出典(authority):フリー百科事典『ウィキペディア(Wikipedia)』「2019/07/01 05:06:09」(JST)
この項目には、一部のコンピュータや閲覧ソフトで表示できない文字(モンゴル文字・キリル文字)が含まれています(詳細)。 |
(国旗) | (国章) |
公用語 | モンゴル語 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
首都 | ウランバートル | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||
最大の都市 | ウランバートル | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| |||||||||||||||||||||||||||
通貨 | トゥグルグ (MNT) | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||
時間帯 | UTC +7 ~ 8(DST:なし) | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||
ISO 3166-1 | MN / MNG | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||
ccTLD | .mn | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||
国際電話番号 | 976 |
モンゴルの歴史
| |||
---|---|---|---|
中国 | モンゴル高原 | ||
夏 | 獫狁 | 葷粥 | 山戎 |
周 | 戎狄 | ||
秦 | 月氏 | 匈奴 | 東胡 |
漢 | |||
丁零 | 鮮卑 | ||
魏晋南北 | 高車 | 柔然 | |
隋 | 鉄勒 | 突厥 | |
唐 | 東突厥 | ||
回鶻 | |||
五代 | 黠戛斯 | 達靼 | 契丹 |
北宋 | ナイマン | ケレイト | 大遼 |
南宋 | (乃蛮) | (客烈亦) | モンゴル |
モンゴル帝国 | |||
大元 | |||
明 | 北元(韃靼) | ||
ハルハ | |||
大清 | |||
中華民国 | 大モンゴル国 | ||
中華人民 共和国 |
モンゴル人民共和国 | ||
モンゴル国 |
モンゴル国(モンゴルこく、モンゴル語: Монгол Улс)、通称モンゴルは、東アジア北部に位置する国家。東と南の二方向を中国内モンゴル自治区と、西を新疆ウイグル自治区、北をロシア連邦とそれぞれ接する[2]内陸国。首都はウランバートルである。モンゴル高原のうち、外蒙古(がいもうこ、そともうこ)と呼ばれたゴビ砂漠以北の一帯にほぼ該当する領域を国土とする。
正式名称は、モンゴル語キリル文字表記で Монгол Улс(モンゴル・オルス)、ラテン文字転写は Mongol Uls。
日本語の表記はモンゴル国。通称モンゴル。英語ではモンゴリアと呼ばれる。
モンゴル語名「モンゴル・オルス(Монгол Улс)」の「モンゴル」は民族名で、「オルス/ウルス(Улс)」は「国」を意味する。
19世紀、外モンゴルから内モンゴルにかけては、清朝の支配下に置かれていた。
20世紀に入ると清朝は北方の自国領の人口密度を高くすることでロシア帝国側の侵略を防ぐ政策を実施し、それまでの辺境への漢人入植制限を廃止した。内モンゴルでは遊牧地が漢人により耕地に変えられ、モンゴル民族のうちに反漢・独立感情が高まり、反漢暴動が頻発した。中には貴族のトクトホ(モンゴル語版、ロシア語版、中国語版)のように「馬賊」となり漢人襲撃を繰り返す者もいた。一方で知識人ハイシャン(中国語版、英語版)らは漢人商人の活動に反発を覚え、未だ危機感の薄かった外モンゴル地域と連携して独立を達成することを画策。外モンゴル貴族のツェレンチミド(モンゴル語版、中国語版、英語版)らと協力し外モンゴル諸侯に独立のための説得工作を行った。
1911年に辛亥革命が起こると、すでにハイシャンらの説得工作が功を奏し、ロシアに独立のための財政援助を求めていたハルハ地方(外モンゴルの多くの地域)の王侯たちは清からの独立を宣言(Mongolian Revolution of 1911)。モンゴルにおけるチベット仏教界で最高権威かつ民族全体のシンボルとして君臨していた化身ラマ(活仏)のジェプツンダンバ・ホトクト8世(ボグド・ハーン)をモンゴル国の君主(ハーン)として推戴し、ボグド・ハーン政権を樹立した。1913年には、チベットとの間で相互承認条約を締結した。統治機構は清朝の整備したものをほぼそのまま利用することで、スムーズな政府の設置ができた。ただ内モンゴルとの連携については、内モンゴル解放軍を派遣し、一時的には内モンゴルの大部分を制圧したが、モンゴルの後ろ盾として経済的、軍事的支援を行っていた帝政ロシアが中華民国への配慮から、内モンゴルからの撤退を要求、撤収を余儀なくされた。
1915年、キャフタ条約(英語版)で中国の宗主権下での外モンゴル「自治」のみが、清の後を引き継いだ中華民国(以後、中国とする)とロシアによって承認されるが、内モンゴルについてはこの地への進出をうかがっていた日本に配慮して現状維持とされた。また、内モンゴルでも外モンゴルの独立に呼応する動きが見られたが、内モンゴルのかなりの地域が漢人地域になっており中国が手放そうとしなかったこと、モンゴル人の間で統一行動が取れなかったことなどから内外モンゴルの合併には至らず、以後別々の道を歩むことになる。
1917年、ロシア革命が勃発して力の空白が生じると中国は外モンゴルでの勢力回復に乗り出し、1919年には外モンゴルを占領し自治を撤廃するが、1920年10月、赤軍との内戦で不利な状況に追い込まれていたロマン・ウンゲルン率いる白軍が体制の建て直しのためにモンゴルへと侵入して中国軍を駆逐、ボグド・ハーン政権を復興させた。しかし、ウンゲルンの残虐な行動に人心が離反、そんな中でボドー、ダンザン、スフバートル、チョイバルサンら民族主義者、社会主義者はモンゴル人民党(後のモンゴル人民革命党)を結成、ソビエトの援助を求めた。これに応じた赤軍や極東共和国軍はモンゴルに介入し、7月にジェプツンタンパ8世を君主として戴いたままモンゴル人民政府を樹立した(Mongolian Revolution of 1921)。こうして立憲君主制国家としてスタートすることになった新生モンゴルだが、1924年にジェプツンタンパ8世の死去を契機に人民共和国へと政体を変更、モンゴル人民共和国(社会主義国)が成立した。なお、これら一連の動きや内モンゴルとの連帯において、リンチノ(英語版)らブリヤート・モンゴル人の活躍や理論的支えが大きく貢献していた。ブリヤート人の活動なしにはこの独立はありえなかったであろうが、モンゴル国では彼らを過小評価しがちである。[要出典]
モンゴル人民共和国は、1924年 - 1928年ダンバドルジ政権の下、狭量な社会主義政策にとらわれない開明的諸策を打ち出したが、コミンテルンの指導、ソ連からの圧力により、中ソ対立以後も徹底した親ソ・社会主義路線をとることになる(一方ソ連側は一時期モンゴルを第16番目の共和国としてソ連に加えようとしていたとの説もある)。1929年 - 1932年には厳しい宗教弾圧と遊牧の強制農耕化、機械化、集団化など急進的な社会主義政策をとるが、各地で国民の約45%が参加した暴動が発生、多くのチベット仏教僧、富裕遊牧民が暴動の指導者として虐殺された。その後は急進的な政策はやや緩和され、教育や産業の充実が図られたものの、反革命のかどで粛清された国民はかなりの数に上った。
1934年にソ連と相互軍事援助協定が締結されるとともに、ソ連の指導者であったスターリンからラマ教寺院の破壊を繰り返し要求されるがゲンデン首相は拒否した[3]。1936年にモンゴル秘密警察が設立され、ソ連派のチョイバルサンが首長となり、ゲンデンはソ連に送致され処刑された[3]。また、同1936年3月にはソ連との間でソ蒙相互援助議定書が締結された。1937年から800の修道院が破壊され約17,000名の僧侶が処刑された[3]。同年、大規模なソ連軍が進駐すると、政府・軍部高官・財界首脳等57,000人がゲンデン首相に係るスパイに関与したとして逮捕され20,000人が処刑された[3]。チョイバルサンは当初バラーディン(ロシア語版)らブリヤート知識人が唱えたモンゴル語のラテン文字化ではなく、キリル文字化を決める。これによって革命前は0.7%だった識字率が1960年代には文盲の絶滅を宣言するまでに上昇する。1945年のソ連対日参戦ではモンゴル人民軍は内モンゴルの東部から西部まで進駐[4]し、その占領下では東モンゴル自治政府や内モンゴル人民共和国など内外モンゴル統一運動も盛り上がるも、中華民国が独立承認の条件[5][6]とした外モンゴル独立公民投票とモンゴル人民軍の撤退をチョイバルサンは受け入れる。チョイバルサンは1952年に死去するまで独裁政治を行った。後継者であるツェデンバルは、西部の少数民族の出身ながら粛清による極端な人材不足に乗じて一気にトップに昇りつめ、ツェデンバルはロシア人の夫人とともに数十年間にわたってモンゴル人民共和国を支配したが、1984年に健康上の理由に(認知症との説が有力)より書記長を事実上解任され、テクノクラート出身の実務派であるバトムンフが書記長に選ばれた。バトムンフはモンゴルのゴルバチョフと呼ばれ、ソ連のペレストロイカに呼応した体制内改革を行った。
近代のモンゴルと外国との戦争は1939年に当時の満蒙国境で日本軍・満州国軍とモンゴル人民軍・ソ連赤軍連合軍と軍事衝突したハルハ河戦争(ノモンハン事件)と1945年のソ連対日参戦、1947年に新疆で当時の中華民国と武力衝突した北塔山事件の時のみで、それ以降はほとんど諸外国とは戦争は行っていないが中華人民共和国とは中ソ対立でモンゴルがソ連を支持したことによる政治的対立があった。また、中華民国は1946年1月にいったんモンゴルの独立を認めたが、後ろ盾のソ連が国共内戦で中国共産党を支援したことを理由に承認を取り消した。そのため、戦後台湾に逃れた中華民国は以降も長くモンゴルを自国領と主張することになった(中華民国の政治#対蒙関係参照)。1955年、モンゴルなど東側5ヶ国と、日本など西側13ヶ国の国際連合加盟が国連安保理で一括協議された。しかし、中華民国がモンゴルの加盟に、領有権を主張して拒否権を発動したため、ソ連は報復に日本の国連加盟に拒否権を発動した。モンゴルの国連加盟は、1961年まで持ち越しとなった(日本の国連加盟は1956年)。1966年にソ蒙友好協力相互援助条約が締結された。
1989年末、ソ連・東欧情勢に触発されてモンゴルでも反官僚主義・民主化運動が起き、年明けの1990年春には、初めて日本を公式訪問したドゥマーギーン・ソドノム閣僚会議議長(首相)の決断により、一党独裁を放棄した。1992年にはモンゴル人民共和国からモンゴル国へと改称、新憲法を制定し、社会主義を完全に放棄した。
この民主化プロセスにおいては、国際援助機関の関与により急速な市場経済化が進められ、経済成長を重視するあまり富の公平な配分を怠り、社会福祉を削減することで貧富の差を拡大させた[7]。資本主義化後21年を経過した現在では、貧富の差の拡大は国家的問題となっている。また社会主義時代から続いた官僚の汚職体質は民主化以後むしろ悪化しているとされる。
ツェデンバル時代に批判されていたチンギス・ハンについては、政府と国民が総力を挙げて復権に力を入れている。紙幣にまで使用されているほどである。また、カラコルム遺跡を除いて社会主義時代に積極的でなかったモンゴル帝国時代の遺跡の発掘や保存にも力を入れている。
社会主義時代はモンゴル人民革命党の「指導的役割」が憲法で規定される一党独裁体制であり、議会制度もソビエト型の国家大会議を最高機関としてきたが、1990年の民主化後に自由選挙による複数政党制を導入し、1992年の新憲法公布後はともに直接選挙で選出される一院制の国家大会議と大統領が並立する二元主義的議院内閣制(半大統領制)を採用した。国家大会議はその後4年ごとに総選挙を行ってきたが、そのたびに政権が交代するという経緯をたどっている。なお大統領は「国民の統合の象徴」とされ、国家大会議の可決した法案の拒否権や首相指名権などの実質的な政治権能を持つが、国家大会議に議席を持つ政党の被指名者しか立候補できず、また選挙のみによって直ちに就任するのではなく、国家大会議が選挙で多数を確保した候補者を法律で認定する手続を経て就任する制約もあるため、より長い歴史を持つ国家大会議との関係は微妙である。
モンゴル国の正式国軍であるモンゴル国軍は、社会主義時代のモンゴル人民軍から社会主義政権崩壊後に国軍として引き継がれた軍隊である。モンゴル国では徴兵制度が敷かれており、満18歳以上の男子は、1年間の兵役義務を有しているが、兵役代替金と呼ばれる納付金(約800ドル)を納付するか、海外に留学するなどで26歳までやり過ごせば兵役義務は消滅する。子供が幼少の場合も、免除される。
総兵力は9100人、予備兵力は14万人。軍事予算は181億8,680万トゥグルグ(2003年現在)。モンゴル国軍の装備は主に人民軍時代ソ連から取得した兵器がほとんどであるが、戦闘機や攻撃ヘリコプター等はすべて退役している。現在保有するのはMi-8Tなど少数のみ。地対空ミサイルも保有していたが、現在可動状態にあるかは疑問である。機器の保守能力が低下しているため、戦闘機などに至っては部品の共食い整備のあげく全機が退役した。
最近は、組織の生き残りのために海外協力と災害対策を2本柱に掲げ、アメリカ合衆国などによるイラク侵攻に際してはいち早く支持を表明したほか、ソ連製装甲兵員輸送車に乗った国軍部隊を派遣するなどしている。他にもモンゴル国軍は、アフガニスタン軍への指導(ソ連製の装備に習熟していたため)やコンゴ民主共和国でのPKO活動にも参加している。
なお国土が海に面していないため海軍は存在しないが、モンゴル船籍の商船は世界中の海で活躍している。
国境警備隊は国軍とは別組織となっている。モンゴルが国境警備に力を入れるのは、家畜が越境したときの隣接国とのトラブルに対応するためである。
モンゴルの外交方針は隣国の中国・ロシアとのバランスを維持しながら、それに過度に依存することなく「第三の隣国」(日本・アメリカ)との関係を発展させることである[8]。
以前はノモンハン事件による反日感情も見られたが、相撲による交流が盛んになった今日では、国民感情としても日本とは友好的関係が維持され、日本より多額のODAが供与されており、日本車の中古車(特にトヨタ・プリウス)も人気である。
日本との外交関係は、1972年(昭和47年)2月24日に樹立された。2004年(平成16年)11月に在モンゴル国日本国大使館が実施した世論調査では、「日本に親しみを感じる」と答えた回答が7割を超えたほか、「最も親しくすべき国」として第1位になるなど現在のモンゴル国は極めて良好な親日感情を有する国となっている。
また兵庫県の但東町(現豊岡市但東町)との交流が長く、町内には日本でも数少ないモンゴルの博物館「日本・モンゴル民族博物館」があり、交流が盛んである。2010年(平成22年)4月1日より、日本国籍者はモンゴル入国に際し、滞在日数が30日以内の場合は査証が免除されることになった。
朝青龍、白鵬、日馬富士、鶴竜の直近の横綱4名に加え、高齢での幕内初優勝を達成した旭天鵬など多くの大相撲力士を輩出し、歴代外国人力士の最多輩出国となっている[9]。相撲以外のスポーツではプロボクサーのラクバ・シンが日本で畑山隆則を降しモンゴル初の世界チャンピオンに輝き、その後日本のジムを拠点としていた時期もあった。一方で、陸上長距離のセルオド・バトオチルが日本の実業団に所属し、防府読売マラソンや大阪マラソンで優勝も果たしている。また、同じ日本の国技でもある柔道もモンゴル国内では相撲に並ぶスポーツとなっている。
自衛隊との交流も進展しており、防衛大学校への留学生派遣や防衛省主催の各種セミナーへの参加を続けているほか、2004年には防衛大学校校長がモンゴル国を公式訪問している。
日本の県にあたるアイマク (аймаг, aimag) が21設置されており、県には郡にあたるソム (сум, sum) が347、さらにその下に村にあたる1681のバグ (баг, bag) が属する。各ソムの人口は3,000人ほどで、バグは50-100家族ほどで構成されている(2001年アジア開発銀行の資料より)。世界的に見ても都市への人口集中が高い国である。
東アジアの北西部に位置し西には標高4,300mのアルタイ山脈と標高3,500mのハンガイ山脈がそびえ、東には1,000 - 1,500mの高原が広がり北東には針葉樹林が広がる。あとの国土は高山砂漠とステップの植生が南の海抜平均1,000mのゴビ砂漠まで続いている。国土の5分の4を占める草原ステップは牧草地に使用されている。重要な河川はバイカル湖に注ぐセレンゲ川とアムール川を経てオホーツク海(太平洋)にそそぐヘルレン川がある。
近年、国土の90%で砂漠化が進行しており、6万9000km2の牧草地帯が姿を消した。モンゴルで見られた植物種のうち75%が絶滅、森林伐採により、川の水位は半減、北方の森林地帯を中心に3800の河川と3500の湖があったが、2000年以降、約850の河川と約1000の湖が地図上から完全に姿を消している。
アルハンガイ県
ヘンティー山脈
モンゴルの草原
トール川
フタコブラクダ、ゴビ砂漠
IMFの統計によると、2013年のモンゴルのGDPは約115億ドル。一人当たりのGDPは3,996ドルで、世界平均のおよそ40%の水準である[1]。2011年の調査では、1日2ドル未満で暮らす貧困層は115万人と推計されており、国民の40%以上を占めている[10]。2014年で主な輸出相手国は中華人民共和国で輸出の95.3%を占め[11]、主な輸入相手国は中国が41.5%、ロシアが27.4%、韓国が6.5%、日本が6.1%となっている[12]。
主に畜産業と鉱業が中心でモリブデンは世界屈指の埋蔵量を持っている。現在、モンゴル政府は金鉱や銅鉱、モリブデン、石炭等の開発を推進しており、エルデネト鉱業は社会主義時代からモンゴル国内最大の企業である。そして近年では、豊富な天然資源とりわけオユトルゴイ鉱山を目的に外資系が活発になってきている。しかしながら、政治的安定性が未だに構築されておらず、政権が変わる度に、その政策方針が二転三転することで、外国の投資家に警戒感を持たせている。畜産は、ヒツジ1,168.6万頭、ヤギ1,223.8万頭、ウシ184.2万頭、ウマ200.5万頭、ラクダ25.7万頭を飼育し(2004年統計)、牧草地の広さは国土の約80%である。畜産は、そのほとんどが遊牧で行われている。農業は、社会主義時代は土を掘ることを忌避する風習が改められ、食糧自給できたものの、市場経済化で穀物生産は落ち込み現在は中国やロシアからの輸入が多い[13]。
内陸国ではあるが、便宜置籍船の手数料を取るビジネスも盛んであり、約400隻を超える船舶が認められている。
モンゴル国国内には、国際連合教育科学文化機関(UNESCO)の世界遺産リストに登録された文化遺産が2件、自然遺産が1件存在する。
日付 | 日本語表記 | 現地語表記 | 備考 |
---|---|---|---|
12月31日 | 忘年 | Шинэ жил | |
1月下旬から2月の内3日間 | ツァガーン・サル | Цагаан сар | 旧暦元日 |
3月8日 | 女性の日 | Эмэгтэйчүүдийн баяр | 国際女性デー |
6月1日 | 子供の日 | Хүүхдийн баяр | 国際児童デー |
7月11日~15日 | ナーダム祭り | Наадам | |
10月下旬から11月中旬 | モンゴル誇りの日 | Монгол бахархлын өдөр | 旧暦立冬。チンギスハーンの生誕記念日 |
12月29日 | 独立記念日 | Үндэсний эрх чөлөө, тусгаар тогтнолоо сэргээсний баяр | 1911年の清朝からの独立記念日 |
カザフ民族のハンターと鷲
2006年のナーダム祭り
女の弓術、ナーダム
モンゴル馬ライダー
|
|
ウィキメディア・コモンズには、モンゴル国に関連するメディアおよびカテゴリがあります。 |
|
典拠管理 |
|
---|
Mongolia Монгол Улс ᠮᠣᠩᠭᠣᠯ ᠤᠯᠤᠰ | |
---|---|
Flag
Emblem
| |
Anthem:
| |
Location of Mongolia (green) | |
Capital and largest city | Ulaanbaatar[a] Coordinates: 47°55′N 106°53′E / 47.917°N 106.883°E / 47.917; 106.883 |
Official languages | Mongolian |
Official scripts | Mongolian Cyrillic Mongolian script[1] |
Ethnic groups (2010) |
|
Religion | Buddhism (53%) Non-religious (38.6%) Islam (3%) Shamanism (2.9%) Christianity (2.2%) Others (0.4%)[2] |
Demonym(s) |
|
Government | Unitary semi-presidential republic[3][4][5] |
• President | Khaltmaagiin Battulga |
• Prime Minister | Ukhnaagiin Khürelsükh |
Legislature | State Great Khural |
Formation | |
• Xiongnu Empire | formed 209 BC |
• Mongol Empire | formed 1206 |
• Declaration of independence from China | December 29, 1911 |
• Mongolian People's Republic was established | November 26, 1924 |
• Independence was recognized by China | January 5, 1946 |
• Current constitution | February 13, 1992 |
Area | |
• Total | 1,566,000 km2 (605,000 sq mi) (18th) |
• Water (%) | 0.67[2] |
Population | |
• 2019 estimate | 3,256,176[6] (134th) |
• Density | 1.97[7]/km2 (5.1/sq mi) (238th) |
GDP (PPP) | 2019 estimate |
• Total | $47 billion[8] (115th) |
• Per capita | $14,270[8] (93rd) |
GDP (nominal) | 2019 estimate |
• Total | $13.7 billion[8] (133rd) |
• Per capita | $4,151[8] (116th) |
Gini (2016) | 32.3[9] medium |
HDI (2017) | 0.741[10] high · 92nd |
Currency | Tögrög (MNT) |
Time zone | UTC+7/+8[11] |
• Summer (DST) | UTC+8/+9[12] |
Date format | yyyy.mm.dd (CE) |
Driving side | right |
Calling code | +976 |
ISO 3166 code | MN |
Internet TLD | .mn, .мон |
|
Mongolia[a] is a landlocked country in East Asia. Its area is roughly equivalent with the historical territory of Outer Mongolia, and that term is sometimes used to refer to the current state. It is sandwiched between Russia to the north and China to the south, where it neighbours the Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region. Mongolia does not share a border with Kazakhstan, although only 37 kilometres (23 mi) separates them.
At 1,564,116 square kilometres (603,909 sq mi), Mongolia is the 18th-largest and the most sparsely populated sovereign state in the world, with a population of around three million people. It is also the world's second-largest landlocked country behind Kazakhstan and the largest landlocked country that does not border a closed sea. The country contains very little arable land, as much of its area is covered by grassy steppe, with mountains to the north and west and the Gobi Desert to the south. Ulaanbaatar, the capital and largest city, is home to about 45% of the country's population.[13] Ulaanbaatar also shares the rank of the world's coldest capital city with Moscow, Ottawa, and Nur-Sultan.[14][15][16]
Approximately 30% of the population is nomadic or semi-nomadic; horse culture is still integral. The majority of its population are Buddhists. The non-religious population is the second largest group. Islam is the dominant religion among ethnic Kazakhs. The majority of the state's citizens are of Mongol ethnicity, although Kazakhs, Tuvans, and other minorities also live in the country, especially in the west. Mongolia joined the World Trade Organization in 1997 and seeks to expand its participation in regional economic and trade groups.[2]
The area of what is now Mongolia has been ruled by various nomadic empires, including the Xiongnu, the Xianbei, the Rouran, the Turkic Khaganate, and others. In 1206, Genghis Khan founded the Mongol Empire, which became the largest contiguous land empire in history. His grandson Kublai Khan conquered China to establish the Yuan dynasty. After the collapse of the Yuan, the Mongols retreated to Mongolia and resumed their earlier pattern of factional conflict, except during the era of Dayan Khan and Tumen Zasagt Khan.
In the 16th century, Tibetan Buddhism began to spread in Mongolia, being further led by the Manchu-founded Qing dynasty, which absorbed the country in the 17th century. By the early 1900s, almost one-third of the adult male population were Buddhist monks.[17][18] After the collapse of the Qing dynasty in 1911, Mongolia declared independence, and achieved actual independence from the Republic of China in 1921. Shortly thereafter, the country came under the control of the Soviet Union, which had aided its independence from China. In 1924, the Mongolian People's Republic was founded as a socialist state.[19] After the anti-Communist revolutions of 1989, Mongolia conducted its own peaceful democratic revolution in early 1990. This led to a multi-party system, a new constitution of 1992, and transition to a market economy.
Homo erectus inhabited Mongolia from 850,000 years ago.[20] Modern humans reached Mongolia approximately 40,000 years ago during the Upper Paleolithic. The Khoit Tsenkher Cave[21] in Khovd Province shows lively pink, brown, and red ochre paintings (dated to 20,000 years ago) of mammoths, lynx, bactrian camels, and ostriches, earning it the nickname "the Lascaux of Mongolia". The venus figurines of Mal'ta (21,000 years ago) testify to the level of Upper Paleolithic art in northern Mongolia; Mal'ta is now part of Russia.
Neolithic agricultural settlements (c. 5500–3500 BC), such as those at Norovlin, Tamsagbulag, Bayanzag, and Rashaan Khad, predated the introduction of horse-riding nomadism, a pivotal event in the history of Mongolia which became the dominant culture. Horse-riding nomadism has been documented by archeological evidence in Mongolia during the Copper and Bronze Age Afanasevo culture (3500–2500 BC); this culture was active to the Khangai Mountains in Central Mongolia. The wheeled vehicles found in the burials of the Afanasevans have been dated to before 2200 BC.[22] Pastoral nomadism and metalworking became more developed with the later Okunev culture (2nd millennium BC), Andronovo culture (2300–1000 BC) and Karasuk culture (1500–300 BC), culminating with the Iron Age Xiongnu Empire in 209 BC. Monuments of the pre-Xiongnu Bronze Age include deer stones, keregsur kurgans, square slab tombs, and rock paintings.
Although cultivation of crops has continued since the Neolithic, agriculture has always remained small in scale compared to pastoral nomadism. Agriculture may have first been introduced from the west or arose independently in the region. The population during the Copper Age has been described as mongoloid in the east of what is now Mongolia, and as europoid in the west.[21] Tocharians (Yuezhi) and Scythians inhabited western Mongolia during the Bronze Age. The mummy of a Scythian warrior, which is believed to be about 2,500 years old, was a 30- to 40-year-old man with blond hair; it was found in the Altai, Mongolia.[23] As equine nomadism was introduced into Mongolia, the political center of the Eurasian Steppe also shifted to Mongolia, where it remained until the 18th century CE. The intrusions of northern pastoralists (e.g. the Guifang, Shanrong, and Donghu) into China during the Shang dynasty (1600–1046 BC) and Zhou dynasty (1046–256 BC) presaged the age of nomadic empires.
The concept of Mongolia as an independent power north of China is expressed in a letter sent by Emperor Wen of Han to Laoshang Chanyu in 162 BC (recorded in the Hanshu):
“ | The Emperor of China respectfully salutes the great Shan Yu (Chanyu) of the Hsiung-nu (Xiongnu)...When my imperial predecessor erected the Great Wall, all the bowmen nations on the north were subject to the Shan Yu; while the residents inside the wall, who wore the cap and sash, were all under our government: and the myriads of the people, by following their occupations, ploughing and weaving, shooting and hunting, were able to provide themselves with food and clothing...Your letter says:--"The two nations being now at peace, and the two princes living in harmony, military operations may cease, the troops may send their horses to graze, and prosperity and happiness prevail from age to age, commencing, a new era of contentment and peace." That is extremely gratifying to me...Should I, in concert with the Shan Yu, follow this course, complying with the will of heaven, then compassion for the people will be transmitted from age to age, and extended to unending generations, while the universe will be moved with admiration, and the influence will be felt by neighbouring kingdoms inimical to the Chinese or the Hsiung-nu...As the Hsiung-nu live in the northern regions, where the cold piercing atmosphere comes at an early period, I have ordered the proper authorities to transmit yearly to the Shan Yu, a certain amount of grain, gold, silks of the finer and coarser kinds, and other objects. Now peace prevails all over the world; the myriads of the population are living in harmony, and I and the Shan Yu alone are the parents of the people...After the conclusion of the treaty of peace throughout the world, take notice, the Han will not be the first to transgress.[24] | ” |
Since prehistoric times, Mongolia has been inhabited by nomads who, from time to time, formed great confederations that rose to power and prominence. Common institutions were the office of the Khan, the Kurultai (Supreme Council), left and right wings, imperial army (Keshig) and the decimal military system. The first of these empires, the Xiongnu of undetermined ethnicity, were brought together by Modu Shanyu to form a confederation in 209 BC. Soon they emerged as the greatest threat to the Qin Dynasty, forcing the latter to construct the Great Wall of China. It was guarded by up to almost 300,000 soldiers during Marshal Meng Tian's tenure, as a means of defense against the destructive Xiongnu raids. The vast Xiongnu empire (209 BC–93 AD) was followed by the Mongolic Xianbei empire (93–234 AD), which also ruled more than the entirety of present-day Mongolia. The Mongolic Rouran Khaganate (330–555), of Xianbei provenance was the first to use "Khagan" as an imperial title. It ruled a massive empire before being defeated by the Göktürks (555–745) whose empire was even bigger.
The Göktürks laid siege to Panticapaeum, present-day Kerch, in 576. They were succeeded by the Uyghur Khaganate (745–840) who were defeated by the Kyrgyz. The Mongolic Khitans, descendants of the Xianbei, ruled Mongolia during the Liao Dynasty (907–1125), after which the Khamag Mongol (1125–1206) rose to prominence.
Lines 3–5 of the memorial inscription of Bilge Khagan (684–737) in central Mongolia summarizes the time of the Khagans:
“ | In battles they subdued the nations of all four sides of the world and suppressed them. They made those who had heads bow their heads, and who had knees genuflect them. In the east up to the Kadyrkhan common people, in the west up to the Iron Gate they conquered... These Khagans were wise. These Khagans were great. Their servants were wise and great too. Officials were honest and direct with people. They ruled the nation this way. This way they held sway over them. When they died ambassadors from Bokuli Cholug (Baekje Korea), Tabgach (Tang China), Tibet (Tibetan Empire), Avar (Avar Khaganate), Rome (Byzantine Empire), Kirgiz, Uch-Kurykan, Otuz-Tatars, Khitans, Tatabis came to the funerals. So many people came to mourn over the great Khagans. They were famous Khagans.[25] | ” |
In the chaos of the late 12th century, a chieftain named Temüjin finally succeeded in uniting the Mongol tribes between Manchuria and the Altai Mountains. In 1206, he took the title Genghis Khan, and waged a series of military campaigns – renowned for their brutality and ferocity – sweeping through much of Asia, and forming the Mongol Empire, the largest contiguous land empire in world history. Under his successors it stretched from present-day Poland in the west to Korea in the east, and from Siberia in the north to the Gulf of Oman and Vietnam in the south, covering some 33,000,000 square kilometres (13,000,000 sq mi),[26] (22% of Earth's total land area) and had a population of over 100 million people (about a quarter of Earth's total population at the time). The emergence of Pax Mongolica also significantly eased trade and commerce across Asia during its height.[27][28]
After Genghis Khan's death, the empire was subdivided into four kingdoms or Khanates. These eventually became quasi-independent after the Toluid Civil War (1260–1264), which broke out in a battle for power following Möngke Khan's death in 1259. One of the khanates, the "Great Khaanate", consisting of the Mongol homeland and China, became known as the Yuan dynasty under Kublai Khan, the grandson of Genghis Khan. He set up his capital in present-day Beijing. After more than a century of power, the Yuan was replaced by the Ming dynasty in 1368, and the Mongol court fled to the north. As the Ming armies pursued the Mongols into their homeland, they successfully sacked and destroyed the Mongol capital Karakorum and other cities. Some of these attacks were repelled by the Mongols under Ayushridar and his general Köke Temür.[29]
After the expulsion of the Yuan dynasty rulers from China, the Mongols continued to rule their homeland, known as the Northern Yuan dynasty. The next centuries were marked by violent power struggles among various factions, notably the Genghisids and the non-Genghisid Oirats, as well as by several Chinese invasions (such as the five expeditions led by the Yongle Emperor). In the early 15th century, the Oirads under Esen Tayisi gained the upper hand, and raided China in 1449 in a conflict over Esen's right to pay tribute, capturing the Ming emperor in the process. When Esen was murdered in 1454, the Borjigids regained power.[citation needed]
In the early 16th century, Dayan Khan and his khatun Mandukhai reunited the entire Mongol nation under the Genghisids. In the mid-16th century, Altan Khan of the Tümed, a grandson of Dayan Khan – but not a hereditary or legitimate Khan – became powerful. He founded Hohhot in 1557. After he met with the Dalai Lama in 1578, he ordered the introduction of Tibetan Buddhism to Mongolia. (It was the second time this had occurred). Abtai Khan of the Khalkha converted to Buddhism and founded the Erdene Zuu monastery in 1585. His grandson Zanabazar became the first Jebtsundamba Khutughtu in 1640. Following the leaders, the entire Mongolian population embraced Buddhism. Each family kept scriptures and Buddha statues on an altar at the north side of their ger (yurt). Mongolian nobles donated land, money and herders to the monasteries. As was typical in states with established religions, the top religious institutions, the monasteries, wielded significant temporal power in addition to spiritual power.[citation needed]
The last Mongol Khan was Ligden Khan in the early 17th century. He came into conflicts with the Manchus over the looting of Chinese cities, and also alienated most Mongol tribes. He died in 1634. By 1636 most Inner Mongolian tribes had submitted to the Manchus, who founded the Qing dynasty. The Khalkha eventually submitted to Qing rule in 1691, thus bringing all of today's Mongolia under Manchu rule. After several wars, the Dzungars (the western Mongols or Oirats) were virtually annihilated during the Qing conquest of Dzungaria in 1757–58.[30]
Some scholars estimate that about 80% of the 600,000 or more Dzungar were destroyed by a combination of disease and warfare.[31] Outer Mongolia was given relative autonomy, being administered by the hereditary Genghisid khanates of Tusheet Khan, Setsen Khan, Zasagt Khan and Sain Noyon Khan. The Jebtsundamba Khutuktu of Mongolia had immense de facto authority. The Manchu forbade mass Chinese immigration into the area, which allowed the Mongols to keep their culture. The Oirats who migrated to the Volga steppes in Russia became known as Kalmyks.
The main trade route during this period was the Tea Road through Siberia; it had permanent stations located every 25 to 30 kilometres (16 to 19 mi), each of which was staffed by 5–30 chosen families. Urga (present-day Ulaanbaatar) benefited greatly from this overland trade, as it was the only[citation needed] major settlement in Outer Mongolia used as a stopover point by merchants, officials and travelers on the Tea Road.[citation needed]
Until 1911, the Qing dynasty maintained control of Mongolia with a series of alliances and intermarriages, as well as military and economic measures. Ambans, Manchu "high officials", were installed in Khüree, Uliastai, and Khovd, and the country was divided into numerous feudal and ecclesiastical fiefdoms (which also placed people in power with loyalty to the Qing). Over the course of the 19th century, the feudal lords attached more importance to representation and less importance to the responsibilities towards their subjects. The behaviour of Mongolia's nobility, together with usurious practices by Chinese traders and the collection of imperial taxes in silver instead of animals, resulted in widespread poverty among the nomads. By 1911 there were 700 large and small monasteries in Outer Mongolia; their 115,000 monks made up 21% of the population. Apart from the Jebtsundamba Khutuktu, there were 13 other reincarnating high lamas, called 'seal-holding saints' (tamgatai khutuktu), in Outer Mongolia.
With the fall of the Qing dynasty in 1911, Mongolia under the Bogd Khaan declared independence. But the newly established Republic of China considered Mongolia to be part of its own territory. Yuan Shikai, the President of the Republic of China, considered the new republic to be the successor of the Qing. Bogd Khaan said that both Mongolia and China had been administered by the Manchu during the Qing, and after the fall of the Qing dynasty in 1911, the contract of Mongolian submission to the Manchu had become invalid.[32][b]
The area controlled by the Bogd Khaan was approximately that of the former Outer Mongolia during the Qing period. In 1919, after the October Revolution in Russia, Chinese troops led by warlord Xu Shuzheng occupied Mongolia. Warfare erupted on the northern border. As a result of the Russian Civil War, the White Russian Lieutenant General Baron Ungern led his troops into Mongolia in October 1920, defeating the Chinese forces in Niislel Khüree (now Ulaanbaatar) in early February 1921 with Mongol support.
To eliminate the threat posed by Ungern, Bolshevik Russia decided to support the establishment of a communist Mongolian government and army. This Mongolian army took the Mongolian part of Kyakhta from Chinese forces on March 18, 1921, and on July 6 Russian and Mongolian troops arrived in Khüree. Mongolia declared its independence again on July 11, 1921.[33] As a result, Mongolia was closely aligned with the Soviet Union over the next seven decades.
In 1924, after the Bogd Khaan died of laryngeal cancer[34] or, as some sources claim, at the hands of Russian spies,[35] the country's political system was changed. The Mongolian People's Republic was established. In 1928, Khorloogiin Choibalsan rose to power. The early leaders of the Mongolian People's Republic (1921–1952) were not communists and many of them were Pan-Mongolists. The Soviet Union forcefully established a communist regime in Mongolia by later exterminating Pan-Mongolists. In the 1960s, Soviets recognized the Mongolian People's Party as "real" communists, who took power after the suspicious death of Pan-Mongolist leader Choibalsan.
Khorloogiin Choibalsan instituted collectivization of livestock, began the destruction of the Buddhist monasteries, and carried out Stalinist purges, which resulted in the murders of numerous monks and other leaders. In Mongolia during the 1920s, approximately one-third of the male population were monks. By the beginning of the 20th century, about 750 monasteries were functioning in Mongolia.[36]
In 1930 Soviet Union stopped Buryat migration to the Mongolian People's Republic to prevent Mongolian reunification. All leaders of Mongolia who did not fulfill Stalin's demands to perform Red Terror against Mongolians were executed, including Peljidiin Genden and Anandyn Amar. The Stalinist purges in Mongolia, which began in 1937, killed more than 30,000 people. Choibalsan died suspiciously in the Soviet Union in 1952. Comintern leader Bohumír Šmeral said, "People of Mongolia are not important, the land is important. Mongolian land is larger than England, France and Germany".[37]
After the Japanese invasion of neighboring Manchuria in 1931, Mongolia was threatened on this front. During the Soviet-Japanese Border War of 1939, the Soviet Union successfully defended Mongolia against Japanese expansionism. Mongolia fought against Japan during the Battles of Khalkhin Gol in 1939 and during the Soviet–Japanese War in August 1945 to liberate Inner Mongolia from Japan and Mengjiang.[38]
The February 1945 Yalta Conference provided for the Soviet Union's participation in the Pacific War. One of the Soviet conditions for its participation, put forward at Yalta, was that after the war Outer Mongolia would retain its independence. The referendum took place on October 20, 1945, with (according to official numbers) 100% of the electorate voting for independence.[39]
After the establishment of the People's Republic of China, both countries confirmed their mutual recognition on October 6, 1949. However, the Republic of China used its Security Council veto in 1955, to stop the admission of the Mongolian People's Republic to the United Nations on the grounds it recognized all of Mongolia —including Outer Mongolia— as part of China. This was the only time the Republic of China ever used its veto. Hence, and because of the repeated threats to veto by the ROC, Mongolia did not join the UN until 1961 when the Soviet Union agreed to lift its veto on the admission of Mauritania (and any other newly independent African state), in return for the admission of Mongolia. Faced with pressure from nearly all the other African countries, the ROC relented under protest. Mongolia and Mauritania were both admitted to the UN on 27 October 1961.[40][41][42] (see China and the United Nations)
On January 26, 1952, Yumjaagiin Tsedenbal took power in Mongolia after the death of Choibalsan. While Tsedenbal was visiting Moscow in August 1984, his severe illness prompted the parliament to announce his retirement and replace him with Jambyn Batmönkh.
The collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991 strongly influenced Mongolian politics and youth. Its people undertook the peaceful Democratic Revolution in 1990 and the introduction of a multi-party system and a market economy.
A new constitution was introduced in 1992, and the "People's Republic" was dropped from the country's name. The transition to a decentralised economy was often rocky; during the early 1990s the country had to deal with high inflation and food shortages.[43] The first election victories for non-communist parties came in 1993 (presidential elections) and 1996 (parliamentary elections). China has supported Mongolia's application for membership in to the Asia Cooperation Dialogue (ACD), Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) and granting it observer status in the Shanghai Cooperation Organization.[44]
At 1,564,116 km2 (603,909 sq mi), Mongolia is the world's 18th-largest country (after Iran).[45] It is significantly larger than the next-largest country, Peru. It mostly lies between latitudes 41° and 52°N (a small area is north of 52°), and longitudes 87° and 120°E. As a point of reference the northernmost part of Mongolia is on roughly the same latitude as Berlin (Germany) and Saskatoon (Canada), while the southernmost part is on roughly the same latitude as Rome (Italy) and Chicago (USA). The westernmost part of Mongolia is on roughly the same longitude as Kolkata (India), while the easternmost part is on the same longitude as Qinhuangdao (China) and Hangzhou (China), as well as the western edge of Taiwan. Although Mongolia does not share a border with Kazakhstan, its westernmost point is only 36.76 kilometres (22.84 mi) from Kazakhstan.
The geography of Mongolia is varied, with the Gobi Desert to the south and cold, mountainous regions to the north and west. Much of Mongolia consists of the Mongolian-Manchurian grassland steppe, with forested areas comprising 11.2% of the total land area,[46] a higher percentage than the Republic of Ireland (10%).[47] The whole of Mongolia is considered to be part of the Mongolian Plateau. The highest point in Mongolia is the Khüiten Peak in the Tavan bogd massif in the far west at 4,374 m (14,350 ft). The basin of the Uvs Lake, shared with Tuva Republic in Russia, is a natural World Heritage Site.
Mongolia is known as the "Land of the Eternal Blue Sky" or "Country of Blue Sky" (Mongolian: "Mönkh khökh tengeriin oron") because it has over 250 sunny days a year.[48][49][50][51]
Most of the country is hot in the summer and extremely cold in the winter, with January averages dropping as low as −30 °C (−22 °F).[52] A vast front of cold, heavy, shallow air comes in from Siberia in winter and collects in river valleys and low basins causing very cold temperatures while slopes of mountains are much warmer due to the effects of temperature inversion (temperature increases with altitude).
In winter the whole of Mongolia comes under the influence of the Siberian Anticyclone. The localities most severely affected by this cold weather are Uvs province (Ulaangom), western Khovsgol (Rinchinlhumbe), eastern Zavkhan (Tosontsengel), northern Bulgan (Hutag) and eastern Dornod province (Khalkhiin Gol). Ulaanbaatar is strongly, but less severely, affected. The cold gets less severe as one goes south, reaching the warmest January temperatures in Omnogovi Province (Dalanzadgad, Khanbogd) and the region of the Altai mountains bordering China. A unique microclimate is the fertile grassland-forest region of central and eastern Arkhangai Province (Tsetserleg) and northern Ovorkhangai Province (Arvaikheer) where January temperatures are on average the same and often higher than the warmest desert regions to the south in addition to being more stable. The Khangai Mountains play a certain role in forming this microclimate. In Tsetserleg, the warmest town in this microclimate, nighttime January temperatures rarely go under −30 °C (−22 °F) while daytime January temperatures often reach 0 °C (32 °F) to 5 °C (41 °F) .[53][54]
The country is subject to occasional harsh climatic conditions known as zud. Zud, which is a natural disaster unique to Mongolia, results in large proportions of the country's livestock dying from starvation or freezing temperatures or both, resulting in economic upheaval for the largely pastoral population. The annual average temperature in Ulaanbaatar is −1.3 °C (29.7 °F), making it the world's coldest capital city.[52] Mongolia is high, cold, and windy. It has an extreme continental climate with long, cold winters and short summers, during which most of its annual precipitation falls. The country averages 257 cloudless days a year, and it is usually at the center of a region of high atmospheric pressure. Precipitation is highest in the north (average of 200 to 350 millimeters (8 to 14 in) per year) and lowest in the south, which receives 100 to 200 millimeters (4 to 8 in) annually. The highest annual precipitation of 622.297 mm (24.500 in) occurred in the forests of Bulgan Province close to the border with Russia and the lowest of 41.735 mm (1.643 in) occurred in the Gobi Desert (period 1961–1990).[55] The sparsely populated far north of Bulgan Province averages 600 mm (24 in) in annual precipitation which means it receives more precipitation than Beijing (571.8 mm or 22.51 in) or Berlin (571 mm or 22.5 in).
The name "Gobi" is a Mongol term for a desert steppe, which usually refers to a category of arid rangeland with insufficient vegetation to support marmots but with enough to support camels. Mongols distinguish Gobi from desert proper, although the distinction is not always apparent to outsiders unfamiliar with the Mongolian landscape.
Gobi rangelands are fragile and easily destroyed by overgrazing, which results in expansion of the true desert, a stony waste where not even Bactrian camels can survive. The arid conditions in the Gobi are attributed to the rain shadow effect caused by the Himalayas. Before the Himalayas were formed by the collision of the Indo-Australian plate with the Eurasian plate 10 million years ago, Mongolia was a flourishing habitat for major fauna but still somewhat arid and cold due to distance from sources of evaporation. Sea turtle and mollusk fossils have been found in the Gobi, apart from well-known dinosaur fossils. Tadpole shrimps (Lepidurus mongolicus) are still found in the Gobi today. The eastern part of Mongolia including the Onon, Kherlen rivers and Lake Buir form part of the Amur river basin draining to the Pacific Ocean. It hosts some unique species like the Eastern brook lamprey, Daurian crayfish (cambaroides dauricus) and Daurian pearl oyster (dahurinaia dahurica) in the Onon/Kherlen rivers as well as Siberian prawn (exopalaemon modestus) in Lake Buir.
Mongolia's total population as of January 2015 was estimated by the U.S. Census Bureau[56] to be 3,000,251 people, ranking around 121st in the world. But the U.S. Department of State Bureau of East Asian and Pacific Affairs uses the United Nations (UN) estimations[57] instead of the U.S. Census Bureau estimations. United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs Population Division[58] estimates Mongolia's total population (mid-2007) as 2,629,000 (11% less than the U.S. Census Bureau figure). UN estimates resemble those made by the Mongolian National Statistical Office (2,612,900, end of June 2007). Mongolia's population growth rate is estimated at 1.2% (2007 est.).[58] About 59% of the total population is under age 30, 27% of whom are under 14. This relatively young and growing population has placed strains on Mongolia's economy.
The first census in the 20th century was carried out in 1918 and recorded a population of 647,500.[59] Since the end of socialism, Mongolia has experienced a decline of total fertility rate (children per woman) that is steeper than in any other country in the world, according to recent UN estimations:[58] in 1970–1975, fertility was estimated to be 7.33 children per woman, dropping to about 2.1 in 2000–2005.[60] The decline ended and in 2005–2010, the estimated fertility value increased to 2.5 and stabilised afterwards at the rate of about 2.2–2.3 children per woman.
Ethnic Mongols account for about 95% of the population and consist of Khalkha and other groups, all distinguished primarily by dialects of the Mongol language. The Khalkha make up 86% of the ethnic Mongol population. The remaining 14% include Oirats, Buryats and others. Turkic peoples (Kazakhs and Tuvans) constitute 4.5% of Mongolia's population, and the rest are Russian, Chinese, Korean and American nationalities.[61]
The official language of Mongolia is Mongolian, and is spoken by 95% of the population. A variety of dialects of Oirat and Buryat are spoken across the country, and there are also some speakers of Mongolic Khamnigan. In the west of the country, Kazakh and Tuvan, both Turkic languages, are also spoken. Mongolian Sign Language is the principal language of the deaf community.
Today, Mongolian is written using the Cyrillic alphabet in Mongolia, although in the past it was written using the Mongolian script. An official reintroduction of the old script was planned for 1994, but has not taken place as older generations encountered practical difficulties.[62] The traditional alphabet is being slowly reintroduced through schools.[63]
Russian is the most frequently spoken foreign language in Mongolia, followed by English, although English has been gradually replacing Russian as the second language. Korean has gained popularity as tens of thousands of Mongolians work in South Korea.[64]
Mongolian cuisine is rooted in their nomadic history, and thus includes much dairy content and meat, but few vegetables. Two of the most popular dishes are Buuz (a meat-filled steamed dumpling) and Khuushuur (a sort of deep-fried meat pie.)
Religion | Population | Share |
---|---|---|
Non-religious | 735,283 | 38.6% |
Religious | 1,170,283 | 61.4% |
Buddhism | 1,009,357 | 53.0% |
Islam | 57,702 | 3.0% |
Shamanism | 55,174 | 2.9% |
Christianity | 41,117 | 2.2% |
Other religions | 6,933 | 0.4% |
Total | 1,905,566 | 100.0% |
According to the 2010 National Census, among Mongolians aged 15 and above, 53% were Buddhists, while 39% were non-religious.
Mongolian shamanism has been widely practised throughout the history of what is now Mongolia, with similar beliefs being common among the nomads of central Asia. They gradually gave way to Tibetan Buddhism, but shamanism has left a mark on Mongolian religious culture, and it continues to be practiced. The Kazakhs of western Mongolia, some Mongols, and other Turkic peoples in the country traditionally adhere to Islam.
Throughout much of the 20th century, the communist government repressed religious practices. It targeted the clergy of the Mongolian Buddhist Church, which had been tightly intertwined with the previous feudal government structures (e.g. from 1911 on, the head of the Church had also been the khan of the country).[66] In the late 1930s, the regime, then led by Khorloogiin Choibalsan, closed almost all of Mongolia's over 700 Buddhist monasteries and killed at least 30,000 people, of whom 18,000 were lamas.[67] The number of Buddhist monks dropped from 100,000 in 1924 to 110 in 1990.[66]
The fall of communism in 1991 restored public religious practice. Tibetan Buddhism, which had been the predominant religion prior to the rise of communism, again rose to become the most widely practised religion in Mongolia. The end of religious repression in the 1990s also allowed for other religions to spread in the country. According to the Christian missionary group Barnabas Fund, the number of Christians grew from just four in 1989 to around 40,000 as of 2008[update]. In May 2013, The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church) held a cultural program to celebrate 20 years of LDS Church history in Mongolia, with 10,900 members, and 16 church buildings in the country.[68] There are some 1,000 Catholics in Mongolia and, in 2003, a missionary from the Philippines was named Mongolia's first Catholic bishop.[69] In 2017 Seventh-day Adventists reported 2,700 members in 6 churches up from zero members in 1991.[70][70]
Mongolia is a semi-presidential representative democratic republic with a directly elected President.[3][4][5] The people also elect the deputies in the national assembly, the State Great Khural. The President appoints the Prime Minister, and nominates the Cabinet on the proposal of the prime minister. The constitution of Mongolia guarantees a number of freedoms, including full freedom of expression and religion. Mongolia has a number of political parties; the largest are the Mongolian People's Party and the Democratic Party. The non-governmental organisation Freedom House considers Mongolia to be free.[71]
The People's Party – known as the People's Revolutionary Party between 1924 and 2010 – formed the government from 1921 to 1996 (in a one-party system until 1990) and from 2000 to 2004. From 2004 to 2006, it was part of a coalition with the Democrats and two other parties, and after 2006 it was the dominant party in two other coalitions. The party initiated two changes of government from 2004 prior to losing power in the 2012 election. The Democrats were the dominant force in a ruling coalition between 1996 and 2000, and an almost-equal partner with the People's Revolutionary Party in a coalition between 2004 and 2006. An election of deputies to the national assembly on 28 June 2012 resulted in no party having an overall majority;[72] however, as the Democratic Party won the largest number of seats,[73] its leader, Norovyn Altankhuyag, was appointed prime minister on August 10, 2012.[74] In 2014, he was replaced by Chimediin Saikhanbileg. The MPP won a landslide victory in the 2016 elections and the current Prime Minister is MPP's Ukhnaagiin Khürelsükh.
The President of Mongolia is able to veto the laws made by parliament, appoint judges and justice of courts and appoint ambassadors. The parliament can override that veto by a two-thirds majority vote. Mongolia's constitution provides three requirements for taking office as president; the candidate must be a native-born Mongolian, be at least 45 years old, and have resided in Mongolia for five years before taking office. The president must also suspend their party membership. Tsakhiagiin Elbegdorj, a two-time former prime minister and member of the Democratic Party was elected as president on May 24, 2009 and inaugurated on June 18 that year.[75] Elbegdorj was re-elected on June 26, 2013 and was inaugurated on July 10, 2013 for his second term as president.[76]
Mongolia uses a unicameral legislature, The State Great Khural, with 76 seats, which is chaired by the speaker of the house. Its members are directly elected, every four years, by popular vote.[5]
Mongolia's foreign relations traditionally focus on its two large neighbors, Russia and the People's Republic of China.[77] Mongolia is economically dependent on these countries; China receives 90% of Mongolia's exports by value and accounts for 60% of its foreign trade, while Russia supplies 90% of Mongolia's energy requirements.[2] It has begun seeking positive relations with a wider range of other nations especially in cultural and economic matters, focusing on encouraging foreign investments and trade.[78]
Mongolia maintains many diplomatic missions in other countries and has embassies in the following world capitals:[79]
Mongolia supported the 2003 invasion of Iraq, and has sent several successive contingents of 103 to 180 troops each to Iraq. About 130 troops are currently deployed in Afghanistan. 200 Mongolian troops are serving in Sierra Leone on a UN mandate to protect the UN's special court set up there, and in July 2009, Mongolia decided to send a battalion to Chad in support of MINURCAT.[80]
From 2005 to 2006, about 40 troops were deployed with the Belgian and Luxembourg contingents in Kosovo. On November 21, 2005, George W. Bush became the first-ever sitting U.S. President to visit Mongolia.[81] In 2004, under Bulgarian chairmanship, the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE) invited Mongolia as its newest Asian Partner.
The judiciary of Mongolia is made of a three-tiered court system: first instance courts in each provincial district and each Ulaanbaatar district; appellate courts for each province and also the Capital Ulaanbaatar; and the court of last resort (for non-constitutional matters) at the Supreme Court of Mongolia.[82] For questions of constitutional law there is a separate constitutional court.
A Judicial General Council (JGC) nominates judges which must then be confirmed by the parliament and appointed by the President.
Arbitration centres provide alternative dispute resolution options for commercial and other disputes.[83]
Zavkhan
Govi-Altai
Khovd
Bayan-
Ölgii Uvs
Bayan.
Övör.
Ömnögovi
Dundgovi
Dornogovi
Arkhangai
Khövsgöl
Töv
Khentii
Sükhbaatar
Dornod
Selenge
Darkh.
Bulgan
Orkhon
Ulaanbaatar
Govisum.
|
Mongolia is divided into 21 provinces (aimags) and subdivided into 329 districts (sums).[84] The capital Ulaanbaatar is administrated separately as a capital city (municipality) with provincial status. The aimags are:
This section needs to be updated. Please update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information. (February 2019) |
About 40% of the population lives in Ulaanbaatar, and in 2002 a further 23% lived in Darkhan, Erdenet, the aimag centers and sum-level permanent settlements.[85] Another share of the population lives in the sum centers.
Largest cities or towns in Mongolia
2008 | |||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Rank | Name | Province | Pop. | Rank | Name | Province | Pop. | ||
Ulaanbaatar Erdenet |
1 | Ulaanbaatar | Ulaanbaatar | 1,340,000 | 11 | Sükhbaatar | Selenge | 19,626 | Darkhan Choibalsan |
2 | Erdenet | Orkhon | 86,866 | 12 | Sainshand | Dornogovi | 19,891 | ||
3 | Darkhan | Darkhan-Uul | 74,300 | 13 | Dalanzadgad | Ömnögovi | 16,856 | ||
4 | Choibalsan | Dornod | 38,150 | 14 | Tsetserleg | Arkhangai | 16,300 | ||
5 | Mörön | Khövsgöl | 36,082 | 15 | Uliastai | Zavkhan | 16,240 | ||
6 | Khovd | Khovd | 28,601 | 16 | Altai | Govi-Altai | 15,800 | ||
7 | Ölgii | Bayan-Ölgii | 27,855 | 17 | Züünkharaa | Selenge | 15,000 | ||
8 | Bayankhongor | Bayankhongor | 26,252 | 18 | Öndörkhaan | Khentii | 14,800 | ||
9 | Arvaikheer | Övörkhangai | 25,622 | 19 | Zuunmod | Töv | 14,568 | ||
10 | Ulaangom | Uvs | 21,406 |
This section needs to be updated. Please update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information. (August 2016) |
Economic activity in Mongolia has long been based on herding and agriculture, although development of extensive mineral deposits of copper, coal, molybdenum, tin, tungsten and gold have emerged as a driver of industrial production.[86] Besides mining (21.8% of GDP) and agriculture (16% of GDP), dominant industries in the composition of GDP are wholesale and retail trade and service, transportation and storage, and real estate activities.[86] The grey economy is estimated to be at least one-third the size of the official economy.[86] As of 2006[update], 68.4% of Mongolia's exports went to the PRC, and the PRC supplied 29.8% of Mongolia's imports.[87]
Mongolia is ranked as lower-middle-income economy by the World Bank.[88] Some 22.4% of the population lives on less than US$1.25 a day.[89] In 2011, GDP per capita was $3,100.[2] Despite growth, the proportion of the population below the poverty line was estimated to be 35.6% in 1998, 36.1% in 2002–2003, and 32.2% in 2006.[90]
Because of a boom in the mining sector, Mongolia had high growth rates in 2007 and 2008 (9.9% and 8.9%, respectively).[86] In 2009, sharp drops in commodity prices and the effects of the global financial crisis caused the local currency to drop 40% against the U.S. dollar. Two of the 16 commercial banks were taken into receivership.[86] In 2011, GDP growth was expected to reach 16.4%. However, inflation continued to erode GDP gains, with an average rate of 12.6% expected at the end of 2011.[86] Although GDP has risen steadily since 2002 at the rate of 7.5% in an official 2006 estimate, the state is still working to overcome a sizable trade deficit. The Economist predicted this trade deficit of 14% of Mongolia's GDP would transform into a surplus in 2013.[91]
Mongolia was never listed among the emerging market countries until February 2011 when Citigroup analysts determined Mongolia to be one of the "global growth generating" countries, which are countries with the most promising growth prospects for 2010–2050.[92] The Mongolian Stock Exchange, established in 1991 in Ulaanbaatar, is among the world's smallest stock exchanges by market capitalisation.[93][94] In 2011, it had 336 companies listed with a total market capitalization of US$2 billion after quadrupling from US$406 million in 2008.[95] Mongolia made a significant improvement on the ease of doing business in 2012, moving up to rank 76 compared with 88 the previous year in the "Doing Business" report by the International Finance Corporation (IFC).[96]
Minerals represent more than 80% of Mongolia's exports, a proportion expected to eventually rise to 95%. About 3,000 mining licences have been issued.[91] Mining is continuing to rise as a major industry of Mongolia as evidenced by the number of Chinese, Russian and Canadian firms starting mining businesses in Mongolia.[2]
In 2009, the government negotiated an "investment agreement" with Rio Tinto and Ivanhoe Mines to develop the Oyu Tolgoi copper and gold deposit,[86] the biggest foreign-investment project in Mongolia, expected to account for one-third of Mongolia's GDP by 2020.[91] In March 2011, six big mining companies prepared to bid for the Tavan Tolgoi area, the world's largest untapped coal deposit. According to Erdenes MGL, the government body in-charge of Tavan Tolgoi, ArcelorMittal, Vale, Xstrata, U.S. coal miner Peabody, a consortium of Chinese energy firm Shenhua and Japan's Mitsui & Co, and a separate consortium of Japanese, South Korean and Russian firms are the preferred bidders.[98]
In 2002, about 30% of all households in Mongolia lived from breeding livestock.[99] Most herders in Mongolia follow a pattern of nomadic or semi-nomadic pastoralism. Due to the severe 2009–2010 winter, Mongolia lost 9.7 million animals, or 22% of total livestock. This immediately affected meat prices, which increased twofold; the GDP dropped 1.6% in 2009.[86]
Environmental issues are desertification, deforestation and pollution due to industrialisation.
Postal services are provided by state-owned Mongol Post and 54 other licensed operators.[100]
Mongolia's main source of energy is thermal power, which is converted to electricity at the seven power stations currently active in the country.
The Trans-Mongolian Railway is the main rail link between Mongolia and its neighbors. It begins at the Trans-Siberian Railway in Russia at the town of Ulan-Ude, crosses into Mongolia, runs through Ulaanbaatar, then passes into China at Erenhot where it joins the Chinese railway system. A separate railroad link connects the eastern city of Choibalsan with the Trans-Siberian Railway. However, that link is closed to passengers after the Mongolian town of Chuluunkhoroot.[101]
Mongolia has a number of domestic airports with some of them having international status. However, the main international airport is Chinggis Khaan International Airport, located approximately 20 km (12 mi) from downtown Ulaanbaatar. Direct flight connections exist between Mongolia and South Korea, China, Thailand, Hong Kong, Japan, Russia, Germany, Kyrgyzstan, and Turkey. MIAT Mongolian Airlines is Mongolia's national air carrier operating international flights, while other domestic air carriers such as Aero Mongolia and Hunnu Airlines serve domestic and regional routes.
Many overland roads in Mongolia are only gravel roads or simple cross-country tracks. There are paved roads from Ulaanbaatar to the Russian and Chinese borders, from Ulaanbaatar east- and westward (the so-called Millenium Road), and from Darkhan to Bulgan. A number of road construction projects are currently underway. Mongolia has 4,800 km (3,000 mi) of paved roads, with 1,800 km (1,100 mi) of that total completed in 2013 alone.[102]
During the state socialist period, education was one of the areas of significant achievement in Mongolia. Before the People's Republic, literacy rates were below one percent. By 1952, illiteracy was virtually eliminated,[103] in part through the use of seasonal boarding schools for children of nomadic families. Funding to these boarding schools was cut in the 1990s, contributing to slightly increased illiteracy.
Primary and secondary education formerly lasted ten years, but was expanded to eleven years. Since the 2008–2009 school year, new first-graders are using the 12-year system, and a full transition to the 12-year system will not occur until the 2019–2020 school year, when the current[when?] third-graders graduate.[104]
As of 2006[update], English is taught in all secondary schools across Mongolia, beginning in fourth grade.
Mongolian national universities are all spin-offs from the National University of Mongolia and the Mongolian University of Science and Technology. Almost three in five Mongolian youths now enroll in university. There was a six-fold increase in students between 1993 and 2010.[105]
See Health in Mongolia
The symbol in the left bar of the national flag is a Buddhist icon called Soyombo. It represents the sun, moon, stars, and heavens per standard cosmological symbology abstracted from that seen in traditional thangka paintings.
Before the 20th century, most works of the fine arts in Mongolia had a religious function, and therefore Mongolian fine arts were heavily influenced by religious texts.[106] Thangkas were usually painted or made in applique technique. Bronze sculptures usually showed Buddhist deities. A number of great works are attributed to the first Jebtsundamba Khutuktu, Zanabazar.
In the late 19th century, painters like "Marzan" Sharav turned to more realistic painting styles. Under the Mongolian People's Republic, socialist realism was the dominant painting style,[107] however traditional thangka-like paintings dealing with secular, nationalist themes were also popular, a genre known as "Mongol zurag".
Among the first attempts to introduce modernism into the fine arts of Mongolia was the painting Ehiin setgel (Mother's love) created by Tsevegjav in the 1960s. The artist was purged as his work was censored.
All forms of fine arts flourished only after "Perestroika" in the late 1980s. Otgonbayar Ershuu is arguably one of the most well-known Mongolian modern artists in the Western world, he was portrayed in the film "ZURAG" by Tobias Wulff.[108]
The traditional Mongolian dwelling is known as a ger. In the past it was known by the Russian term yurt, but this has been changing as the Mongolian term becomes better known among English-speaking countries. According to Mongolian artist and art critic N. Chultem, the ger was the basis for development of traditional Mongolian architecture. In the 16th and 17th centuries, lamaseries were built throughout the country. Many of them started as ger-temples. When they needed to be enlarged to accommodate the growing number of worshippers, the Mongolian architects used structures with 6 and 12 angles[clarification needed] with pyramidal roofs to approximate to the round shape of a ger. Further enlargement led to a quadratic shape of the temples. The roofs were made in the shape of marquees.[109] The trellis walls, roof poles and layers of felt were replaced by stone, brick, beams and planks, and became permanent.[110]
Chultem distinguished three styles in traditional Mongolian architecture: Mongolian, Tibetan and Chinese as well as combinations of the three. Among the first quadratic temples was Batu-Tsagaan (1654) designed by Zanabazar. An example of the ger-style architecture is the lamasery Dashi-Choiling in Ulaanbaatar. The temple Lavrin (18th century) in the Erdene Zuu lamasery was built in the Tibetan tradition. An example of a temple built in the Chinese tradition is the lamasery Choijing Lamiin Sume (1904), which is a museum today. The quadratic temple Tsogchin in lamasery Gandan in Ulaanbaatar is a combination of the Mongolian and Chinese tradition. The temple of Maitreya (disassembled in 1938) is an example of the Tibeto-Mongolian architecture.[109] Dashi-Choiling monastery has commenced a project to restore the temple and the 25 metres (82 ft) sculpture of Maitreya.
The music of Mongolia is strongly influenced by nature, nomadism, shamanism, and also Tibetan Buddhism. The traditional music includes a variety of instruments, famously the morin khuur, and also the singing styles like the urtyn duu ("long song"), and throat-singing (khoomei). The "tsam" is danced to keep away evil spirits and it was seen the reminiscences of shamaning.
The first rock band of Mongolia was Soyol Erdene, founded in the 1960s. Their Beatles-like manner was severely criticized by the Communist censorship. It was followed by Mungunhurhree, Ineemseglel, Urgoo, etc., carving out the path for the genre in the harsh environment of Communist ideology. Mungunhurhree and Haranga were to become the pioneers in the Mongolia's heavy rock music. Haranga approached its zenith in the late 1980s and 1990s.
The leader of Haranga, famous guitarist Enh-Manlai, generously helped the growth of the following generations of rockers. Among the followers of Haranga was the band Hurd. In the early 1990s, group Har-Chono put the beginning for Mongolia's folk-rock, merging elements of the Mongolian traditional "long song" into the genre.
By that time, the environment for development of artistic thought had become largely liberal thanks to the new democratic society in the country. The 1990s saw development of rap, techno, hip-hop and also boy bands and girl bands flourish at the turn of the millennium.
Mongolian press began in 1920 with close ties to the Soviet Union under the Mongolian Communist Party, with the establishment of the Unen ("Truth") newspaper similar to the Soviet Pravda.[111] Until reforms in the 1990s, the government had strict control of the media and oversaw all publishing, in which no independent media was allowed.[111] The dissolution of the Soviet Union had a significant impact on Mongolia, where the one-party state grew into a multi-party democracy, and with that, media freedoms came to the forefront.
A new law on press freedom, drafted with help from international NGOs on August 28, 1998 and enacted on January 1, 1999, paved the way for media reforms.[112] The Mongolian media currently consists of around 300 print and broadcasting outlets.[113]
Since 2006, the media environment has been improving with the government debating a new Freedom of Information Act, and the removal of any affiliation of media outlets with the government.[114][115] Market reforms have led to an increasing number of people working in the media year on year, along with students at journalism schools.[114]
In its 2013 World Press Freedom Index report, Reporters Without Borders classified the media environment as 98th out of 179, with 1st being most free.[116] In 2016, Mongolia was ranked 60th out of 180.[117]
According to 2014 Asian Development Bank survey, 80% of Mongolians cited TV as their main source of information.[118]
The main national festival is Naadam, which has been organised for centuries and takes place over three days in the summer, consists of three Mongolian traditional sports, archery, cross-country horse-racing, and wrestling, traditionally recognized as the Three Manly Games of Naadam. In modern-day Mongolia, Naadam is held from July 11 to 13 in the honour of the anniversaries of the National Democratic Revolution and foundation of the Great Mongol State.
Another very popular activity called Shagaa is the "flicking" of sheep ankle bones at a target several feet away, using a flicking motion of the finger to send the small bone flying at targets and trying to knock the target bones off the platform. At Naadam, this contest is very popular and develops a serious audience among older Mongolians.
Horse riding is especially central to Mongolian culture. The long-distance races that are showcased during Naadam festivals are one aspect of this, as is the popularity of trick riding. One example of trick riding is the legend that the Mongolian military hero Damdin Sükhbaatar scattered coins on the ground and then picked them up while riding a horse at full gallop.
Mongolian wrestling is the most popular of all Mongol sports. It is the highlight of the Three Manly Games of Naadam. Historians claim that Mongol-style wrestling originated some seven thousand years ago. Hundreds of wrestlers from different cities and aimags around the country take part in the national wrestling competition.
Other sports such as basketball, weightlifting, powerlifting, and association football, athletics, gymnastics, table tennis, jujutsu, karate, aikido, kickboxing, mixed martial arts have become popular in Mongolia. More Mongolian table tennis players are competing internationally.
Freestyle wrestling has been practised since 1958 in Mongolia.[119] Mongolian freestyle wrestlers have won the first and the most Olympic medals of Mongolia.
Naidangiin Tüvshinbayar won Mongolia's first ever Olympic gold medal in the men's 100-kilogram class of judo.[120]
Amateur boxing has been practised in Mongolia since 1948.[121] Mongolian Olympic boxing national team was founded in 1960. Communist government of Mongolia banned boxing during the period 1964–1967 but the government ended ban on boxing soon. Professional boxing began in Mongolia in the 1990s.
Mongolia national basketball team enjoyed some success recently, especially at the East Asian Games.
Association football is also played in Mongolia. The Mongolia national football team began playing national games again during the 1990s; but has not yet qualified for a major international tournament. The Mongolia Premier League is the top domestic competition.
Several Mongolian women have excelled in pistol shooting: Otryadyn Gündegmaa is a silver medalist of the 2008 Olympic Games, Munkhbayar Dorjsuren is a double world champion and Olympic bronze medal winner (now representing Germany), while Tsogbadrakhyn Mönkhzul is, as of May 2007, ranked third in the world in the 25-metre pistol event.[122]
Mongolian sumo wrestler Dolgorsürengiin Dagvadorj won 25 top division tournament championships, placing him fourth on the all-time list. In January 2015, Mönkhbatyn Davaajargal took his 33rd top division championship, giving him the most in the history of sumo.
Bandy is the only sport in which Mongolia has finished higher than third place at the Asian Winter Games, which happened in 2011 when the national team captured the silver medal. It led to being chosen as the best Mongolian sport team of 2011.[123] Mongolia was proud to win the bronze medal of the B division at the 2017 Bandy World Championship after which the then President of Mongolia, Tsakhiagiin Elbegdorj, held a reception for the team.[124]
Ulaanbataar holds an annual marathon in June. 2015 will have the sixth marathon that has been organized by Ar Mongol. The race starts at Sukh Bataar Square and is always open to residents and runners who come especially for this event.[125]
Mongolia holds other traditional festivals throughout the year. The Golden Eagle Festival draws about 400 eagle hunters on horseback, including the traveler Мөнхбаярт Батсайхан (Munkhbayart Batsaikhan), to compete with their birds. The Ice Festival and the Thousand Camel Festival are amongst many other traditional Mongolian festivals.
Mongolia – Wikipedia book
Even if the president has no discretion in the forming of cabinets or the right to dissolve parliament, his or her constitutional authority can be regarded as 'quite considerable' in Duverger’s sense if cabinet legislation approved in parliament can be blocked by the people's elected agent. Such powers are especially relevant if an extraordinary majority is required to override a veto, as in Mongolia, Poland, and Senegal.
Mongolia is sometimes described as a semi-presidential system because, while the prime minister and cabinet are collectively responsible to the SGKh, the president is popularly elected, and his/her powers are much broader than the conventional powers of heads of state in parliamentary systems.
Places adjacent to Mongolia | ||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
|
Countries and dependencies of Asia | |||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Sovereign states |
| ||||||
States with limited recognition |
| ||||||
Dependencies and special administrative regions |
| ||||||
|
East Asia | ||
---|---|---|
Countries and regions |
| |
Ethnic groups |
| |
Culture |
| |
Environment |
| |
Politics and economics |
| |
History |
| |
Sports |
| |
Education |
| |
Military |
| |
Science and technology |
|
Mongolia articles | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
History |
| ||||
Geography |
| ||||
Politics |
| ||||
Economy |
| ||||
Society |
| ||||
|
Mongolic peoples | |||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
History |
| ||||||||||
Ethnic groups |
|
Authority control |
|
---|
全文を閲覧するには購読必要です。 To read the full text you will need to subscribe.
拡張検索 | 「Mongolian」「Mongolian gerbil」「Mongolian斑」 |
.