Wikipedia preview

出典(authority):フリー百科事典『ウィキペディア（Wikipedia）』「2015/02/09 09:50:42」(JST)

wiki en

Vasospasm refers to a condition in which a blood vessel's spasm leads to vasoconstriction. This can lead to tissue ischemia and tissue death (necrosis). Cerebral vasospasm may arise in the context of subarachnoid hemorrhage. Symptomatic vasospasm or delayed cerebral ischemia is a major contributor to post-operative stroke and death especially after aneurysmal subarachnoid hemorrhage. Vasospasm typically appears 4 to 10 days after subarachnoid hemorrhage.

Along with physical resistance, vasospasm is a main cause of ischemia. Like physical resistance, vasospasms can occur due to atherosclerosis. Vasospasm is the major cause of prinzmetal angina.

General pathophysiology of vasospasms

Normally endothelial cells release prostacyclin and nitric oxide (NO) which induce relaxation of the smooth muscle cells, and reduce aggregation of platelets. Aggregating platelets stimulate ADP to act on endothelial cells and help them induce relaxation of the smooth muscle cells. However, aggregating platelets also stimulate thromboxane A2 and serotonin which can induce contraction of the smooth muscle cells. In general, the relaxations outweighs the contractions.

During atherosclerosis a dysfunctional endothelium is observed during examination. It does not stimulate as much prostacyclin and NO to induce relaxation on smooth muscle cells. Also there is not as much inhibition of aggregation of platelets. In this case, the greater aggregation of platelets produce ADP, serotonin, and thromboxane A2. However the serotonin and the thromboxane A2 cause more contraction of the smooth muscle cells and as a result contractions outweigh the relaxations.

Complications

Ischemia in the heart due to prolonged coronary vasospasm can lead to angina, myocardial infarction and even death.

Treatment

The occurrence of vasospams can be reduced by preventing the occurrence of atherosclerosis. This can be done in several ways, the most important being lifestyle modifications — decreasing low-density lipoprotein (LDL), quitting smoking, physical activity, and control for other risk factors including diabetes, obesity, and hypertension. Pharmacological therapies include hypolipidemic agents, thrombolytics and anticoagulants. Pharmacological options for reducing the severity and occurrence of ischemic episodes include the organic nitrates classified as having long acting (i.e. isosorbide dinitrate) and short acting (i.e. nitroglycerin) durations of action.

These drugs work by increasing nitric oxide levels in the blood and inducing coronary vasodilation which will allow for more coronary blood flow due to a decreased coronary resistance, allowing for increased oxygen supply to the vital organs (myocardium). The nitric oxide increase in the blood resulting from these drugs also causes dilation of systemic veins which in turn causes a reduction in venous return, ventricular work load and ventricular radius. All of these reductions contribute to the decrease in ventricular wall stress which is significant because this causes the demand of oxygen to decrease. In general organic nitrates decrease oxygen demand and increase oxygen supply. It is this favourable change to the body that can decrease the severity of ischemic symptoms, particularly angina.

Other medications used to reduce the occurrence and severity of vasospams and ultimately ischemia include L-type calcium channel blockers (notably nimodipine, as well as verapamil, diltiazem, nifedipine) and beta-receptor antagonists (also known as beta blockers or β-blockers) such as propranolol.

L-type calcium channel blockers can induce dilation of the coronary arteries while also decreasing the heart's demand for oxygen by reducing contractility, heart rate, and wall stress. The reduction of these latter three factors decreases the contractile force that the myocardium must exert in order to achieve the same level of cardiac output.

Beta-receptor antagonists do not cause vasodilation, but like L-type calcium channel blockers, they do reduce the heart's demand for oxygen. This reduction similarly results from a decrease in heart rate, afterload, and wall stress.

Adverse effects

Like most pharmacological therapeutic options, there are risks that should be considered. For these drugs in particular, vasodilation can be associated with some adverse effects which might include orthostatic hypotension, reflex tachycardia, headaches and palpitations. Tolerance may also develop over time due compensatory response of the body, as well as depletion of -SH groups of glutathione which are essential for the metabolism of the drugs to their active forms.

Potential side effects:

Verapamil: hypotension, bradycardia, constipation
Diltiazem: hypotension, bradycardia,risk of heart block
Nifedipine: hypotension
Propranolol: asystole, asthma attacks

Contraindications

Organic nitrates should not be taken with PDE5 inhibitors (i.e. sildenafil) since both NO and PDE5 inhibitors increase cyclic GMP levels and the sum of their pharmacodynamic effects will greatly exceed the optimal therapeutic levels. What you could see upon taking both medications at the same time, as caused by the much higher induction of relaxation of smooth muscle cells, include a severe drop in blood pressure.

Beta-receptor antagonists should be avoided in patients with reactive pulmonary disease to avoid asthma attacks. Also Beta-receptor antagonists should be avoided in patients with AV node dysfunction and/or patients on other medications which might cause bradycardia (i.e. calcium channel blockers). The potential for these contraindications and drug-drug interaction could lead to asystole and cardiac arrest.

Certain calcium channel blocker should be avoided with some beta-receptor blockers since they may cause severe bradycardia and other potential side effects.

Corrective Therapy

Since vasospasms can be caused by atherosclerosis and contribute to the severity of ischemia there are some surgical options which can restore circulation to these ischemic areas. Regarding coronary vasospasm, one surgical intervention, referred to as percutaneous coronary intervention or angioplasty, involves placing a stent at the site of stenosis in an artery and inflating the stent using a balloon catheter. Another surgical intervention is coronary artery bypass.

References

This information is a summary of a lecture given by a professor at Albany College of Pharmacy.

English Journal

[HES 130/0,4/9:1 effect on intracranial pressure, cerebral blood flow, oxygenation and cerebral vasospasm].

[No authors listed]AbstractThe paper contains results of clinical investigation of influence of intravenous infusion of 6% Hydroxyethyl starch 130/0.4/9:1 (Voluven, Fresenius Kabi) on cerebral blood flow, cerebral metabolism and ICP in 7 patients with cerebral angiospasm after subarachnoid hemorrhage. It's shown that such infusion in patients with cerebral vasospasm doesn't lead to ICP elevation but can cause regional volumetric blood flow rising and improving of cerebral metabolism.
Anesteziologiia i reanimatologiia.Anesteziol Reanimatol.2012 Jul-Aug;(4):63-8.
The paper contains results of clinical investigation of influence of intravenous infusion of 6% Hydroxyethyl starch 130/0.4/9:1 (Voluven, Fresenius Kabi) on cerebral blood flow, cerebral metabolism and ICP in 7 patients with cerebral angiospasm after subarachnoid hemorrhage. It's shown that such inf
PMID 23082650

[Precursors of brain ischemia in patients in the acute stage of subarachnoid hemorrhage after the aneurysm rupture].

Grinenko EA, Parfenov AL.AbstractThe authors attempted to predict an outcome of the disease using the dynamic evaluation of quantitative parameters of intracranial pressure (ICP) and linear systolic blood flow velocity (LSBFV). Seventeen patients, aged from 20 to 61 years, with acute subarachnoid hemorrhage (SAH) after the aneurysm rupture complicated with the syndrome of intracranial hypertension (SIH) and angiospasm were studied. A comparison of the clinical course and outcomes (good or bad) with corresponding quantitative parameters allows to conclude that the decrease in LSBFV (<200 cm/sec) in the syndrome of intracranial hypertension (ICP>30 mmHg) predicts the ischemic damage. LSBFV values higher than 200 cm/sec and ICP<30 mmHg reduces the risk for brain ischemia.
Zhurnal nevrologii i psikhiatrii imeni S.S. Korsakova / Ministerstvo zdravookhraneniia i meditsinskoĭ promyshlennosti Rossiĭskoĭ Federatsii, Vserossiĭskoe obshchestvo nevrologov [i] Vserossiĭskoe obshchestvo psikhiatrov.Zh Nevrol Psikhiatr Im S S Korsakova.2012;112(12 Pt 2):3-10.
The authors attempted to predict an outcome of the disease using the dynamic evaluation of quantitative parameters of intracranial pressure (ICP) and linear systolic blood flow velocity (LSBFV). Seventeen patients, aged from 20 to 61 years, with acute subarachnoid hemorrhage (SAH) after the aneurysm
PMID 23388599

Recanalization after successful occlusion by transcatheter arterial embolization with N-butyl cyanoacrylate for traumatic splenic artery injury.

Ishikawa M, Kakizawa H, Yamasaki W, Date S, Hieda M, Kajiwara K, Awai K.SourceDepartment of Diagnostic Radiology, Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences, Hiroshima University, Hiroshima 734-8551, Japan. masaishi@hiroshima-u.ac.jp
Hiroshima journal of medical sciences.Hiroshima J Med Sci.2011 Dec;60(4):87-90.
A 70-year-old male with advanced pancreatic cancer went into shock after sustaining a traumatic abdominal injury. Computed tomography (CT) showed a hematoma with extravasation around the pancreas and hemorrhagic ascites. After direct catheterization failed due to angiospasm, the ruptured splenic art
PMID 22389953

Japanese Journal

分娩後に出現した脳血管攣縮による脳梗塞 : 子宮収縮薬ergometrineの関与について

鈴川活水,石井尚登,大貫明,天羽正志,浦上信也
脳神経外科ジャーナル 8(7), 479-482, 1999-07-20
産科領域で分娩後の子宮の弛緩性出血を防止する目的で多用されるergonovine製剤は, 子宮の平滑筋を選択的に収縮させるとの根拠で使用されている.しかし今回, 33歳の患者は分娩後同薬剤を使用中, 一過性に後大脳動脈に脳血管攣縮が起こり, その領域の脳梗塞をきたした.発症は頭痛とともに右顔面を含む右半身の知覚障害と右同名性半盲の症状で入院治療を行ったが, これらの神経症状は残存した.この症例はR …
NAID 110003813358