出典(authority):フリー百科事典『ウィキペディア(Wikipedia)』「2016/05/26 15:59:01」(JST)
「UVB」はこの項目へ転送されています。ブザー音を流しているロシアの短波ラジオ局については「UVB-76」をご覧ください。 |
紫外線(しがいせん、英: ultraviolet)とは、波長が10 - 400 nm、即ち可視光線より短く軟X線より長い不可視光線の電磁波である。
光のスペクトルで紫よりも外側になるのでこの名がある。英語の ultraviolet も「紫を超えた」という語から来ている(ラテン語の ultra は、英語の beyond に相当)。日本語では、紫外線と呼ぶのが一般的であるが、violet をスミレ色とも訳すことから、文学作品などでは[要出典]、菫外線(きんがいせん)と呼ばれることもある。菫外線の表記は紫外線より少ないものの1960年代以前は学術用語としての用例[1]があるが、1960年代以後の用例[2]は極めて希である[3]。また、英語の ultraviolet からUVと略される。
赤外線が熱的な作用を及ぼすことが多いのに対し、紫外線は化学的な作用が著しい。このことから化学線とも呼ばれる。紫外線の有用な作用として殺菌消毒、ビタミンDの合成、生体に対しての血行や新陳代謝の促進、あるいは皮膚抵抗力の昂進(こうしん)などがある。
波長による分類法として、波長 380–200 nm の近紫外線(near UV)、波長 200–10 nm の遠紫外線もしくは真空紫外線(far UV (FUV) もしくは vacuum UV (VUV))、波長 121–10 nmの極紫外線もしくは極端紫外線(extreme UV,EUV or XUV)に分けられる。また、人間の健康や環境への影響の観点から、近紫外線をさらに UVA (400–315 nm)、UVB(315~280nm)、UVC (280 nm 未満) に分けることもある。フォトリソグラフィやレーザー技術において、遠紫外線(deep UV(DUV))は前記のFUVと異なり波長 300 nm 以下の紫外線を示す。
太陽光の中には、UVA、UVB、UVCの波長の紫外線が含まれているが、そのうちUVA、UVBはオゾン層を通過、地表に到達する。UVCは、物質による吸収が著しく、通常は大気を通過することができない。地表に到達する紫外線の99%がUVAである。(UVCは、オゾン層の反応で生成されるものもある)
物質の屈折率は入射した光の波長に依存する。光学部品(光学窓やレンズなど)の素材としてよく用いられるガラスは、紫外線の波長域では吸光係数が著しく増大し、透過率が急激に減少する。このため、ガラスを使った光学部品で紫外線光を取り扱う事は困難である。そのため特殊な材料を使用した専用の光学部品が使用される(例えば、石英ガラス[波長 200 nm 以上で使用可]やフッ化カルシウム、フッ化マグネシウム[150 nm 以上で使用可])。
17世紀にアイザック・ニュートンがプリズムを用いて可視光線が赤から紫にいたる多数の色の光線から成り立っていることを証明したが、その後、この見える光線のほかに、見えない光線が存在すると考えられるようになった。1800年、イギリスのウィリアム・ハーシェルによって赤外線が発見され、この考えが立証されるとすぐ、ドイツの物理学者ヨハン・ヴィルヘルム・リッターが、スペクトルの反対側である、紫より短いスペクトルを探し始めた。1801年、リッターは光に反応する塩化銀を塗った紙を使用して、紫の外側の目に見えない光を発見した[4]。これは化学光(chemical light)と呼ばれた。その頃、リッターを含めた科学者は、光は「酸化発熱要素」(赤外線)、「照明要素」(可視光)、「水素化還元要素」(紫外線)の三つから構成されていると結論づけていた。スペクトルの他の領域との統合はマセドニオ・メローニ、アレクサンドル・エドモン・ベクレルらの研究まで分からなかった。その間、紫外線は、「科学線放射(arctinic radiation)」とも呼ばれていた。その後、1893年にドイツのヴィクトール・シューマンによって真空紫外線が発見された。
人間が、太陽の紫外線に長時間さらされると、皮膚、目、免疫系へ急性もしくは慢性の疾患を引き起こす可能性がある。大気を透過しないUVCは、過去ほとんど注意が払われていなかったが、高エネルギーであるためUVAやUVBよりはるかに危険である。例えば、UVCを使用する浸漬型紫外線減菌装置などは装置の外で紫外線光源のスイッチを入れれば被曝の危険性がある。
紫外線はたんぱく質を変性させるため、皮膚に紫外線が照射されるとコラーゲン繊維および弾性繊維にダメージを与えて皮膚を加齢させる。
波長の長いUVAの危険性は近年まで軽視されてきたが、皮膚の加齢、DNAへのダメージ、皮膚がんへのリスクはゼロではない。このうち特に、皮膚の加齢は、波長が長くUVBより深く皮膚の中に浸透し、皮膚の張りを保つ弾性繊維を徐々に破壊する主要因となっている。また、一度破壊された弾性繊維は回復しない。UVAはUVBと比べて、大気中での減衰が少なく、UVBの減少する冬期や朝夕でも比較的多く降り注いでいる。日焼けのうちサンバーンを引き起こすことはないがサンタンを引き起こす。日焼けサロンで照射されるのは、主にUVAである。ただし、その際に皮膚の老化を加速していることも忘れてはならない。UVAはSPFテストで測定することができない。
UVBは日焼けのうちサンバーンを引き起こす。UVCは最も波長が短く危険であるが、大気中で減衰し、ほとんど地上には届かない。UVB、UVCは、皮膚がん発現のリスクを伴う。生物のDNAは吸収スペクトルが 250nm 近辺に存在している。DNAに紫外線が照射されるとDNAを構成する原子が励起される。この励起はDNA分子を不安定にして螺旋構造を構成する「はしご」を切り離して隣接する塩基同士でチミン-チミン、シトシン-シトシン、ウラシル-ウラシル等の二量体を形成する。この二量体が遺伝子中のコドンを乱れさせ、DNA配列の不正配列、複製の中断、ギャップの生成、複製や転写のミスを発生させる。このことにより正常に遺伝子が機能しなくなった場合にがん等の突然変異を引き起こす。 紫外線による突然変異は、バクテリアにおいて簡単に観察される。これは、地球環境問題でオゾンホールやオゾン層の破壊が懸念される理由の1つである。
紫外線照射に対する生体の防御反応として、人間の体では茶色の色素のメラニンを分泌して皮膚表面に沈着させる(これを「日焼け」という)ことにより、それ以上の紫外線の皮膚組織への侵入を防ぎ、より深い皮膚組織へのダメージを軽減させようとする。この分泌度は人種によって異なっているため、このことが皮膚の色の違いによる人種の区別をもたらしている。
市販の日焼け止めローション・クリームも紫外線の進入を防ぐ効果を利用している。これらの製品では、「SPF値」「PA」と呼ばれる紫外線防御効果が記載されている。SPF値はSun Protection Factorの略で主に日焼けの原因であるUVBの遮断率を表している。SPF25の場合は、無対策の場合と比較して紫外線が1/25になり、SPF100は1/100になる。PAは protection of UVA の略で、UVAの遮断に対する効果を表している。PAは+(効果がある)、++(効果がかなりある)、+++(効果が非常にある)、++++(効果が極めて高い)の4段階で表記される。PAがSPFと異なり、数値で表記されないのは、UVAのブロック率を評価する良い分析法が存在しないためである。
強度の強いUVBは目に対して危険で、雪眼炎(雪目、雪眼)や紫外眼炎(電気性眼炎)、白内障、翼状片と瞼裂斑形成になる可能性がある。
保護メガネは、紫外線(特に短波長の紫外線)にさらされる環境で働く場合(電気溶接作業)や、その様な環境(雪山やスキー場のゲレンデなど)にいる場合には有効である。保護メガネで覆われていない横から目に入る紫外線を防止するために、高高度の登山家が使用するようなゴーグル状の完全に覆われた保護メガネを使用したほうが曝露に対するリスクが減少する。登山家は、高高度では地表に比べて大気による減衰が小さくなり、雪や氷による反射が存在することにより、通常より高いレベルの紫外線にさらされるため、そのような完全に覆われた保護メガネを使用している。
通常のメガネは、わずかの保護効果がある。ガラスはUVAに対して透明であるのに対し、プラスチックは通過率がガラスより低いため、プラスチックレンズは、ガラスのレンズより保護効果があり、材質(例えば、ポリカーボネート)によっては、ほとんどの紫外線が妨げる場合もある。ただし、いくら良いレンズによる保護措置を行ったとしても、レンズ以外の経路を経由した紫外線からは目を完全に守ることはできない。眼鏡に十分な紫外線対策を期待するならば、フレームの形状も考慮するべきである。上部からの紫外線の侵入を減らすため、外出時はつば付きの帽子の併用が奨められる。レンズ以外の経路を経由する光を確認するには、レンズの部分をアルミホイルのような不透明なもので覆って、明るい光のそばに立つことで確認することができる。ほとんどのコンタクトレンズは紫外線を吸収し網膜を保護する。
紫外線による利点は、皮膚におけるビタミンDの生成である。グラント(2002)は、UVB照射時間が短いことが、ビタミンDの欠乏を起こし、アメリカ合衆国で何万もの死者が生じていると主張している[5]。米国では日照の少ない緯度の高い地域での大腸癌、乳癌、卵巣癌、多発性硬化症の相対的な多発が指摘されている[6]。ビタミンD欠乏は、骨軟化症(くる病)を生じさせ、骨の痛みや、体重増加時には骨折などの症状を生じさせる。
他にも皮膚の疾患(例えば乾癬と白斑)の治療において、紫外線の利用が可能である。これには、311nmの波長による紫外線が効果的である。また、精神病の治療に、精神賦活薬(PUVA療法)とともに、UVA、UVB紫外線が利用される場合がある。
紙幣や重要な証明書(例えば、健康保険証、運転免許証、パスポート)には、偽造防止のため、紫外線照射時に見ることの出来るマークを含むものがある。ほとんどの国が発行しているパスポートは、紫外線感度の高い蛍光物質を含むインクで偽造防止の細い線が書かれている。
例えば、ウクライナの査証スタンプとステッカーは、通常の可視光の元の裸眼では見えないが、紫外線照射時に見ることの出来る大きくて詳細な紋章が書かれている。また、アメリカ合衆国により出されるパスポートは、最後のページのバーコードに沿って紫外線の感度の高い偽造防止の細い線が存在する。暗所で紫外線を照射することにより、これらのマークが光を発して浮き上がって見える。カラーコピーやインクジェットプリンターでは、これらを再現することが出来無いので、偽造品を見分けることができる。また日本でも、証明写真の横に紫外線感度の高い蛍光物質を含むインクで、顔写真と旅券番号が印刷されている。
蛍光灯は、低圧の水銀蒸気をイオン化することにより紫外線を作り出す。蛍光管の内側の蛍光物質は、紫外線を吸収しそれを可視光線に変える。
水銀蒸気の放射する紫外線はUVC領域であり、蛍光物質を塗布されていない水銀アーク灯からの放射を防備なしに皮膚や目に受けることは非常に危険である。 一般的な蛍光灯のガラスはUVC領域の透過性の悪いガラスが使われているため蛍光物質が部分的に剥がれても危険は生じないが意図的にUVC領域を放射させる事を目的とした殺菌灯は透過率が極めて優れる石英ガラスが使用されているため直視することは大変危険である。
水銀灯の光は、離散的な波長で構成されている。より、連続発光スペクトルに近い紫外線源としては、キセノンアーク灯(太陽光のシミュレータに使用される)、ジュウテリウムアーク灯、水銀キセノンアーク灯、金属-ハロゲン化物アーク灯とタングステンハロゲン白熱灯等がある。 また水銀灯やメタルハライドランプも発光管に石英ガラスが使われており外側のバルブが破損状態で点灯しているのもUVCが強力に放射されているため直視は極めて危険である。死亡者も出る。
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天文学において、非常に熱い物体は紫外線を放射する(ウィーンの変位則)。しかし、地上から紫外線観測を行うことは、オゾン層の存在により難しいので、ほとんどの観測は宇宙から行われることになる。(紫外線天文学、宇宙望遠鏡を参照)
例えば、1990年代のNIXT、MSSTA、最近のSOHO/EIT、TRACE等の観測衛星において使用されている。
紫外線を用いた害虫駆除装置が、羽虫などの昆虫駆除に使用される。紫外線(誘虫灯)により引き寄せられてきた昆虫は、装置の電気ショックで死亡するか、罠により捕獲される。
紫外・可視・近赤外分光法は、化学構造解析のような化学分析技術として広く使用されている。紫外線照射は、試料に蛍光剤が存在するかを確認のために、可視分光光度法において使用される。
紫外線ランプは、鉱物や宝石を調べたり、さまざまな含有物の検証を行う際に使用される。これらの含有物は可視光の元でも確認できるが、紫外線を照射した際、長波長と短波長の紫外線では、異なる蛍光を示すことがある。
このように紫外線による蛍光を利用した紫外線蛍光色素は、様々な用途に使用されている(たとえば、生化学的用途や犯罪捜査の用途)。蛍光たんぱく質(GFP,Green Fluorescent Protein)は、遺伝学でのマーカーとして使用される。たんぱく質の様な多くの物質は、紫外線に対して吸収帯域を持ち、これは生物化学分野もしくは関連する分野で関心がもたれている。その様な研究には、紫外線吸収分光光度計が使用される。
半導体(IC、LSI)の露光工程において、微小パターン形成には、波長の短い光を用いた露光が必要となる。このフォトリソグラフィには、紫外線が使用される。
フォトリソグラフィでは、半導体表面に塗布された、フォトレジストと呼ばれる感光性の樹脂に、フォトマスクと呼ばれるガラス板上に描かれた図形を通して紫外線を照射し、マスク上に書かれた構造をフォトレジスト上に転写する。その後、この様に形成されたレジストをさらにマスクとして、エッチング、メタル形成、酸化膜形成等を行い、目的の構造を作成する。
初期のフォトリソグラフィでは、光源にg線 (436 nm) が使用されていたが、その後、加工構造の微細化に伴い、i線 (365 nm)、KrFエキシマレーザー (248 nm)、ArFエキシマレーザー (193 nm)、F2エキシマレーザー (157 nm) と短波長化が進み、更に短波長化を進めるため、これらの液浸エキシマレーザーも開発されている。研究段階ではEUV(EUVリソグラフィ)、X線を用いた露光装置もある。
この様なフォトリソグラフィは半導体やICのみならず、プリント基板の製造においても使用されており、紫外線はエレクトロニクス産業では広く使用されている。
紫外線の新たな用途として、電気試料上のコロナ放電(単に「コロナ」と呼ばれる)を観測することがある。試料の絶縁の劣化や汚染はコロナを引き起こす。そのコロナでは高電界が空気をイオン化し、窒素分子を励起し、紫外線の放射を引き起こす。 コロナは試料の絶縁性を低下させる。コロナはオゾンとわずかな酸化窒素を作り出し、酸化窒素は、周囲の空気中の水分と反応し亜硝酸もしくは硝酸の蒸気を作りだす。
紫外線ランプは生物学研究所と医療施設で場所や道具の殺菌に使用される。 市販の低圧水銀灯は 254 nm の紫外線を86%放射する。DNAの紫外線に対する吸収スペクトルは、約 265 nm と約 185 nm の2箇所にピークを持ち、この 254 nm は、その片方とよく一致する。 185 nm の紫外線は、DNAへの吸収率としては良いが、空気中の酸素や、ランプに使用される石英ガラスが、185 nm に対して不透明であるため、この用途には使用されない。
これらの殺菌用の波長の紫外線は、DNAの隣接した塩基を二量体化する。微生物のDNA上にこれらの欠陥が十分に蓄積すれば、(たとえその微生物が死滅しないとしても)、微生物の増殖は抑えられ、無害になる。実際には、紫外線の照射の隙間や影により、照射されない微生物が存在するため、これらのランプは他の殺菌技術の補助として使用される。
実験はジアルジアがexcystationの状態であるより、infectivityの状態にあるとき、UVCの放射に非常に影響されやすいことが判明した。これにより、原生生物は高照射のUVCに対して耐性があるが、低照射で殺菌されることが判明した。
消費者による「新鮮」もしくは「新鮮に近い」食品の要求により、食品加工手法に非加熱的な方法を使用する要望が増加している。更に、食中毒に対する危険を避けるための食品加工方法の改善要求も存在する。
紫外線は、不要な微生物の除去のために、食品生産において使用されている。 例えば、フルーツジュースの低温殺菌工程では、強度の強い紫外線の照射が使用されている。この工程の効果はジュースの紫外線吸収度(ビールの法則)に依存する。
火災報知機には、紫外線の検知器が用いられる。物質は燃焼する際に特有のスペクトルを放出するが、ほとんどの物質(例えば、炭化水素、金属、硫黄、水素、ヒドラジン、アンモニア等)は紫外線領域と赤外線領域両者に発光スペクトルを持つ。例えば、水素が燃える炎は、185–260 nm の範囲で強く、赤外線領域で弱く発光が存在する。一方、石炭の炎は非常に弱い紫外線と非常に強い赤外線の波長の光を放出する。このように火災検知器は、紫外線と赤外線両者の検知器を備えた方が、紫外線のみの検知器より信頼性が向上する。
全ての炎には、多少の差はあるがUVBバンドの放射が存在する。一方、太陽の光におけるこのバンドの紫外線は地球の大気により吸収される。その結果、紫外線検知器は、太陽の光に反応し警報をならさず(「太陽に対して不感」)、検知器は室内外どちらにおいても使用可能である。
火災以外の用途として、紫外線検知器は、アーク放電、電気火花、稲妻、非破壊検査に使用されるX線、放射性物質の検知にも使用される。
紫外線吸収ガスや蒸気は、炎からの紫外線を減少させ、炎の検知能力を減少させる。同様に霧状のオイル(オイルミスト)の存在や、検知器上へのオイルの皮膜の付着は同様の効果をもたらす。
これらの紫外線検知器は、シリコンカーバイド(SiC)と窒化アルミニウム(AlN)を用いた、固形デバイスを用いたものと、光電管の原理を利用したガス管を用いたものがある。
一部の接着剤と保護膜は、光反応性の樹脂を成分としている。特定の波長の紫外線を適切な量と強さで照射することにより、光反応(重合)が生じる。接着剤等の樹脂は硬くなるか、分解される。この反応は非常に早く、数秒もかからない。用途は、ガラスやプラスティックの接着、光ファイバーの保護、床の保護、オフセット印刷の紙仕上がりと歯の充填材、フォトリソグラフィーに使用されるフォトレジスト等が存在する。
紫外線のライトは、一部の国の公衆便所や公共の輸送機関で薬物の乱用の阻止を目的として設置されている。これらのライトの青い色は、皮膚の蛍光と組み合わさって、薬物常習者が静脈を見つけることを困難にする。しかし、麻薬常習者が公衆便所の外で静脈の位置に印をつけ、中でその印を確認できることから、このライトの有用性は疑われている。抑止効果に関しての裏づけとなる証拠はない。
UV-EPROMなどEPROM(消去可能プログラマブル読み込み専用メモリ:Erasable Programmable ROM)の一部は紫外線の照射によりメモリ内容の消去が可能である。EPROMは電源を切っても記憶内容が消えないROMとして使用できるが、チップに紫外線を照射することでメモリの消去が可能である。書き込みと消去にはストレスがかかるため、通常、書き換え可能回数は20回前後であると言われている。
紫外線は表面エネルギーの小さいポリマーを接着する際の前処理に利用される。紫外線を浴びたポリマーは酸化し、ポリマーの表面エネルギーが上昇する。ポリマーの表面エネルギーの上昇により、接着剤とポリマー間の結合は強くなる。
1970年代以降、極圏上空のオゾン層の減少により、とくに南極上空においてオゾンホールが発生するようになり、南半球南部、とくにオーストラリアやニュージーランドなどにおいて紫外線量が急増した。オゾンホールは1985年ごろに発見され、1990年代半ばまでは急速に広がったものの、それ以降はフロンガスの国際的な使用規制などによってオゾン層の破壊のスピードが弱まり、規模の拡大はほぼ止まった。しかし一度拡大したオゾンホールの規模は縮小することはなく、2010年代に入っても大規模なまま推移しており[7]、紫外線量も上記地域において増加したままである。また、日本などの中緯度地帯においても、つくば市や札幌市付近のデータでは、1990年代以降紫外線は緩やかにではあるが増加傾向を示している[8]。
ウィクショナリーに紫外線の項目があります。 |
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Ultraviolet (UV) light is an electromagnetic radiation with a wavelength from 10 nm (30 PHz) to 380 nm (750 THz), shorter than that of visible light but longer than X-rays. UV radiation is present in sunlight, and also produced by electric arcs and specialized lights such as mercury-vapor lamps, tanning lamps, and black lights. Although lacking the energy to ionize atoms, long-wavelength ultraviolet radiation can cause chemical reactions, and causes many substances to glow or fluoresce. Consequently, biological effects of UV are greater than simple heating effects, and many practical applications of UV radiation derive from its interactions with organic molecules.
Suntan, freckling and sunburn are familiar effects of over-exposure, along with higher risk of skin cancer. Living things on dry land would be severely damaged by ultraviolet radiation from the sun if most of it were not filtered out by the Earth's atmosphere.[1] More-energetic, shorter-wavelength "extreme" UV below 121 nm ionizes air so strongly that it is absorbed before it reaches the ground.[2] Ultraviolet is also responsible for the formation of bone-strengthening vitamin D in most land vertebrates, including humans. The UV spectrum thus has effects both beneficial and harmful to human health.
Near-UV light is visible to some insects, mammals, and birds. Small birds have a fourth color receptor for ultraviolet light; this gives birds "true" UV vision.[3] Reindeer use Near-UV light to see polar bears; which would be invisible in regular light because they blend in with the snow. UV light also allows mammals to see urine trails, which is helpful for prey animals to find food in the wild. The males and females of some butterfly species look identical to the human eye but very different to UV-sensitive eyes — the males sport bright patterns in order to attract the females[4] Most Ultraviolet rays are invisible to most humans: the lens on a human eye ordinarily filters out UVB frequencies or lower, and humans lack color receptor adaptations for ultraviolet light, so humans don’t see many of the "light or colours" certain animals see.[5]
Under some conditions children and young adults can see ultraviolet down to wavelengths of about 310 nm,[6][7] and people with aphakia (missing lens) or replacement lens[8] can also see some UV wavelengths. People who don't have lenses often report seeing ultraviolet light that looks "whitish blue" or "whitish violet". This happens because our three color receptors (red, green and blue) are all sensitive to ultraviolet light, so the light comes in as a mixture of the three receptors, with a slight nod to blue side of the spectrum.
"Ultraviolet" means "beyond violet" (from Latin ultra, "beyond"), violet being the color of the highest frequencies of visible light. Ultraviolet light has a higher frequency than violet light.
UV radiation was discovered in 1801 when the German physicist Johann Wilhelm Ritter observed that invisible rays just beyond the violet end of the visible spectrum darkened silver chloride-soaked paper more quickly than violet light itself. He called them "oxidizing rays" to emphasize chemical reactivity and to distinguish them from "heat rays", discovered the previous year at the other end of the visible spectrum. The simpler term "chemical rays" was adopted shortly thereafter, and it remained popular throughout the 19th century, although there were those who held that these were an entirely different sort of radiation from light (notably John William Draper, who named them "tithonic rays"[9][10]). The terms chemical and heat rays were eventually dropped in favour of ultraviolet and infrared radiation, respectively.[11][12] In 1878 the effect of short-wavelength light on sterilizing bacteria was discovered. By 1903 it was known the most effective wavelengths were around 250 nm. In 1960, the effect of ultraviolet radiation on DNA was established.[13]
The discovery of the ultraviolet radiation below 200 nm, named vacuum ultraviolet because it is strongly absorbed by air, was made in 1893 by the German physicist Victor Schumann.[14]
The electromagnetic spectrum of ultraviolet radiation (UVR), defined most broadly as 10–400 nanometer, can be subdivided into a number of ranges recommended by the ISO standard ISO-21348:[15]
Name | Abbreviation | Wavelength (nm) | Photon energy (eV, aJ) | Notes / alternative names |
---|---|---|---|---|
Ultraviolet A | UVA | 315–400 | 3.10–3.94, 0.497–0.631 | Long wave, black light, not absorbed by the ozone layer |
Ultraviolet B | UVB | 280–315 | 3.94–4.43, 0.631–0.710 | Medium wave, mostly absorbed by the ozone layer |
Ultraviolet C | UVC | 100–280 | 4.43–12.4, 0.710–1.987 | Short wave, germicidal, completely absorbed by the ozone layer and atmosphere |
Near ultraviolet | NUV | 300–400 | 3.10–4.13, 0.497–0.662 | Visible to birds, insects and fish |
Middle ultraviolet | MUV | 200–300 | 4.13–6.20, 0.662–0.993 | |
Far ultraviolet | FUV | 122–200 | 6.20–12.4, 0.993–1.987 | |
Hydrogen Lyman-alpha | H Lyman-α | 121–122 | 10.16–10.25, 1.628–1.642 | Spectral line at 121.6 nm, 10.20 eV. Ionizing radiation at shorter wavelengths |
Vacuum ultraviolet | VUV | 10–200 | 0–0, 0–0 | Strongly absorbed by atmospheric oxygen, though 150–200 nm wavelengths can propagate through nitrogen |
Extreme ultraviolet | EUV | 10–121 | 12.4–124, 1.99–19.87 | Entirely ionizing radiation by some definitions; completely absorbed by the atmosphere |
A variety of solid-state and vacuum devices have been explored for use in different parts of the UV spectrum. Many approaches seek to adapt visible light-sensing devices, but these can suffer from unwanted response to visible light and various instabilities. Ultraviolet can be detected by suitable photodiodes and photocathodes, which can be tailored to be sensitive to different parts of the UV spectrum. Sensitive ultraviolet photomultipliers are available. Spectrometers and radiometers are made for measurement of UV radiation. Silicon detectors are used across the spectrum.[16]
People cannot perceive UV directly since the lens of the human eye blocks most radiation in the wavelength range of 300–400 nm; shorter wavelengths are blocked by the cornea.[17] Nevertheless, the photoreceptors of the retina are sensitive to near-UV, and people lacking a lens (a condition known as aphakia) perceive near-UV as whitish-blue or whitish-violet.[18][19]
Vacuum UV or VUV wavelengths (shorter than 200 nm) are strongly absorbed by molecular oxygen in the air, though the longer wavelengths of about 150–200 nm can propagate through nitrogen. Scientific instruments can therefore utilize this spectral range by operating in an oxygen-free atmosphere (commonly pure nitrogen), without the need for costly vacuum chambers. Significant examples include 193 nm photolithography equipment (for semiconductor manufacturing), and circular dichroism spectrometers.
Technology for VUV instrumentation was largely driven by solar astronomy for many decades. While optics can be used to remove unwanted visible light that contaminates the VUV, in general, detectors can be limited by their response to non-VUV radiation, and the development of "solar-blind" devices has been an important area of research. Wide-gap solid-state devices or vacuum devices with high-cutoff photocathodes can be attractive compared to silicon diodes.
Extreme UV (EUV or sometimes XUV) is characterized by a transition in the physics of interaction with matter. Wavelengths longer than about 30 nm interact mainly with the outer valence electrons of atoms, while wavelengths shorter than that interact mainly with inner shell electrons and nuclei. The long end of the EUV spectrum is set by a prominent He+ spectral line at 30.4 nm. EUV is strongly absorbed by most known materials, but it is possible to synthesize multilayer optics that reflect up to about 50% of EUV radiation at normal incidence. This technology pioneered by the NIXT and MSSTA sounding rockets in the 1990s, has been used to make telescopes for solar imaging.
Very hot objects emit UV radiation (see Black-body radiation). The Sun emits ultraviolet radiation at all wavelengths, including the extreme ultraviolet where it crosses into X-rays at 10 nm. Extremely hot stars emit proportionally more UV radiation than the Sun. Sunlight in space at the top of Earth's atmosphere (see solar constant) is composed of about 50% infrared light, 40% visible light, and 10% ultraviolet light, for a total intensity of about 1400 W/m2 in vacuum.[20]
However, at ground level sunlight is 44% visible light, 3% ultraviolet (with the Sun at its zenith), and the remainder infrared.[21][22] Thus, the atmosphere blocks about 77% of the Sun's UV, almost entirely in the shorter UV wavelengths, when the Sun is highest in the sky (zenith). Of the ultraviolet radiation that reaches the Earth's surface, more than 95% is the longer wavelengths of UVA, with the small remainder UVB. There is essentially no UVC.[23] The fraction of UVB which remains in UV light after passing through the atmosphere is heavily dependent on cloud cover and atmospheric conditions. Thick clouds block UVB effectively; but in "partly cloudy" days, patches of blue sky showing between clouds are also sources of (scattered) UVA and UVB, which are produced by Rayleigh scattering in the same way as the visible blue light from those parts of the sky.
The shorter bands of UVC, as well as even more-energetic UV radiation produced by the Sun, are absorbed by oxygen and generate the ozone in the ozone layer when single oxygen atoms produced by UV photolysis of dioxygen react with more dioxygen. The ozone layer is especially important in blocking most UVB and the remaining part of UVC not already blocked by ordinary oxygen in air.
Ultraviolet light absorbers are molecules used in organic materials (polymers, paints, etc.) to absorb UV light to reduce the UV degradation (photo-oxidation) of a material. The absorbers can themselves degrade over time, so monitoring of absorber levels in weathered materials is necessary.
In sunscreen, ingredients that absorb UVA/UVB rays, such as avobenzone, oxybenzone[24] and octyl methoxycinnamate, are organic chemical absorbers or "blockers". They are contrasted with inorganic absorbers/"blockers" of UV radiation such as titanium dioxide and zinc oxide.
For clothing, the Ultraviolet Protection Factor (UPF) represents the ratio of sunburn-causing UV without and with the protection of the fabric, similar to SPF (Sun Protection Factor) ratings for sunscreen. Standard summer fabrics have UPF of approximately 6, which means that about 20% of UV will pass through.
Suspended nanoparticles in stained glass prevent UV light from causing chemical reactions that change image colors. A set of stained glass color reference chips is planned to be used to calibrate the color cameras for the 2019 ESA Mars rover mission, since they will remain unfaded by the high level of UV present at the surface of Mars.[25]
Common soda lime glass is partially transparent to UVA but is opaque to shorter wavelengths, whereas fused quartz glass, depending on quality, can be transparent even to vacuum UV wavelengths. Ordinary window glass passes about 90% of the light above 350 nm, but blocks over 90% of the light below 300 nm.[26][27][28]
Wood's glass is a nickel-bearing form of glass with a deep blue-purple color that blocks most visible light and passes ultraviolet light.
The light from a mercury lamp is predominantly at discrete wavelengths. Other practical UV sources with more continuous emission spectra include xenon arc lamps (commonly used as sunlight simulators), deuterium arc lamps, mercury-xenon arc lamps, metal-halide arc lamps, and tungsten-halogen incandescent lamps.
A black light lamp emits long-wave UVA radiation and little visible light. Fluorescent black light lamps use a phosphor on the inner tube surface, which emits UVA light instead of visible light. Some lamps use a deep-bluish-purple Wood's glass optical filter that blocks almost all visible light with wavelengths longer than 400 nanometres.[29] Others use plain glass instead of the more expensive Wood's glass, so they appear light-blue to the eye when operating. A black light may also be formed, very inefficiently, by using a layer of Wood's glass in the envelope for an incandescent bulb. Though cheaper than fluorescent UV lamps, only 0.1% of the input power is converted to usable ultraviolet radiation. Mercury-vapor black lights in ratings up to 1 kW with UV-emitting phosphor and an envelope of Wood's glass are used for theatrical and concert displays. UVA/UVB emitting bulbs are also sold for other special purposes, such as tanning lamps and reptile-keeping.
A shortwave UV lamp can be made using a fluorescent lamp tube with no phosphor coating. These lamps emit ultraviolet light with two peaks in the UVC band at 253.7 nm and 185 nm due to the mercury within the lamp. Eighty-five to 90% of the UV produced by these lamps is at 253.7 nm, whereas only five to ten percent is at 185 nm[citation needed]. The fused quartz glass tube passes the 253 nm radiation but blocks the 185 nm wavelength. Such tubes have two or three times the UVC power of a regular fluorescent lamp tube. These low-pressure lamps have a typical efficiency of approximately thirty to forty percent, meaning that for every 100 watts of electricity consumed by the lamp, they will produce approximately 30–40 watts of total UV output. These "germicidal" lamps are used extensively for disinfection of surfaces in laboratories and food processing industries, and for disinfecting water supplies.
Specialized UV gas-discharge lamps containing different gases produce UV light at particular spectral lines for scientific purposes. Argon and deuterium arc lamps are often used as stable sources, either windowless or with various windows such as magnesium fluoride.[30] These are often the light sources in UV spectroscopy equipment for chemical analysis.
The excimer lamp, a UV light source developed within the last two decades, is seeing increasing use in scientific fields. It has the advantages of high-intensity, high efficiency, and operation at a variety of wavelength bands into the vacuum ultraviolet.
Light-emitting diodes (LEDs) can be manufactured to emit light in the ultraviolet range, although practical LED arrays are very limited below 365 nm. LED efficiency at 365 nm is about 5–8%, whereas efficiency at 395 nm is closer to 20%, and power outputs at these longer UV wavelengths are also better. Such LED arrays are beginning to be used for UV curing applications, and are already successful in digital print applications and inert UV curing environments. Power densities approaching 3 W/cm2 (30 kW/m2) are now possible, and this, coupled with recent developments by photoinitiator and resin formulators, makes the expansion of LED-cured UV materials likely.
Gas lasers, laser diodes and solid-state lasers can be manufactured to emit ultraviolet light, and lasers are available which cover the entire UV range. The nitrogen gas laser uses electronic excitation of nitrogen molecules to emit a beam that is mostly UV. The strongest ultraviolet lines are at 337.1 nm and 357.6 nm,wavelength. Another type of high power gas laser is the excimer laser. They are widely used lasers emitting in ultraviolet and vacuum ultraviolet wavelength ranges. Presently, UV argon-fluoride (ArF) excimer lasers operating at 193 nm are routinely used in integrated circuit production by photolithography. The current wavelength limit of production of coherent UV is about 126 nm, characteristic of the Ar2* excimer laser.
Direct UV-emitting laser diodes are available at 375 nm.[31] UV diode lasers have been demonstrated using Ce:LiSAF crystals (cerium-doped lithium strontium aluminum fluoride), a process developed in the 1990s at Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory.[32] Wavelengths shorter than 325 nm are commercially generated in diode-pumped solid-state lasers. Ultraviolet lasers can also be made by applying frequency conversion to lower-frequency lasers.
Ultraviolet lasers have applications in industry (laser engraving), medicine (dermatology, and keratectomy), chemistry (MALDI), free air secure communications, computing (optical storage) and manufacture of integrated circuits.
The Vacuum Ultraviolet (VUV) band (100-200 nm) can be generated by non-linear 4 wave mixing in gases by sum or difference frequency mixing of 2 or more longer wavelength lasers. The generation is generally done in gasses (e.g. krypton, hydrogen which are two-photon resonant near 193 nm) or metal vapors (e.g. magnesium). By making one of the lasers tunable the VUV light can be tuned. If one of the lasers is resonant with a transition in the gas or vapor then the VUV production is intensified. However, resonances also generate wavelength dispersion, and thus the phase matching can limit the tunable range of the 4 wave mixing. Difference frequency mixing (lambda1 + lambda2 - lambda3) has an advantage over sum frequency mixing because the phase matching can be more perfect and provide greater tuning.[33] In particular, difference frequency mixing two photons of an ArF (193 nm) excimer laser with a tunable visible or near IR laser in hydrogen or krypton provides resonantly enhanced tunable VUV covering from 100 nm to 200 nm.[33] Practically, the lack of suitable gas/vapor cell window materials above the lithium fluoride cut-off wavelength limit the tuning range to longer than about 110 nm, and window-free geometries are needed past this point.
Lasers have been used to indirectly generate non-coherent extreme UV (EUV) light at 13.5 nm for extreme ultraviolet lithography. The EUV light is not emitted by the laser, but rather by electron transitions in an extremely hot tin or xenon plasma, which is excited by an excimer laser.[34] This technique does not require a synchrotron, yet can produce UV at the edge of the X-ray spectrum. Synchrotron light sources can also produce all wavelengths of UV, including those at the boundary of the UV and X-ray spectra at 10 nm.
The impact of ultraviolet radiation on human health has implications for the risks and benefits of sun exposure, and is also implicated in issues such as fluorescent lamps and health.
UVB induces production of vitamin D in the skin at rates of up to 1,000 IUs per minute. This vitamin helps to regulate calcium metabolism (vital for the nervous system and bone health), immunity, cell proliferation, insulin secretion, and blood pressure.[35]
People with higher levels of vitamin D tend to have lower rates of diabetes, heart disease, and stroke and tend to have lower blood pressure. However, it has been found that vitamin D supplementation does not improve cardiovascular health or metabolism, so the link with vitamin D must be in part indirect. It seems that those who get more sun are generally healthier, and also have higher vitamin D levels. It has been found that ultraviolet light (even UVA) produces nitric oxide (NO) in the skin, and nitric oxide can lower blood pressure. High blood pressure increases the risk of stroke and heart disease. Although long-term exposure to ultraviolet contributes to non-melanoma skin cancers that are rarely fatal, it has been found in a Danish study that those who get these cancers were less likely to die during the study, and were much less likely to have a heart attack, than those who did not have these cancers.[36]
The amount of the brown pigment melanin in the skin increases after exposure to UV radiation at moderate levels depending on skin type; this is commonly known as a sun tan. Melanin is an excellent photoprotectant that absorbs both UVB and UVA radiation and dissipates the energy as harmless heat, protecting the skin against both direct and indirect DNA damage.
In humans, excessive exposure to UV radiation can result in acute and chronic harmful effects on the skin, eye, and immune system.[37]
The differential effects of various wavelengths of light on the human cornea and skin are sometimes called the "erythemal action spectrum.".[38] The action spectrum shows that UVA does not cause immediate reaction, but rather UV begins to cause photokeratitis and skin redness (with Caucasians more sensitive) at wavelengths starting near the beginning of the UVB band at 315 nm, and rapidly increasing to 300 nm. The skin and eyes are most sensitive to damage by UV at 265–275 nm, which is in the lower UVC band. At still shorter wavelengths of UV, damage continues to happen, but the overt effects are not as great with so little penetrating the atmosphere. The WHO-standard ultraviolet index is a widely publicized measurement of total strength of UV wavelengths that cause sunburn on human skin, by weighting UV exposure for action spectrum effects at a given time and location. This standard shows that most sunburn happens due to UV at wavelengths near the boundary of the UVA and UVB bands.
Overexposure to UVB radiation not only can cause sunburn but also some forms of skin cancer. However, the degree of redness and eye irritation (which are largely not caused by UVA) do not predict the long-term effects of UV, although they do mirror the direct damage of DNA by ultraviolet.
All bands of UV radiation damage collagen fibers and accelerate aging of the skin. Both UVA and UVB destroy vitamin A in skin, which may cause further damage.[39]
UVB light can cause direct DNA damage.[40] This cancer connection is one reason for concern about ozone depletion and the ozone hole.
The most deadly form of skin cancer, malignant melanoma, is mostly caused by DNA damage independent from UVA radiation. This can be seen from the absence of a direct UV signature mutation in 92% of all melanoma.[41] Occasional overexposure and sunburn are probably greater risk factors for melanoma than long-term exposure.[36] UVC is the highest-energy, most-dangerous type of ultraviolet radiation, and causes adverse effects that can variously be mutagenic or carcinogenic.[42]
In the past, UVA was considered not harmful or less harmful than UVB, but today it is known to contribute to skin cancer via indirect DNA damage (free radicals such as reactive oxygen species). UVA can generate highly reactive chemical intermediates, such as hydroxyl and oxygen radicals, which in turn can damage DNA. The DNA damage caused indirectly to skin by UVA consists mostly of single-strand breaks in DNA, while the damage caused by UVB includes direct formation of thymine dimers or other pyrimidine dimers, and double-strand DNA breakage.[43] UVA is immunosuppressive for the entire body (accounting for a large part of the immunosuppressive effects of sunlight exposure), and is mutagenic for basal cell keratinocytes in skin.[44]
UVB light can cause direct DNA damage. UVB radiation excites DNA molecules in skin cells, causing aberrant covalent bonds to form between adjacent pyrimidine bases, producing a dimer. Most UV-induced pyrimidine dimers in DNA are removed by the process known as nucleotide excision repair that employs about 30 different proteins.[40] Those pyrimidine dimers that escape this repair process can induce a form of programmed cell death (apoptosis) or can cause DNA replication errors leading to mutation.
As a defense against UV radiation, the amount of the brown pigment melanin in the skin increases when exposed to moderate (depending on skin type) levels of radiation; this is commonly known as a sun tan. The purpose of melanin is to absorb UV radiation and dissipate the energy as harmless heat, blocking the UV from damaging skin tissue. UVA gives a quick tan that lasts for days by oxidizing melanin that was already present and triggers the release of the melanin from melanocytes. UVB yields a tan that takes roughly 2 days to develop because it stimulates the body to produce more melanin. The photochemical properties of melanin make it an excellent photoprotectant. However, sunscreen chemicals cannot dissipate the energy of the excited state as efficiently as melanin and therefore the penetration of sunscreen ingredients into the lower layers of the skin increases the amount of reactive oxygen species.[45]
Sunscreen prevents the direct DNA damage which causes sunburn. Most of these products contain an SPF rating to show how well they block UVB rays. The SPF rating, however, offers no data about UVA protection.
Some sunscreen lotions now include compounds such as titanium dioxide which helps protect against UVA rays. Other UVA blocking compounds found in sunscreen include zinc oxide and avobenzone.
Medical organizations recommend that patients protect themselves from UV radiation by using sunscreen. Five sunscreen ingredients have been shown to protect mice against skin tumors. However, some sunscreen chemicals produce potentially harmful substances if they are illuminated while in contact with living cells.[46][47] The amount of sunscreen that penetrates into the lower layers of the skin may be large enough to cause damage.[48]
Sunscreen reduces the direct DNA damage that causes sunburn, by blocking UVB, and the usual SPF rating indicates how effectively this radiation is blocked. SPF is, therefore, also called UVB-PF, for "UVB protection factor".[49] This rating, however, offers no data about important protection against UVA,[50] which does not primarily cause sunburn but is still harmful, since it causes indirect DNA damage and is also considered carcinogenic. Several studies suggest that the absence of UVA filters may be the cause of the higher incidence of melanoma found in sunscreen users compared to non-users.[51][52][53][54][55]
Some sunscreen chemicals produce potentially harmful substances if they are illuminated while in contact with living cells.[46][47][56] The amount of sunscreen which penetrates through the stratum corneum may or may not be large enough to cause damage.
In an experiment by Hanson et al. that was published in 2006, the amount of harmful reactive oxygen species (ROS) was measured in untreated and in sunscreen treated skin. In the first 20 minutes the film of sunscreen had a protective effect and the number of ROS species was smaller. After 60 minutes, however, the amount of absorbed sunscreen was so high that the amount of ROS was higher in the sunscreen treated skin than in the untreated skin.[45]
Ultraviolet radiation can aggravate several skin conditions and diseases, including:[57]
The eye is most sensitive to damage by UV in the lower UVC band at 265–275 nm. Light of this wavelength is almost absent from sunlight, but is found in welder's arc lights and other artificial sources. Exposure to these can cause "welder's flash" or "arc eye" (photokeratitis), and can lead to cataracts, pterygium,[58][59] and pinguecula formation. To a lesser extent, UVB in sunlight from 310–280 nm also causes photokeratitis ("snow blindness"), and the cornea, the lens, and the retina can be damaged.
Protective eyewear is beneficial to those exposed to ultraviolet radiation. Since light can reach the eyes from the sides, full-coverage eye protection is usually warranted if there is an increased risk of exposure, as in high-altitude mountaineering. Mountaineers are exposed to higher-than-ordinary levels of UV radiation, both because there is less atmospheric filtering and because of reflection from snow and ice.
Ordinary, untreated eyeglasses give some protection. Most plastic lenses give more protection than glass lenses, because, as noted above, glass is transparent to UVA and the common acrylic plastic used for lenses is less so. Some plastic lens materials, such as polycarbonate, inherently block most UV. Protective coating is available for eyeglass lenses that need it, but even a coating that completely blocks UV will not protect the eye from light that arrives around the lens.
UV degradation is one form of polymer degradation that affects plastics exposed to sunlight. The problem appears as discoloration or fading, cracking, loss of strength or disintegration. The effects of attack increases with exposure time and sunlight intensity. The addition of UV absorbers inhibits the effect.
Sensitive polymers include thermoplastics and speciality fibers like aramids. UV absorption leads to chain degradation and loss of strength at sensitive points in the chain structure. Aramid rope must be shielded with a sheath of thermoplastic if it is to retain its strength.
Many pigments and dyes absorb UV and change colour, so paintings and textiles may need extra protection both from sunlight and fluorescent bulbs, two common sources of UV radiation. Window glass absorbs some harmful UV, but valuable artifacts need extra shielding. Many museums place black curtains over watercolour paintings and ancient textiles, for example. Since watercolours can have very low pigment levels, they need extra protection from UV light. Various forms of picture framing glass, including acrylics (plexiglass), laminates, and coatings, offer different degrees of UV (and visible light) protection.
Because of its ability to cause chemical reactions and excite fluorescence in materials, ultraviolet light has a number of applications. The following table[60] gives some uses of specific wavelength bands in the UV spectrum
Photographic film responds to ultraviolet radiation but the glass lenses of cameras usually block radiation shorter than 350 nm. Slightly yellow UV-blocking filters are often used for outdoor photography to prevent unwanted bluing and overexposure by UV light. For photography in the near UV, special filters may be used. Photography with wavelengths shorter than 350 nm requires special quartz lenses which do not absorb the radiation. Digital cameras sensors may have internal filters that block UV to improve color rendition accuracy. Sometimes these internal filters can be removed, or they may be absent, and an external visible-light filter prepares the camera for near-UV photography. A few cameras are designed for use in the UV.
Photography by reflected ultraviolet radiation is useful for medical, scientific, and forensic investigations, in applications as wide spread as detecting bruising of skin, alterations of documents, or restoration work on paintings. Photography of the fluorescence produced by ultraviolet illumination uses visible wavelengths of light.
In ultraviolet astronomy, measurements are used to discern the chemical composition of the interstellar medium, and the temperature and composition of stars. Because the ozone layer blocks many UV frequencies from reaching telescopes on the surface of the Earth, most UV observations are made from space.
Corona discharge on electrical apparatus can be detected by its ultraviolet emissions. Corona causes degradation of electrical insulation and emission of ozone and nitrogen oxide.[63]
Some EPROM (erasable programmable read-only memory) modules are erased by exposure to UV radiation. These modules have a transparent (quartz) window on the top of the chip that allows the UV radiation in.
Colorless fluorescent dyes that emit blue light under UV are added as optical brighteners to paper and fabrics. The blue light emitted by these agents counteracts yellow tints that may be present, and causes the colors and whites to appear whiter or more brightly colored.
UV fluorescent dyes that glow in the primary colors are used in paints, papers and textiles either to enhance color under daylight illumination, or to provide special effects when lit with UV lamps. Blacklight paints that contain dyes that glow under UV are used in a number of art and esthetic applications.
To help prevent counterfeiting of currency, or forgery of important documents such as driver's licenses and passports, the paper may include a UV watermark or fluorescent multicolor fibers that are visible under ultraviolet light. Postage stamps are tagged with a phosphor that glows under UV light to permit automatic detection of the stamp and facing of the letter.
UV fluorescent dyes are used in many applications (for example, biochemistry and forensics). Some brands of pepper spray will leave an invisible chemical (UV dye) that is not easily washed off on a pepper-sprayed attacker, which would help police identify the attacker later.[64]
In some types of nondestructive testing UV light stimulates fluorescent dyes to highlight defects in a broad range of materials. These dyes may be carried into surface-breaking defects by capillary action (liquid penetrant inspection) or they may be bound to ferrite particles caught in magnetic leakage fields in ferrous materials (magnetic particle inspection).
UV is an investigative tool at the crime scene helpful in locating and identifying bodily fluids such as semen, blood, and saliva.[65] For example, ejaculated fluids or saliva can be detected by high-power UV light sources, irrespective of the structure or colour of the surface the fluid is deposited upon.[66] UV-Vis microspectroscopy is also used to analyze trace evidence, such as textile fibers and paint chips, as well as questioned documents.
Other applications include authentication of various collectibles and art, and detecting counterfeit currency. Even materials not specially marked with UV sensitive dyes may have distinctive fluorescence under UV light, or may fluoresce differently under short-wave versus long-wave ultraviolet.
Using multi-spectral imaging it is possible to read illegible papyrus, such as the burned papyri of the Villa of the Papyri or of Oxyrhynchus, or the Archimedes palimpsest. The technique involves taking pictures of the illegible document using different filters in the infrared or ultraviolet range, finely tuned to capture certain wavelengths of light. Thus, the optimum spectral portion can be found for distinguishing ink from paper on the papyrus surface.
Simple NUV sources can be used to highlight faded iron-based ink on vellum.[67]
Ultraviolet light aids in the detection of organic material deposits that remain on surfaces where periodic cleaning and sanitizing may not have been properly accomplished. The phenyl and indole chemical moieties in proteins absorb UV, and are made visible by blocking the fluorescence of the material beneath them—often UV brighteners in fabrics. Detergents are easily detected using UV inspection. In "ABS" or alkylbenzenesulfonate detergents, the substituted benzine absorbs UV. Phosphate detergents with a phenyl moiety also absorb.
Pet urine deposits in carpeting or other hard surfaces can be detected for accurate treatment and removal of mineral traces and the odor-causing bacteria that feed on proteins in urine. Many hospitality industries use UV lamps to inspect for unsanitary bedding to determine life-cycle for mattress restoration, as well as general performance of the cleaning staff.[citation needed] A perennial news feature for many television news organizations involves an investigative reporter's using a similar device to reveal unsanitary conditions in hotels, public toilets, hand rails, and such.
UV/VIS spectroscopy is widely used as a technique in chemistry to analyze chemical structure, the most notable one being conjugated systems. UV radiation is often used to excite a given sample where the fluorescent emission is measured with a spectrofluorometer. In biological research, UV light is used for quantification of nucleic acids or proteins.
Ultraviolet lamps are also used in analyzing minerals and gems.
In pollution control applications, ultraviolet analyzers are used to detect emissions of nitrogen oxides, sulfur compounds, mercury and ammonia, for example in the flue gas of fossil fired power plants.[68] Ultraviolet light can detect thin sheens of spilled oil on water, either by the high reflectivity of oil films at UV wavelengths, fluorescence of compounds in oil, or by absorbing of UV light created by Raman scattering in water.[69]
In general, ultraviolet detectors use either a solid-state device, such as one based on silicon carbide or aluminium nitride, or a gas-filled tube as the sensing element. UV detectors that are sensitive to UV light in any part of the spectrum respond to irradiation by sunlight and artificial light. A burning hydrogen flame, for instance, radiates strongly in the 185- to 260-nanometer range and only very weakly in the IR region, whereas a coal fire emits very weakly in the UV band yet very strongly at IR wavelengths; thus, a fire detector that operates using both UV and IR detectors is more reliable than one with a UV detector alone. Virtually all fires emit some radiation in the UVC band, whereas the Sun's radiation at this band is absorbed by the Earth's atmosphere. The result is that the UV detector is "solar blind", meaning it will not cause an alarm in response to radiation from the Sun, so it can easily be used both indoors and outdoors.
UV detectors are sensitive to most fires, including hydrocarbons, metals, sulfur, hydrogen, hydrazine, and ammonia. Arc welding, electrical arcs, lightning, X-rays used in nondestructive metal testing equipment (though this is highly unlikely), and radioactive materials can produce levels that will activate a UV detection system. The presence of UV-absorbing gases and vapors will attenuate the UV radiation from a fire, adversely affecting the ability of the detector to detect flames. Likewise, the presence of an oil mist in the air or an oil film on the detector window will have the same effect.
Ultraviolet radiation is used for very fine resolution photolithography, a procedure wherein a chemical called a photoresist is exposed to UV radiation that has passed through a mask. The light causes chemical reactions to occur in the photoresist. After removal of unwanted photoresist, a pattern determined by the mask remains on the sample. Steps may then be taken to "etch" away, deposit on or otherwise modify areas of the sample where no photoresist remains.
Photolithography is used in the manufacture of semiconductors, integrated circuit components,[70] and printed circuit boards. Photolithography processes used to fabricate electronic integrated circuits presently use 193 nm UV, and are experimentally using 13.5 nm UV for extreme ultraviolet lithography.
Electronic components that require clear transparency for light to exit or enter (photo voltaic panels and sensors) can be potted using acrylic resins that are cured using UV light energy. The advantages are low VOC emissions and rapid curing.
Certain inks, coatings, and adhesives are formulated with photoinitiators and resins. When exposed to UV light, polymerization occurs, and so the adhesives harden or cure, usually within a few seconds. Applications include glass and plastic bonding, optical fiber coatings, the coating of flooring, UV Coating and paper finishes in offset printing, dental fillings, and decorative finger nail "gels".
UV sources for UV curing applications include UV lamps, UV LEDs, and Excimer flash lamps. Fast processes such as flexo or offset printing require high-intensity light focused via reflectors onto a moving substrate and medium so high-pressure Hg (mercury) or Fe (iron, doped)-based bulbs are used, energized with electric arcs or microwaves. Lower-power fluorescent lamps and LEDs can be used for static applications. Small high-pressure lamps can have light focused and transmitted to the work area via liquid-filled or fiber-optic light guides.
The impact of UV on polymers is used for modification of the (roughness and hydrophobicity) of polymer surfaces. For example, a poly(methyl methacrylate) surface can be smoothed by vacuum ultraviolet.[71]
UV radiation is useful in preparing low-surface-energy polymers for adhesives. Polymers exposed to UV light will oxidize, thus raising the surface energy of the polymer. Once the surface energy of the polymer has been raised, the bond between the adhesive and the polymer is stronger.
Using a catalytic chemical reaction from titanium dioxide and UVC light exposure, oxidation of organic matter converts pathogens, pollens, and mold spores into harmless inert byproducts. The cleansing mechanism of UV is a photochemical process. Contaminants in the indoor environment are almost entirely organic carbon-based compounds, which break down when exposed to high-intensity UV at 240 to 280 nm. Short-wave ultraviolet light can destroy DNA in living microorganisms.[citation needed] UVC's effectiveness is directly related to intensity and exposure time.
UV light has also been shown to reduce gaseous contaminants such as carbon monoxide and VOCs.[72][73][74] UV lamps radiating at 184 and 254 nm can remove low concentrations of hydrocarbons and carbon monoxide, if the air is recycled between the room and the lamp chamber. This arrangement prevents the introduction of ozone into the treated air. Likewise, air may be treated by passing by a single UV source operating at 184 nm and passed over iron pentaoxide to remove the ozone produced by the UV lamp.
Ultraviolet lamps are used to sterilize workspaces and tools used in biology laboratories and medical facilities. Commercially available low-pressure mercury-vapor lamps emit about 86% of their light at 254 nanometers (nm), which is near one of the peaks of the germicidal effectiveness curve. UV light at these germicidal wavelengths damage a microorganism's DNA so that it cannot reproduce, making it harmless, (even though the organism may not be killed). Since microorganisms can be shielded from ultraviolet light in small cracks and other shaded areas, these lamps are used only as a supplement to other sterilization techniques.
Disinfection using UV radiation is commonly used in wastewater treatment applications and is finding an increased usage in municipal drinking water treatment. Many bottlers of spring water use UV disinfection equipment to sterilize their water. Solar water disinfection[75] has been researched for cheaply treating contaminated water using natural sunlight. The UV-A irradiation and increased water temperature kill organisms in the water.
Ultraviolet radiation is used in several food processes to kill unwanted microorganisms. UV light can be used to pasteurize fruit juices by flowing the juice over a high-intensity ultraviolet light source.[76] The effectiveness of such a process depends on the UV absorbance of the juice.
Pulsed light (PL) is a technique of killing microorganisms on surfaces using pulses of an intense broad spectrum, rich in UV-C between 200 and 280 nm. Pulsed light works with Xenon flash lamps that can produce flashes several times per second. Disinfection robots use pulsed UV light [77][78]
Some animals, including birds, reptiles, and insects such as bees, can see near-ultraviolet light. Many fruits, flowers, and seeds stand out more strongly from the background in ultraviolet wavelengths as compared to human color vision. Scorpions glow or take on a yellow to green color under UV illumination, thus assisting in the control of these arachnids. Many birds have patterns in their plumage that are invisible at usual wavelengths but observable in ultraviolet, and the urine and other secretions of some animals, including dogs, cats, and human beings, is much easier to spot with ultraviolet. Urine trails of rodents can be detected by pest control technicians for proper treatment of infested dwellings.
Butterflies use ultraviolet as a communication system for sex recognition and mating behavior. For example, in the Colias eurytheme butterfly, males rely on visual cues to locate and identify females. Instead of using chemical stimuli to find mates, males are attracted to the ultraviolet-absorbing color of female hind wings.[79]
Many insects use the ultraviolet wavelength emissions from celestial objects as references for flight navigation. A local ultraviolet emitter will normally disrupt the navigation process and will eventually attract the flying insect.
The Green Fluorescent Protein (GFP) is often used in genetics as a marker. Many substances, such as proteins, have significant light absorption bands in the ultraviolet that are of interest in biochemistry and related fields. UV-capable spectrophotometers are common in such laboratories.
Ultraviolet traps called bug zappers are used to eliminate various small flying insects. They are attracted to the UV light, and are killed using an electric shock, or trapped once they come into contact with the device. Different designs of ultraviolet light traps are also used by entomologists for collecting nocturnal insects during faunistic survey studies.
Ultraviolet radiation is helpful in the treatment of skin conditions such as psoriasis and vitiligo. Exposure to UVA light while the skin is hyper-photosensitive by taking psoralens is an effective treatment for psoriasis. Due to the potential of psoralens to cause damage to the liver, PUVA therapy may be used only a limited number of times over a patient's lifetime.
UVB phototherapy does not require additional medications or topical preparations for the therapeutic benefit; only the light exposure is needed. However, phototherapy can be effective when used in conjunction with certain topical treatments such as anthralin, coal tar, and Vitamin A and D derivatives, or systemic treatments such as methotrexate and soriatane.[80]
Reptiles need UVB light for synthesis of vitamin D, which in turn is needed to metabolize calcium for bone and egg production. UVA wavelengths are also visible to many reptiles and play an important role in visual feedback. Thus, in a typical reptile enclosure, a fluorescent UV lamp should be available for vitamin D synthesis. This should be combined with the provision of heat for basking, either by the same lamp or another.[81]
Evolution of early reproductive proteins and enzymes is attributed in modern models of evolutionary theory to ultraviolet light. UVB light causes thymine base pairs next to each other in genetic sequences to bond together into thymine dimers, a disruption in the strand that reproductive enzymes cannot copy. This leads to frameshifting during genetic replication and protein synthesis, usually killing the cell. Before formation of the UV-blocking ozone layer, when early prokaryotes approached the surface of the ocean, they almost invariably died out. The few that survived had developed enzymes that monitored the genetic material and removed thymine dimers by nucleotide excision repair enzymes. Many enzymes and proteins involved in modern mitosis and meiosis are similar to repair enzymes, and are believed to be evolved modifications of the enzymes originally used to overcome DNA damages caused by UV light.[82]
Limits of the eye's overall range of sensitivity extends from about 310 to 1050 nanometers
Normally the human eye responds to light rays from 390 to 760 nm. This can be extended to a range of 310 to 1,050 nm under artificial conditions.
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リンク元 | 「ultraviolet B」「短波長紫外線」 |
拡張検索 | 「narrow band UVB療法」 |
関連記事 | 「U」「UV」 |
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