肉質虫、肉質虫亜門

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characterized by the formation of pseudopods for locomotion and taking food: Actinopoda; Rhizopoda (同)class Sarcodina

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出典(authority):フリー百科事典『ウィキペディア（Wikipedia）』「2015/10/12 06:17:17」(JST)

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Acanthamoeba

An amoeba (also ameba, amœba or amoeboid) is a type of cell or organism which has the ability to alter its shape, primarily by extending and retracting pseudopods.^[1] Amoebae do not form a single taxonomic group, but are found in every major lineage of eukaryotic organisms. Amoeboid cells occur not only among the protozoa, but also fungi, algae and animals.^[2]^[3]^[4]

Microbiologists often use the terms "amoeboid" and "amoebae" interchangeably for any organism that exhibits amoeboid movement.^[5]^[6]

In older classification systems, most amoebae were placed in the class or subphylum Sarcodina, a grouping of single-celled organisms that possess pseudopods or move by protoplasmic flow. However, molecular phylogenetic studies have shown that Sarcodina is not a monophyletic group whose members share common descent. Consequently, amoeboid organisms are no longer classified together in one group.^[7]

The best known amoeboid protists are the "giant amoebae" Chaos carolinense and Amoeba proteus, both of which are widely cultivated and studied in classrooms and laboratories. Other well known species include the so-called "brain-eating amoeba" Naegleria fowleri, the intestinal parasite Entamoeba histolytica, which causes amoebic dysentery, and the multicellular "social amoeba" Dictyostelium discoideum.

Shape, movement and nutrition

Foraminifera have reticulose (net-like) pseudopods

Amoebae move and feed by using pseudopods, which are bulges of cytoplasm formed by the coordinated action of actin microfilaments pushing out the plasma membrane that surrounds the cell.^[8]

The appearance and internal structure of pseudopods are used to distinguish groups of amoebae from one another. Amoebozoan species, such as those in the genus Amoeba, typically have bulbous (lobose) pseudopods, rounded at the ends and roughly tubular in cross-section. Cercozoan amoeboids, such as Euglypha and Gromia, have slender, thread-like (filose) pseudopods. Foraminifera emit fine, branching pseudopods that merge with one another to form net-like (reticulose) structures. Some groups, such as the Radiolaria and Heliozoa, have stiff, needle-like, radiating axopodia (actinopoda) supported from within by bundles of microtubules.^[2]^[9]

Free-living amoebae may be "testate" (enclosed within a hard shell), or "naked" (lacking any hard covering). The shells of testate amoebae may be composed of various substances, including calcium, silica, chitin, or agglutinations of found materials like small grains of sand and the frustules of diatoms.^[10]

A "naked" Amoebozoan

To regulate osmotic pressure, most freshwater amoebae have a contractile vacuole which expels excess water from the cell.^[11] This organelle is necessary because freshwater has a lower concentration of solutes (such as salt) than the amoeba's own internal fluids (cytosol). Because the surrounding water is hypotonic with respect to the contents of the cell, water is transferred across the amoeba's cell membrane by osmosis. Without a contractile vacuole, the cell would fill with excess water and, eventually, burst.

Marine amoebae do not usually possess a contractile vacuole, because the concentration of solutes within the cell are in balance with the tonicity of the surrounding water.^[12]

Amoeba phagocytosis

The food sources of amoebae vary. Some amoebae are predatory and live by consuming bacteria and other protists. Some are detritivores and eat dead organic material.

Amoebae typically ingest their food by phagocytosis, extending pseudopods to encircle and engulf live prey or particles of scavenged material. Amoeboid cells do not have a mouth or cytostome, and there is no fixed place on the cell at which phagocytosis normally occurs.^[13]

Some amoebae also feed by pinocytosis, imbibing dissolved nutrients through vesicles formed within the cell membrane .^[14]

Amoebae as specialized cells and life cycle stages

Neutrophil (white blood cell) engulfing anthrax bacteria

Some multicellular organisms have amoeboid cells only in certain phases of life, or use amoeboid movements for specialized functions. In the immune system of humans and other animals, amoeboid white blood cells pursue invading organisms, such as bacteria and pathogenic protists, and engulf them by phagocytosis.^[15]

Amoeboid stages also occur in the multicellular fungus-like protists, the so-called slime molds. Both the plasmodial slime molds, currently classified in the class Myxogastria, and the cellular slime molds of the groups Acrasida and Dictyosteliida, live as amoebae during their feeding stage. The amoeboid cells of the former combine to form a giant multinucleate organism,^[16] while the cells of the latter live separately until food runs out, at which time the amoebae aggregate to form a multicellular migrating "slug" which functions as a single organism.^[5]

Other organisms may also present amoeboid cells during certain life-cycle stages, e.g., the gametes of some green algae (Zygnematophyceae),^[17] of pennate diatoms,^[18] of some foraminiferans,^[19] or the spores (or dispersal phases) of some Mesomycetozoea.^[20]^[21]

Amoebae as organisms

Early history and origins of Sarcodina

The first illustration of an amoeboid, from Roesel von Rosenhof's Insecten-Belustigung (1755).

The earliest record of an amoeboid organism was produced in 1755 by August Johann Rösel von Rosenhof, who named his discovery "Der Kleine Proteus" ("the Little Proteus").^[22] Rösel's illustrations show an unidentifiable freshwater amoeba, similar in appearance to the common species now known as Amoeba proteus.^[23] The term "Proteus animalcule" remained in use throughout the 18th and 19th centuries, as an informal name for any large, free-living amoeboid.^[24]

In 1822, the genus Amiba (from the Greek amoibè, meaning "change") was erected by the French naturalist Bory de Saint-Vincent.^[25]^[26] Bory's contemporary, C. G. Ehrenberg, adopted the genus in his own classification of microscopic creatures, but changed the spelling to Amoeba.^[27]

In 1841, Félix Dujardin coined the term "sarcode" (from Greek sarx, flesh, and eidos, form) for the "thick, glutinous, homogenous substance" which fills protozoan cell bodies.^[28] Although the term originally referred to the protoplasm of any protozoan, it soon came to be used in a restricted sense to designate the gelatinous contents of amoeboid cells.^[7] Thirty years later, the Austrian zoologist Ludwig Karl Schmarda used "sarcode" as the conceptual basis for his Division Sarcodea, a phylum-level group made up of "unstable, changeable" organisms with bodies largely composed of 'sarcode.'^[29] Later workers, including the influential taxonomist Otto Bütschli, emended this group to create the class or subphylum Sarcodina,^[30] a taxon that remained in wide use throughout most of the 20th century.

Within the traditional Sarcodina, amoebae were generally divided into morphological categories, on the basis of the form and structure of their pseudopods. Amoebae with pseudopods supported by regular arrays of microtubules (such as the freshwater Heliozoa and marine Radiolaria) were classified as Actinopods; whereas those with unsupported pseudopods were classified as Rhizopods.^[31] The Rhizopods were further subdivided into lobose, filose, and reticulose amoebae, according to the morphology of their pseudopods.

Dismantling of Sarcodina

In the final decade of the 20th century, a series of molecular phylogenetic analyses confirmed that Sarcodina was not a monophyletic group. In view of these findings, the old scheme was abandoned and the amoebae of Sarcodina were dispersed among many other high-level taxonomic groups. Today, the majority of traditional "Sarcodines" are placed in two eukaryote supergroups: Amoebozoa and Rhizaria. The rest have been distributed among the excavates, opisthokonts, and stramenopiles. Some, like the Centrohelida, have yet to be placed in any supergroup.^[7]^[32]

Classification

Recent classification places the various amoeboid genera in the following groups:

Supergroups	Major Groups and Genera	Morphology
Amoebozoa	Lobosea: Acanthamoeba, Amoeba, Balamuthia, Chaos, Clydonella, Discamoeba, Echinamoeba, Filamoeba, Flabellula, Gephyramoeba, Glaeseria, Hartmannella, Hydramoeba, Korotnevella (Dactylamoeba), Leptomyxa, Lingulamoeba, Mastigina, Mayorella, Metachaos, Neoparamoeba, Paramoeba, Polychaos, Phreatamoeba, Platyamoeba, Protoacanthamoeba, Rhizamoeba, Saccamoeba, Sappinia, Stereomyxa, Thecamoeba, Trichamoeba, Trichosphaerium, Unda, Vannella, Vexillifera Conosa: Endamoeba, Entamoeba, Hyperamoeba, Mastigamoeba, Mastigella, Pelomyxa, Dictyostelium, Physarum	Lobose pseudopods (Lobosea): Lobose pseudopods are blunt, and there may be one or several on a cell, which is usually divided into a layer of clear ectoplasm surrounding more granular endoplasm.
Rhizaria	Cercozoa: Filosa: Monadofilosa: Gyromitus, Paulinella Granofilosea: Endomyxa: Proteomyxidea: Vampyrella Gromiidea Ascetosporea Foraminifera Radiolaria	Filose pseudopods (Filosa): Filose pseudopods are narrow and tapering. The vast majority of filose amoebae, including all those that produce shells, are placed within the Cercozoa together with various flagellates that tend to have amoeboid forms. The naked filose amoebae also includes vampyrellids. Reticulose pseudopods (Endomyxa): Reticulose pseudopods are cytoplasmic strands that branch and merge to form a net. They are found most notably among the Foraminifera, a large group of marine protists that generally produce multi-chambered shells. There are only a few sorts of naked reticulose amebas, notably the gymnophryids, and their relationships are not certain. Radiolarians are a subgroup of actinopods that are now grouped with rhizarians.
Excavata	Heterolobosea: Vahlkampfiidae: Monopylocystis, Naegleria, Neovahlkampfia, Paratetramitus, Paravahlkampfia, Psalteriomonas, Sawyeria, Tetramitus, Vahlkampfia, Willaertia Gruberellidae: Gruberella, Stachyamoeba Parabasalidea: Dientamoeba, Histomonas Other: Rosculus, Acrasis, Heteramoeba, Learamoeba, Stygamoeba, Plaesiobystra,^[33] Tulamoeba^[33]	The Heterolobosea, includes protists that can transform between amoeboid and flagellate forms.
Chromalveolate	Heterokont: Hyalodiscus, Labyrinthula Alveolata: Pfiesteria	Hyalodiscus and Pfiesteria are sometimes considered to have amoeboid characteristics.
Nucleariid	Micronuclearia, Nuclearia	Nucleariids appear to be close relatives of animals and fungi.
Ungrouped/ unknown	Adelphamoeba, Astramoeba, Cashia, Dinamoeba, Flagellipodium, Flamella, Gibbodiscus, Gocevia, Hollandella, Iodamoeba, Malamoeba, Nollandia, Oscillosignum, Paragocevia, Parvamoeba, Pernina, Pontifex, Protonaegleria, Pseudomastigamoeba, Rugipes, Striamoeba, Striolatus, Subulamoeba, Theratromyxa, Trienamoeba, Trimastigamoeba, Vampyrellium

Pathogenic interactions with other organisms

Some amoebae can infect other organisms pathogenically, causing disease:

Entamoeba histolytica is the cause of amoebiasis, or amoebic dysentery.
Naegleria fowleri (the "brain-eating amoeba") is a fresh-water-native species that can be fatal to humans if introduced through the nose.
Acanthamoeba can cause amoebic keratitis and encephalitis in humans.
Balamuthia mandrillaris is the cause of (often fatal) granulomatous amoebic meningoencephalitis

References

^ Singleton, Paul (2006). Dictionary of Microbiology and Molecular Biology, 3rd Edition, revised. Chichester, UK: John Wiley & Sons. p. 32. ISBN 978-0-470-03545-0.
^ ^a ^b http://tolweb.org/notes/?note_id=51
^ http://www.bms.ed.ac.uk/research/others/smaciver/amoebae.htm
^ http://www.microscopy-uk.org.uk/mag/wimsmall/sundr.html
^ ^a ^b Marée, Athanasius FM, and Paulien Hogeweg. "How amoeboids self-organize into a fruiting body: multicellular coordination in Dictyostelium discoideum." Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 98.7 (2001): 3879–3883.
^ Mackerras, M. J., and Q. N. Ercole. "Observations on the action of paludrine on malarial parasites." Transactions of the Royal Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 41.3 (1947): 365–376.
^ ^a ^b ^c Jan Pawlowski: The twilight of Sarcodina: a molecular perspective on the polyphyletic origin of amoeboid protists. Protistology, Band 5, 2008, S. 281–302. (pdf, 570 kB)
^ Alberts Eds.; et al. (2007). Molecular Biology of the Cell 5th Edition. New York: Garland Science. p. 1037. ISBN 9780815341055.
^ Margulis, Lynn (2009). Kingdoms and Domains. Academic Press. pp. 206–7. ISBN 978-0-12-373621-5.
^ Ogden, C. G. (1980). An Atlas of Freshwater Testate Amoeba. Oxford, London, Glasgow: Oxford University Press, for British Museum (Natural History). pp. 1–5. ISBN 0198585020.
^ Alberts Eds.; et al. (2007). Molecular Biology of the Cell 5th Edition. New York: Garland Science. p. 663. ISBN 9780815341055.
^ Kudo, Richard Roksabro. "Protozoology." Protozoology 4th Edit (1954). p. 83
^ Thorp, James H. (2001). Ecology and Classification of North American Freshwater invertebrates. San Diego: Academic. p. 71. ISBN 0-12-690647-5.
^ Jeon, Kwang W. (1973). Biology of Amoeba. New York: Academic Press. p. 100.
^ Friedl, Peter, Stefan Borgmann, and Eva-B. Bröcker. "Amoeboid leukocyte crawling through extracellular matrix: lessons from the Dictyostelium paradigm of cell movement." Journal of leukocyte biology 70.4 (2001): 491–509.
^ Nakagaki; et al. (2000). "Intelligence: Maze-solving by an amoeboid organism". Nature 407 (6803): 470. doi:10.1038/35035159. PMID 11028990. Retrieved Sep 14, 2014.
^ Wehr, John D. (2003). Freshwater Algae of North America. San Diego and London: Academic Press. p. 353. ISBN 978-0-12-741550-5.
^ "Algae World: diatom sex and life cycles". Algae World. Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh. Retrieved March 1, 2015.
^ Sen Gupta, Barun K. (2002). Modern Foraminifera. Springer. p. 16. ISBN 978-1-4020-0598-5.
^ Valle, L.G. (2014). "New species of Paramoebidium (trichomycetes, Mesomycetozoea) from the Mediterranean, with comments about the amoeboid cells in Amoebidiales". Mycologia. doi:10.3852/13-153. Retrieved March 1, 2015.
^ Taylor, J. W. & Berbee, M. L. (2014). Fungi from PCR to Genomics: The Spreading Revolution in Evolutionary Biology. In: Systematics and Evolution. Springer Berlin Heidelberg. p. 52, [1]
^ Rosenhof, R. (1755). Monatlich herausgegebene Insektenbelustigungen, vol. 3, p. 621, [2].
^ Jeon, Kwang W. (1973). Biology of Amoeba. New York: Academic Press. pp. 2–3, [3].
^ McAlpine, Daniel (1881). Biological atlas: a guide to the practical study of plants and animals. Edinburgh and London: W. & A. K. Johnston. p. 17.
^ Bory de Saint-Vincent, J. B. G. M. "Essai d'une classification des animaux microscopiques." Agasse, Paris (1826).p. 28
^ McGrath, Kimberley; Blachford, Stacey, eds. (2001). Gale Encyclopedia of Science Vol. 1: Aardvark-Catalyst (2nd ed.). Gale Group. ISBN 0-7876-4370-X. OCLC 46337140.
^ Ehrenberg, Christian Gottfried. Organisation, systematik und geographisches verhältniss der infusionsthierchen: Zwei vorträge, in der Akademie der wissenschaften zu Berlin gehalten in den jahren 1828 und 1830. Druckerei der Königlichen akademie der wissenschaften, 1832. p. 59
^ Dujardin, Felix (1841). Histoire Naturelle des Zoophytes Infusoires. Paris: Librarie Encyclopedique de Roret. p. 26.
^ Schmarda, Ludwig Karl (1871). Zoologie. W. Braumüller. p. 156.
^ Bütschli, Otto (1882). Klassen und Ordnungen des Thier-Reichs I. Abteilung: Sarkodina und Sporozoa. Paleontologische Entwicklung der Rhisopoda von C. Scwager. p. 1.
^ Calkins, Gary N. (1909). Protozoölogy. New York: Lea & Febiger. pp. 38–40.
^ Adl, Sina M.; et al. (2012). "The Revised Classification of Eukaryotes". Journal of Eukaryotic Microbiology. doi:10.1111/j.1550-7408.2012.00644.x.
^ ^a ^b Park, J. S.; Simpson, A. G. B.; Brown, S.; Cho, B. C. (2009). "Ultrastructure and Molecular Phylogeny of two Heterolobosean Amoebae, Euplaesiobystra hypersalinica gen. Et sp. Nov. And Tulamoeba peronaphora gen. Et sp. Nov., Isolated from an Extremely Hypersaline Habitat". Protist 160 (2): 265–283. doi:10.1016/j.protis.2008.10.002. PMID 19121603.

External links

The Amoebae website brings together information from published sources.
Amoebas are more than just blobs
Sun Animacules and Amoebas
Molecular Expressions Digital Video Gallery: Pond Life – Amoeba (Protozoa) Some good, informative Amoeba videos.
Amoebae: Protists Which Move and Feed Using Pseudopodia at the Tree of Life web project
Siemensma, F. Microworld: world of amoeboid organisms. Arcella.nl.
Pawlowski, J. & Burki, F. (2009). Untangling the Phylogeny of Amoeboid Protists. Journal of Eukaryotic Microbiology 56.1: 16–25, [4].
Walochnik, J. & Aspöck, H. (2007). Amöben: Paradebeispiele für Probleme der Phylogenetik, Klassifikation und Nomenklatur. Denisia 20: 323–350, [5].

English Journal

Untangling the phylogeny of amoeboid protists.

Pawlowski J1, Burki F.
The Journal of eukaryotic microbiology.J Eukaryot Microbiol.2009 Jan-Feb;56(1):16-25. doi: 10.1111/j.1550-7408.2008.00379.x.
The amoebae and amoeboid protists form a large and diverse assemblage of eukaryotes characterized by various types of pseudopodia. For convenience, the traditional morphology-based classification grouped them together in a macrotaxon named Sarcodina. Molecular phylogenies contributed to the dismantl
PMID 19335771

Relationship between the main functional characteristics of Ciliophora and Sarcodina.

Khlebovich TV1.
Doklady biological sciences : proceedings of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR, Biological sciences sections / translated from Russian.Dokl Biol Sci.2008 Nov-Dec;423:409-11.
PMID 19213422

Phylogenetic placement of diverse amoebae inferred from multigene analyses and assessment of clade stability within 'Amoebozoa' upon removal of varying rate classes of SSU-rDNA.

Tekle YI1, Grant J, Anderson OR, Nerad TA, Cole JC, Patterson DJ, Katz LA.
Molecular phylogenetics and evolution.Mol Phylogenet Evol.2008 Apr;47(1):339-52. doi: 10.1016/j.ympev.2007.11.015. Epub 2007 Dec 3.
Placing amoeboid lineages on the eukaryotic tree of life is difficult due to the paucity of comparable morphological characters and the limited molecular data available for many groups. This situation has led to the lumping of distantly related lineages into large inclusive groups, such as Sarcodina
PMID 18180171

Japanese Journal

秋川西青木平における河床石面付着層の原生動物の季節変動

陸水學雜誌 61(3), 223-231, 2000-10-01
NAID 10007415677

Differential response of benthic meiofauna to anoxia with special reference to Foraminifera (Protista:Sarcodina).

Mar.Ecol.Prog.Ser. 158, 151-163, 1997
NAID 80010019686

Improvement of Eutrophicated Lake Water Quality using Biological-film Treatment Processes.

日本水処理生物学会誌 33(4), 223-232, 1997
NAID 130003700378

Related Pictures

★リンクテーブル★

リンク元	「肉質虫」「肉質虫亜門」

「肉質虫」

　　[★]

ラ: Sarcodina
関: 肉質虫亜門

「肉質虫亜門」

　　[★]

ラ: Sarcodina
関: 肉質虫

[1] Singleton, Paul (2006). Dictionary of Microbiology and Molecular Biology, 3rd Edition, revised. Chichester, UK: John Wiley & Sons. p. 32. ISBN 978-0-470-03545-0.

[:1-2] ttp://tolweb.org/notes/?note_id=51

[3] ttp://www.bms.ed.ac.uk/research/others/smaciver/amoebae.htm

[4] ttp://www.microscopy-uk.org.uk/mag/wimsmall/sundr.html

[:0-5] Marée, Athanasius FM, and Paulien Hogeweg. "How amoeboids self-organize into a fruiting body: multicellular coordination in Dictyostelium discoideum." Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 98.7 (2001): 3879–3883.

[6] Mackerras, M. J., and Q. N. Ercole. "Observations on the action of paludrine on malarial parasites." Transactions of the Royal Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 41.3 (1947): 365–376.

[Pawlowski-7] Jan Pawlowski: The twilight of Sarcodina: a molecular perspective on the polyphyletic origin of amoeboid protists. Protistology, Band 5, 2008, S. 281–302. (pdf, 570 kB)

[8] Alberts Eds.; et al. (2007). Molecular Biology of the Cell 5th Edition. New York: Garland Science. p. 1037. ISBN 9780815341055.

[9] Margulis, Lynn (2009). Kingdoms and Domains. Academic Press. pp. 206–7. ISBN 978-0-12-373621-5.

[10] Ogden, C. G. (1980). An Atlas of Freshwater Testate Amoeba. Oxford, London, Glasgow: Oxford University Press, for British Museum (Natural History). pp. 1–5. ISBN 0198585020.

[11] Alberts Eds.; et al. (2007). Molecular Biology of the Cell 5th Edition. New York: Garland Science. p. 663. ISBN 9780815341055.

[12] Kudo, Richard Roksabro. "Protozoology." Protozoology 4th Edit (1954). p. 83

[13] Thorp, James H. (2001). Ecology and Classification of North American Freshwater invertebrates. San Diego: Academic. p. 71. ISBN 0-12-690647-5.

[14] Jeon, Kwang W. (1973). Biology of Amoeba. New York: Academic Press. p. 100.

[15] Friedl, Peter, Stefan Borgmann, and Eva-B. Bröcker. "Amoeboid leukocyte crawling through extracellular matrix: lessons from the Dictyostelium paradigm of cell movement." Journal of leukocyte biology 70.4 (2001): 491–509.

[16] Nakagaki; et al. (2000). "Intelligence: Maze-solving by an amoeboid organism". Nature 407 (6803): 470. doi:10.1038/35035159. PMID 11028990. Retrieved Sep 14, 2014.

[17] Wehr, John D. (2003). Freshwater Algae of North America. San Diego and London: Academic Press. p. 353. ISBN 978-0-12-741550-5.

[18] "Algae World: diatom sex and life cycles". Algae World. Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh. Retrieved March 1, 2015.

[19] Sen Gupta, Barun K. (2002). Modern Foraminifera. Springer. p. 16. ISBN 978-1-4020-0598-5.

[20] Valle, L.G. (2014). "New species of Paramoebidium (trichomycetes, Mesomycetozoea) from the Mediterranean, with comments about the amoeboid cells in Amoebidiales". Mycologia. doi:10.3852/13-153. Retrieved March 1, 2015.

[21] Taylor, J. W. & Berbee, M. L. (2014). Fungi from PCR to Genomics: The Spreading Revolution in Evolutionary Biology. In: Systematics and Evolution. Springer Berlin Heidelberg. p. 52, [1]

[22] Rosenhof, R. (1755). Monatlich herausgegebene Insektenbelustigungen, vol. 3, p. 621, [2].

[23] Jeon, Kwang W. (1973). Biology of Amoeba. New York: Academic Press. pp. 2–3, [3].

[24] McAlpine, Daniel (1881). Biological atlas: a guide to the practical study of plants and animals. Edinburgh and London: W. & A. K. Johnston. p. 17.

[25] Bory de Saint-Vincent, J. B. G. M. "Essai d'une classification des animaux microscopiques." Agasse, Paris (1826).p. 28

[EOS1-26] McGrath, Kimberley; Blachford, Stacey, eds. (2001). Gale Encyclopedia of Science Vol. 1: Aardvark-Catalyst (2nd ed.). Gale Group. ISBN 0-7876-4370-X. OCLC 46337140.

[27] Ehrenberg, Christian Gottfried. Organisation, systematik und geographisches verhältniss der infusionsthierchen: Zwei vorträge, in der Akademie der wissenschaften zu Berlin gehalten in den jahren 1828 und 1830. Druckerei der Königlichen akademie der wissenschaften, 1832. p. 59

[28] Dujardin, Felix (1841). Histoire Naturelle des Zoophytes Infusoires. Paris: Librarie Encyclopedique de Roret. p. 26.

[29] Schmarda, Ludwig Karl (1871). Zoologie. W. Braumüller. p. 156.

[30] Bütschli, Otto (1882). Klassen und Ordnungen des Thier-Reichs I. Abteilung: Sarkodina und Sporozoa. Paleontologische Entwicklung der Rhisopoda von C. Scwager. p. 1.

[31] Calkins, Gary N. (1909). Protozoölogy. New York: Lea & Febiger. pp. 38–40.

[32] Adl, Sina M.; et al. (2012). "The Revised Classification of Eukaryotes". Journal of Eukaryotic Microbiology. doi:10.1111/j.1550-7408.2012.00644.x.

[Park2009-33] Park, J. S.; Simpson, A. G. B.; Brown, S.; Cho, B. C. (2009). "Ultrastructure and Molecular Phylogeny of two Heterolobosean Amoebae, Euplaesiobystra hypersalinica gen. Et sp. Nov. And Tulamoeba peronaphora gen. Et sp. Nov., Isolated from an Extremely Hypersaline Habitat". Protist 160 (2): 265–283. doi:10.1016/j.protis.2008.10.002. PMID 19121603.

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