prevalence of bisexuality between different cultures. Among some tribes it appears to be non-existent while in others a universal, including the Sambia of New Guinea and other similar Melanesian cultures.

Sex drive

Several studies comparing bisexuals with hetero- or homosexuals have indicated that bisexuals have higher rates of sexual activity, fantasy or erotic interest. Van Wyk and Geist (1984) found that male and female bisexuals had more sexual fantasy than heterosexuals. Dixon (1985) found that bisexual men had more sexual activities with women than did heterosexual men. Bisexual men masturbated more but had fewer happy marriages than heterosexuals. Bressler and Lavender (1986) found that bisexual women had more orgasms per week and they described them as stronger than those of hetero- or homosexual women. They also found that marriages with a bisexual female were more happy than heterosexual unions, observed less instance of hidden infidelity, and ended in divorce less frequently. Goode and Haber (1977) found bisexual women to be sexually mature earlier, masturbate and enjoy masturbation more and to be more experienced in different types of heterosexual contact.

Recent research suggests that, for most women, high sex drive is associated with increased sexual attraction to both women and men. For men, however, high sex drive is associated with increased attraction to one sex or the other, but not to both, depending on sexual orientation. Similarly for most bisexual women, high sex drive is associated with increased sexual attraction to both women and men; while for bisexual men, high sex drive is associated with increased attraction to one sex, and weakened attraction to the other.

Masculinization

Masculinization of women and hypermasculinization of men has been a central theme in sexual orientation research. There are several studies suggesting that bisexuals have a high degree of masculinization. LaTorre and Wendenberg (1983) found differing personality characteristics for bisexual, heterosexual and homosexual women. Bisexuals were found to have fewer personal insecurities than heterosexuals and homosexuals. This finding defined bisexuals as self-assured and less likely to suffer from mental instabilities. The confidence of a secure identity consistently translated to more masculinity than other subjects. This study did not explore societal norms, prejudices, or the feminization of homosexual males.

In a research comparison, published in the Journal of the Association for Research in Otolaryngology, women usually have a better hearing sensitivity than males, assumed by researchers as a genetic disposition connected to child bearing. Homosexual and bisexual women have been found to have a hypersensitivity to sound in comparison to heterosexual women, suggesting a genetic disposition to not tolerate high pitched tones. While heterosexual, homosexual and bisexual men have been found to exhibit similar patterns of hearing, there was a notable differential within a sub-group of males identified as hyperfeminized homosexual males who exhibited test results similar to heterosexual women.

Prenatal hormones

The prenatal hormonal theory of sexual orientation suggests that people who are exposed to excess levels of sex hormones have masculinized brains and show increased homosexuality or bisexuality. Studies provide evidence for the masculinization of the brain have however not been conducted to date. Research on special conditions such as CAH and exposure to DES indicate that prenatal exposure to, respectively, excess testosterone and estrogens are associated with female–female sex fantasies in adults. Both effects are associated with bisexuality rather than homosexuality.

There is research evidence that the digit ratio of the length of the 2nd and 4th digits (index finger and ring finger) is somewhat negatively related to prenatal testosterone and positively to estrogen. Studies measuring the fingers found a statistically significant skew in the 2D:4D ratio (long ring finger) towards homosexuality with an even lower ratio in bisexuals. It is suggested that exposure to high prenatal testosterone and low prenatal estrogen concentrations is one cause of homosexuality whereas exposure to very high testosterone levels may be associated with bisexuality. Because testosterone in general is important for sexual differentiation, this view offers an alternative to the suggestion that male homosexuality is genetic.

The prenatal hormonal theory suggests that a homosexual orientation results from exposure to excessive testosterone causing an over-masculinized brain. This is contradictory to another hypothesis that homosexual preferences may be due to a feminized brain in males. However, it has also been suggested that homosexuality may be due to high prenatal levels of unbound testosterone that results from a lack of receptors at particular brain sites. Therefore the brain could be feminized while other features, such as the 2D:4D ratio could be over-masculinized.

Brain structure

Simon LeVay's (1991) examination at autopsy of 18 homosexual men, 1 bisexual man, 16 presumably heterosexual men and 6 presumably heterosexual women found that the INAH 3 nucleus of the anterior hypothalamus of homosexual men was smaller than that of heterosexual men and closer in size of heterosexual women. Although grouped with homosexuals, the INAH 3 size of the one bisexual subject was similar to that of the heterosexual men. The results of such studies have been proven unreliable.

Chromosomes

Some evidence supports the concept of biological precursors of bisexual orientation in genetic males. According to Money (1988), men with an extra Y chromosome are more likely to be bisexual, paraphilic and impulsive.

Evolutionary theory

Some evolutionary psychologists have argued that same-sex attraction does not have adaptive value because it has no association with potential reproductive success. Instead, bisexuality can be due to normal variation in brain plasticity. More recently, it has been suggested that same-sex alliances may have helped males climb the social hierarchy giving access to females and reproductive opportunities. Same-sex allies could have helped females to move to the safer and resource richer center of the group, which increased their chances of raising their offspring successfully.

Brendan Zietsch of the Queensland Institute of Medical Research proposes the alternative theory that men exhibiting female traits become more attractive to females and are thus more likely to mate, provided the genes involved do not drive them to complete rejection of heterosexuality.

Also, in a 2008 study, its authors stated that "There is considerable evidence that human sexual orientation is genetically influenced, so it is not known how homosexuality, which tends to lower reproductive success, is maintained in the population at a relatively high frequency." They hypothesized that "while genes predisposing to homosexuality reduce homosexuals' reproductive success, they may confer some advantage in heterosexuals who carry them." and their results suggested that "genes predisposing to homosexuality may confer a mating advantage in heterosexuals, which could help explain the evolution and maintenance of homosexuality in the population."

In Scientific American Mind, scientist Emily V. Driscoll stated that homosexual and bisexual behavior is quite common in several species and that it fosters bonding: "The more homosexuality, the more peaceful the species". The article also stated: "Unlike most humans, however, individual animals generally cannot be classified as gay or straight: an animal that engages in a same-sex flirtation or partnership does not necessarily shun heterosexual encounters. Rather, many species seem to have ingrained homosexual tendencies that are a regular part of their society. That is, there are probably no strictly gay critters, just bisexual ones. Animals don't do sexual identity. They just do sex."

History

See also: Bisexual American history

Shudo (Japanese pederasty): a young male entertains an older male lover, covering his eyes while surreptitiously kissing a female servant.

Ancient Greece

Main article: Homosexuality in ancient Greece

Ancient Greeks did not associate sexual relations with binary labels, as modern Western society does. Men who had male lovers were not identified as homosexual, and may have had wives or other female lovers. Ancient Greek religious texts, reflecting cultural practices, incorporated bisexual themes. The subtexts varied, from the mystical to the didactic.

Spartans thought that love and erotic relationships between experienced and novice soldiers would solidify combat loyalty and unit cohesion, and encourage heroic tactics as men vied to impress their lovers. Once the younger soldiers reached maturity, the relationship was supposed to become non-sexual, but it is not clear how strictly this was followed. There was some stigma attached to young men who continued their relationships with their mentors into adulthood. For example, Aristophanes calls them euryprôktoi, meaning "wide arses", and depicts them like women.

Young man and teenager engaging in intercrural sex, fragment of a black-figure Attic cup, 550 BC–525 BC, Louvre.

The Theban Band was organized according to the same idea.

Ancient Rome

Main article: Homosexuality in ancient Rome

It was said in Ancient Rome of Julius Caesar that he was "every man's wife and every woman's husband".

In 124 AD the bisexual Roman emperor Hadrian met Antinous, a 13- or 14-year-old boy from Bithynia, and inducted him into his Imperial Entourage; Antinous eventually became the Emperor's favourite. He was deified by Hadrian when he died six years later after sacrificing himself to the gods of the river Nile in order to cure the sickly Hadrian, other accounts say that he was murdered by the Emperor's detractors. Many statues, busts, coins and reliefs depict Hadrian's deep fixation with him and the Emperor even founded the city of Antinopolis near the site of his favourite's death.

Social status

This article is about bisexuality in human sexuality. For Bisexual/Fluid/Pansexual community(s) in current culture, see Bisexual community.

Because some bisexual people do not feel that they fit into either the homosexual or the heterosexual world, and because they have a tendency to be "invisible" in public, some bisexual persons are committed to forming their own communities, culture, and political movements. Some who identify as bisexual may merge themselves into either homosexual or heterosexual society. Still, other bisexual people see this merging as enforced rather than voluntary; bisexual people can face exclusion from both homosexual and heterosexual society on coming out. Psychologist Beth Firestein states that bisexuals tend to internalize social tensions related to their choice of partners and feel pressured to label themselves as homosexuals instead of occupying the difficult middle ground where attraction to people of both sexes would defy society's value on monogamy. These social tensions and pressure may affect bisexuals' mental health, and specific therapy methods have been developed for bisexuals to address this concern.

Bisexual behaviors are also associated in popular culture with men who engage in same-sex activity while otherwise presenting as heterosexual. The majority of such men — said to be living on the down-low — do not self-identify as bisexual. However, this may be a cultural misperception closely related to that of other LGBT individuals who hide their actual orientation due to societal pressures, a phenomenon colloquially called "being closeted".

Pride symbols

Main article: LGBT symbols

The bisexual pride flag

A common symbol of the Bisexual community is the bisexual pride flag, which has a deep pink stripe at the top for homosexuality, a blue one on the bottom for heterosexuality, and a purple one, blended from the pink and blue, in the middle to represent bisexuality.

The overlapping triangles

Another symbol with the same color scheme is a pair of overlapping pink and blue triangles, the pink triangle being a well-known symbol for the homosexual community, forming purple where they intersect.

Bisexual moon symbol

Many homosexual and bisexual individuals have a problem with the use of the pink triangle symbol, as it was the symbol that Hitler's regime used to tag and persecute homosexuals (similar to the yellow Star of David constituted of two opposed, overlapping triangles). Therefore, a double moon symbol was devised specifically to avoid the use of triangles. The double moon symbol is common in Germany and surrounding countries. Another symbol used for bisexuality is a purple diamond, conceptually derived from the intersection of two triangles, pink and blue (respectively), placed overlapping.

In media

Main article: Media portrayals of bisexuality

Film

Notable portrayals of bisexuality can be found throughout mainstream media in movies such as: Black Swan, Frida, Showgirls, The Pillow Book, Alexander. The Rocky Horror Picture Show, Henry and June, Chasing Amy, Velvet Goldmine, Kissing Jessica Stein, The Fourth Man, Basic Instinct, Sunday Bloody Sunday, Something for Everyone, The Rules of Attraction, and Brokeback Mountain.

The documentary Bi the Way, which aired on the LGBT cable TV network Logo in August 2009 followed the lives of five bisexual Americans ages 11 to 28. The movie talked about bisexuality in general and featured scientific studies, interviews with bisexual leaders and media portrayals.

Television

US

The FOX television series House features a bisexual female doctor, Remy "Thirteen" Hadley from season four on. The same network had earlier aired the television series The O.C., which for a time featured bisexual Alex Kelly, the local rebellious hangout spot's manager, as a love interest of Marissa Cooper.

The lead character of the supernatural Showcase original series Lost Girl, which is about legendary creatures called Fae who secretly live among humans, the succubus Bo is bisexual. During the first two seasons of the series she is caught up in a love triangle between Fae shifter and detective Dyson and the human doctor Lauren Lewis.

Beginning with the 2009 season, MTV's The Real World series featured two bisexual characters, Emily Schromm, and Mike Manning. Some bloggers suggested he was in fact gay, although he himself identified as bisexual.

UK

In the BBC TV science fiction show Torchwood, several of the main characters appear to have fluid sexuality. Most prominent among these is Captain Jack Harkness, a pansexual who is the lead character and an otherwise conventional science fiction action hero. Within the logic of the show, where characters can also interact with alien species, producers sometimes use the term "omnisexual" to describe him. Jack's ex, Captain John Hart is also bisexual. Of his female exes, significantly at least one ex-wife and at least one woman with whom he has had a child have been indicated. Some critics draw the conclusion that the series more often shows Jack with men than women. Creator Russell T Davies says one of pitfalls of writing a bisexual character is you "fall into the trap" of "only having them sleep with men" He describes of the show's fourth series, "You'll see the full range of his appetites, in a really properly done way." The preoccupation with bisexuality has been seen by critics as complementary to other aspects of the show's themes. For heterosexual character Gwen Cooper, for whom Jack harbors romantic feelings, the new experiences she confronts at Torchwood, in the form of "affairs and homosexuality and the threat of death", connote not only the Other but a "missing side" to the Self. Under the influence of an alien pheromone, Gwen kisses a woman in Episode 2 of the series. In Episode 1, heterosexual Owen Harper kisses a man to escape a fight when he is about to take the man's girlfriend. Quiet Toshiko Sato is in love with Owen, but has also has brief romantic relationships with a female alien and a male human. British newspaper The Sun ran the headline "Dr Ooh gets four gay pals" prior to the first series, describing all of Torchwood's cast as being bisexual.

In the soap opera Hollyoaks, the otherwise heterosexual character Craig Dean has a one-off affair with John Paul McQueen.

Music

Rock musician David Bowie famously declared himself bisexual in an interview with Melody Maker in January 1972, a move coinciding with the first shots in his campaign for stardom as Ziggy Stardust. In a September 1976 interview with Playboy, Bowie said: "It's true—I am a bisexual. But I can't deny that I've used that fact very well. I suppose it's the best thing that ever happened to me." In a 1983 interview he said it was "the biggest mistake I ever made", elaborating in 2002 he explained "I don’t think it was a mistake in Europe, but it was a lot tougher in America. I had no problem with people knowing I was bisexual. But I had no inclination to hold any banners or be a representative of any group of people. I knew what I wanted to be, which was a songwriter and a performer [...] America is a very puritanical place, and I think it stood in the way of so much I wanted to do. In 1995, Jill Sobule sang about bi-curiosity in her song "I Kissed a Girl", with a video that alternated images of Sobule and a boyfriend along with images of her with a girlfriend. Another song with the same name by Katy Perry also hints at the same theme. Some activists suggest the song merely reinforces the stereotype of bisexuals experimenting and of bisexuality not being a real sexual preference. Lady Gaga has stated that she is bisexual, and has stated that her song "Poker Face" is about fantasizing about a woman while being with a man. Rick Ocasek of The Cars said that he was bisexual in an interview in 1986, stating, "I like beautiful women. Tall, thin, beautiful women. Fat little ugly women. I like all kinds of women. I'm always attracted to the opposite sex. I'm attracted to both sexes, actually. But not only beautiful men – I think I like weird men." British singer Jessie J is also openly bisexual and stated in an interview on the "In Demand" radio show on 3 March 2011 "I've never denied it. Whoopie doo guys, yes, I've dated girls and I've dated boys – get over it." Brian Molko, lead singer of Placebo is openly bisexual. In 1994, with questions still swirling about his sexuality, Michael Stipe of REM described himself as "an equal opportunity lech", and said he did not define himself as gay, straight, or bisexual, but that he was attracted to, and had relationships with, both men and women. Freddie Mercury, lead singer of the band Queen, was an also acknowledged bisexual. He had a long-term relationship with Mary Austin, but also a male partner Jim Hutton, although he distanced himself from Hutton during public events.

Literature

Virginia Woolf's Orlando: A Biography (1928) is an early example of bisexuality in literature. The story, of a man who changes into a woman without a second thought, was based on the life of Woolf's lover Vita Sackville-West. Woolf used the gender switch to avoid the book being banned for homosexual content. The pronouns switch from male to female as Orlando's gender changes. Woolf's lack of definite pronouns allows for ambiguity and lack of emphasis on gender labels. Her 1925 book Mrs Dalloway focused on a bisexual man and a bisexual woman in sexually unfulfilled heterosexual marriages in later life. Following Sackille-West's death, her son Nigel Nicolson published Portrait of a Marriage, one of her diaries recounting her affair with a woman during her marriage to Harold Nicolson. Other early examples include works of D.H. Lawrence, such as Women in Love (1920), and Colette's Claudine (1900–1903) series.

The main character in Patrick White's novel, The Twyborn Affair (1979), is bisexual. Contemporary novelist Bret Easton Ellis' novels, such as Less Than Zero (1985) and The Rules of Attraction (1987) frequently feature bisexual male characters; this "casual approach" to bisexual characters recurs throughout Ellis' work.

Webseries

In October 2009, "A Rose By Any Other Name" was released as a "webisode" series on YouTube. Directed by bisexual rights advocate Kyle Schickner, the plot centers around a lesbian-identified woman who falls in love with a straight man and discovers she is actually bisexual.

Media stereotypes

There tend to be negative media portrayals; references are sometimes made to stereotypes or mental disorders. In an article regarding the 2005 film Brokeback Mountain, sex educator Amy Andre argued that in films, bisexuals are often depicted negatively:

I like movies where bisexuals come out to each other together and fall in love, because these tend to be so few and far between; the most recent example would be 2002's lovely romantic comedy, Kissing Jessica Stein. Most movies with bi characters paint a stereotypical picture.... The bi love interest is usually deceptive (Mulholland Drive), over-sexed (Sex Monster), unfaithful (High Art), and fickle (Three of Hearts), and might even be a serial killer, like Sharon Stone in Basic Instinct. In other words, the bisexual is always the cause of the conflict in the film.

—Amy Andre, American Sexuality Magazine

Using a content analysis of more than 170 articles written between 2001 and 2006, sociologist Richard N. Pitt, Jr. concluded that the media pathologized black bisexual men’s behavior while either ignoring or sympathizing with white bisexual men’s similar actions. He argued that the black bisexual is often described as a duplicitous heterosexual man spreading the HIV/AIDS virus. Alternatively, the "Brokeback" white bisexual (when seen as bisexual at all) is often described in pitying language as a victimized homosexual man forced into the closet by the heterosexist society around him.

In the HBO drama Oz, Chris Keller was a bisexual serial killer who tortured and raped various men and women. Other films in which bisexual characters conceal murderous neuroses include Black Widow, Blue Velvet, Cruising, Single White Female, and Girl, Interrupted.

Among other animals

Main article: Animal sexuality

See also: Homosexual behavior in animals

Many non-human animal species also exhibit bisexual behavior. Examples of mammals include the bonobo (formerly known as the pygmy chimpanzee), orca, and bottlenose dolphin. Examples of avians include some species of gulls and Humboldt Penguins. Other examples occur among fish and flatworms.

Many species of animals are involved in the act of forming sexual and relationship bonds between the same sex; even when offered the opportunity to breed with members of the opposite sex, they picked the same sex. Some of these species are gazelles, antelope, bison, and sage grouse.

In some cases animals will choose intercourse with different sexes at different times in their life, and sometimes will perform intercourse with different sexes at random. Homosexual intercourse can also be seasonal in some animals like male walruses, who often engage in homosexual intercourse with each other outside of the breeding season and will revert to heterosexual intercourse during breeding season.

In some cases bisexuality is actually a form of fitness favored by evolution. For example, female Cnemidophorus (a genus of whiptail lizards) reproduce by pairing up with each other. During the breeding season, females will take turns switching between "male" and "female" roles as their hormones fluctuate. Estrogen levels are high during ovulation ("female" role) and much lower after laying eggs ("male" role). While in the "male" role, a female lizard will mount another in the "female" role and go through the motions of sex to stimulate egg-laying. The hatchlings produced are all female. This all-female species has evolved from lizards with two sexes, but their eggs develop without fertilization (parthenogenesis). Female whiptail lizards can lay eggs without sex, but they lay far fewer eggs than if they engage in sexual stimulation by another female.

See also

• Androgyny
• Bicurious
• Biphobia
• Bisexual chic
• Bisexual community
• Bisexual erasure
• Gender neutrality
• Journal of Bisexuality
• List of bisexual people
• List of gay, lesbian or bisexual people

• List of LGBT-related organizations
• List of media portrayals of bisexuality
• Media portrayal of bisexuality
• Mixed-orientation marriage
• Non-westernized concepts of male sexuality
• Societal attitudes towards homosexuality

References

Further reading

General

• Dag Øistein Endsjø, Sex and Religion. Teachings and Taboos in the History of World Faiths. Reaktion Books 2011.
• Sigmund Freud. Three Contributions to the Theory of Sex. ISBN 0-486-41603-8
• Michel Larivière. Homosexuels et bisexuels célèbres, Delétraz Editions, 1997. ISBN 2-911110-19-6

Ancient Greece and Rome

• Eva Cantarella. Bisexuality in the Ancient World, Yale University Press, New Haven, 1992, 2002. ISBN 978-0-300-09302-5
• Kenneth J. Dover. Greek Homosexuality, New York; Vintage Books, 1978. ISBN 0-394-74224-9
• Thomas K. Hubbard. Homosexuality in Greece and Rome, U. of California Press, 2003. ISBN 0-520-23430-8
• Herald Patzer. Die Griechische Knabenliebe [Greek Pederasty], Wiesbaden: Franz Steiner Verlag, 1982. In: Sitzungsberichte der Wissenschaftlichen Gesellschaft an der Johann Wolfgang Goethe-Universität Frankfurt am Main, Vol. 19 No. 1.
• W. A. Percy III. Pederasty and Pedagogy in Archaic Greece, University of Illinois Press, 1996. ISBN 0-252-02209-2

By country

• Stephen O. Murray and Will Roscoe, et al. Islamic Homosexualities: Culture, History, and Literature, New York: New York University Press, 1997. ISBN 0-8147-7468-7
• J. Wright & Everett Rowson. Homoeroticism in Classical Arabic Literature. 1998. ISBN 0-231-10507-X (pbbk)/ ISBN 0-231-10506-1 (hdbk)
• Gary Leupp. Male Colors: The Construction of Homosexuality in Tokugawa Japan, Berkeley, University of California Press, 1995. ISBN 0-520-20900-1
• Tsuneo Watanabe & Jun'ichi Iwata. The Love of the Samurai. A Thousand Years of Japanese Homosexuality, London: GMP Publishers, 1987. ISBN 0-85449-115-5

Modern Western

• Bi Any Other Name : Bisexual People Speak Out by Loraine Hutchins, Editor & Lani Ka'ahumanu, Editor ISBN 1-55583-174-5
• Getting Bi : Voices of Bisexuals Around the World by Robyn Ochs, Editor & Sarah Rowley, Editor ISBN 0-9653881-4-X
• The Bisexual Option by Fritz Klein, MD ISBN 1-56023-033-9
• Bi Men : Coming Out Every Which Way by Ron Suresha and Pete Chvany, Editors ISBN 978-1-56023-615-3
• Bi America : Myths, Truths, And Struggles of an Invisible Community by William E. Burleson ISBN 978-1-56023-478-4
• Bisexuality in the United States : A Social Science Reader by Paula C. Rodriguez Rust, Editor ISBN 0-231-10226-7
• Bisexuality : The Psychology and Politics of an Invisible Minority by Beth A. Firestein, Editor ISBN 0-8039-7274-1
• Current Research on Bisexuality by Ronald C. Fox PhD, Editor ISBN 978-1-56023-289-6
• Exploring Biphobia. (144 KB PDF). Report on the problems caused by stereotyping of bisexuals.
• http://xoomer.alice.it/letteraturadamore/Orlando.html ("Orlando", a Virginia Woolf's novel focused on sexual ambiguity)

Other Film

• Bryant, Wayne M.. Bisexual Characters in Film: From Anais to Zee. Haworth Gay & Lesbian Studies, 1997. ISBN 1-56023-894-1

External links

• Bisexual at the Open Directory Project
• "Bisexuality" at the Magnus Hirschfeld Archive for Sexology
• The Continuum Complete International Encyclopedia of Sexuality
• Bisexuality Basics, UC Riverside LGBT Resource Center, Riverside, CA
• American Psychological Association's Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual and Transgender Concerns Office
• American Institute of Bisexuality

UpToDate Contents

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• 1. 同性と性行為する女性の医療 medical care of women who have sex with women

English Journal

• Suicidal ideation, suicide attempts and non-suicidal self-injury among lesbian, gay, bisexual and heterosexual adults: Findings from an Australian national study.

• Swannell S1, Martin G1, Page A2.
• The Australian and New Zealand journal of psychiatry.Aust N Z J Psychiatry.2015 Dec 1. pii: 0004867415615949. [Epub ahead of print]
• OBJECTIVES: This study investigated associations between sexual orientation and measures of suicidality and non-suicidal self-injury in Australian adults. Previous studies of sexual orientation and suicidality have been limited by unclear conceptualisations of suicidal intent, failure to differentia
• PMID 26631718

• Don't ask, sometimes tell. A survey of men who have sex with men sexual orientation disclosure in general practice.

• Metcalfe R1, Laird G2, Nandwani R3.
• International journal of STD & AIDS.Int J STD AIDS.2015 Dec;26(14):1028-34. doi: 10.1177/0956462414565404. Epub 2014 Dec 19.
• Despite advances in lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender equality in recent years, some men who have sex with men remain at increased risk of ill-health. Positive interventions in primary care include psychological support and strategies for risk reduction. It is important that men who have sex wi
• PMID 25527656

• Family and Work Influences on Stress, Anxiety and Depression Among Bisexual Latino Men in the New York City Metropolitan Area.

• Muñoz-Laboy M1, Ripkin A2, Garcia J3, Severson N4.
• Journal of immigrant and minority health / Center for Minority Public Health.J Immigr Minor Health.2015 Dec;17(6):1615-26. doi: 10.1007/s10903-015-0220-2.
• The empirical exploration of mental health problems among bisexual Latino men is scarce. Bisexual men experience stress because of their non-conforming sexuality from multiple-sources. In this study we focus on the family and work environments. We conducted a mixed-methods study to examine the impac
• PMID 25957046

Japanese Journal

• Re-thinking racial hybridity and bisexuality of Karim Amir in Hanif Kureishi's The Buddha of Suburbia

• 大東文化大学英米文学論叢 (41), 93-104, 2010-03
• NAID 40017018101

• 性倒錯の分類におさまらなかったもの--Freudの「性理論のための3篇」の周辺の臨床家たちの問題意識を通して

• 精神医学史研究 14(2), 80-88, 2010
• NAID 40017358154

• 乳児期の母子関係における父性的機能の役割について : タビストック方式乳児観察から

• 精神分析研究 52(2), 175-184, 2008-04-25
• NAID 10024428520

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