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This article needs more medical references for verification or relies too heavily on primary sources. Please review the contents of the article and add the appropriate references if you can. Unsourced or poorly sourced material may be challenged and removed. (August 2014) |
|
Magnesium sulfate
Anhydrous magnesium sulfate
|
Epsomite (heptahydrate)
|
Xray
|
| Names |
| IUPAC name
Magnesium sulphate
|
Other names
Epsom salt (heptahydrate)
English salt
Bitter salts
Bath salts |
| Identifiers |
|
CAS Number
|
7487-88-9 Y
14168-73-1 (monohydrate) Y
24378-31-2 (tetrahydrate) Y
15553-21-6 (pentahydrate) Y
13778-97-7 (hexahydrate) Y
10034-99-8 (heptahydrate) Y |
| 3D model (Jmol) |
Interactive image |
| ChEBI |
CHEBI:32599 Y |
| ChEMBL |
ChEMBL1200456 N |
| ChemSpider |
22515 Y |
| DrugBank |
DB00653 Y |
| ECHA InfoCard |
100.028.453 |
| E number |
E518 (acidity regulators, ...) |
| PubChem |
24083 |
| RTECS number |
OM4500000 |
| UNII |
ML30MJ2U7I Y |
InChI
-
InChI=1S/Mg.H2O4S/c;1-5(2,3)4/h;(H2,1,2,3,4)/q+2;/p-2 Y
Key: CSNNHWWHGAXBCP-UHFFFAOYSA-L Y
-
InChI=1/Mg.H2O4S/c;1-5(2,3)4/h;(H2,1,2,3,4)/q+2;/p-2
Key: CSNNHWWHGAXBCP-NUQVWONBAQ
|
|
|
| Properties |
|
Chemical formula
|
MgSO4 |
| Molar mass |
120.366 g/mol (anhydrous)
138.38 g/mol (monohydrate)
174.41 g/mol (trihydrate)
210.44 g/mol (pentahydrate)
228.46 g/mol (hexahydrate)
246.47 g/mol (heptahydrate) |
| Appearance |
white crystalline solid |
| Odor |
odorless |
| Density |
2.66 g/cm3 (anhydrous)
2.445 g/cm3 (monohydrate)
1.68 g/cm3 (heptahydrate)
1.512 g/cm3 (11-hydrate) |
| Melting point |
anhydrous decomposes at 1,124°C
monohydrate decomposes at 200°C
heptahydrate decomposes at 150°C
undecahydrate decomposes at 2°C |
|
Solubility in water
|
anhydrous
26.9 g/100 mL (0 °C)
35.1 g/100 mL (20 °C)
50.2 g/100 mL (100 °C)
heptahydrate
71 g/100 mL (20 °C) |
| Solubility |
1.16 g/100 mL (18°C, ether)
slightly soluble in alcohol, glycerol
insoluble in acetone |
|
Magnetic susceptibility (χ)
|
−50·10−6 cm3/mol |
|
Refractive index (nD)
|
1.523 (monohydrate)
1.433 (heptahydrate) |
| Structure |
|
Crystal structure
|
monoclinic (hydrate) |
| Pharmacology |
|
ATC code
|
A06AD04 (WHO) A12CC02 (WHO) B05XA05 (WHO) D11AX05 (WHO) V04CC02 (WHO) |
| Hazards |
| Safety data sheet |
External MSDS |
| NFPA 704 |
|
| Related compounds |
|
Other cations
|
Beryllium sulfate
Calcium sulfate
Strontium sulfate
Barium sulfate |
Except where otherwise noted, data are given for materials in their standard state (at 25 °C [77 °F], 100 kPa).
|
| N verify (what is YN ?) |
| Infobox references |
|
|
Magnesium sulfate is an inorganic salt (chemical compound) containing magnesium, sulfur and oxygen, with the formula MgSO4. It is often encountered as the heptahydrate sulfate mineral epsomite (MgSO4·7H2O), commonly called Epsom salt, taking its name from a bitter saline spring in Epsom in Surrey, England, where the salt was produced from the springs that arise where the porous chalk of the North Downs meets non-porous London clay. The monohydrate, MgSO4·H2O is found as the mineral kieserite. The overall global annual usage in the mid-1970s of the monohydrate was 2.3 million tons, of which the majority was used in agriculture.[1]
Anhydrous magnesium sulfate is used as a drying agent. The anhydrous form is hygroscopic (readily absorbs water from the air) and is therefore difficult to weigh accurately; the hydrate is often preferred when preparing solutions (for example, in medical preparations). Epsom salt has been traditionally used as a component of bath salts. Epsom salt can also be used as a beauty product. Athletes use it to soothe sore muscles, while gardeners use it to improve crops. It has a variety of other uses: for example, Epsom salt is also effective in the removal of splinters.[2]
It is on the WHO Model List of Essential Medicines, the most important medications needed in a basic health system.[3]
Contents
- 1 Uses
- 1.1 Medical
- 1.1.1 Pregnancy
- 1.1.2 Bath salts and Flotation Tanks
- 1.2 Agriculture
- 1.3 Food Preparation
- 1.4 Chemistry
- 1.5 Marine use
- 2 Physical properties
- 3 Hydrates
- 4 Manufacturing
- 5 Occurrence
- 6 References
- 7 External links
Uses
Medical
Magnesium sulfate is a common mineral pharmaceutical preparation of magnesium, commonly known as Epsom salt, used both externally and internally. Magnesium sulfate is highly water-soluble and solubility is inhibited with lipids typically used in lotions. Lotions often employ the use of emulsions or suspensions to include both oil and water-soluble ingredients. Hence, magnesium sulfate in a lotion may not be as freely available to migrate to the skin nor to be absorbed through the skin, hence both studies may properly suggest absorption or lack thereof as a function of the carrier (in a water solution vs. in an oil emulsion/suspension). Temperature and concentration gradients may also be contributing factors to absorption.
Epsom salt is used as bath salts and for isolation tanks. Magnesium sulfate is the main preparation of intravenous magnesium.
Internal uses include:
- Oral magnesium sulfate is commonly used as a saline laxative or osmotic purgative.
- Replacement therapy for hypomagnesemia[4]
- Magnesium sulfate is a antiarrhythmic agent for torsades de pointes in cardiac arrest under the ECC guidelines and for managing quinidine-induced arrhythmias.[5]
- As a bronchodilator after beta-agonist and anticholinergic agents have been tried, e.g. in severe exacerbations of asthma,[6] magnesium sulfate can be nebulized to reduce the symptoms of acute asthma.[6] It is commonly administered via the intravenous route for the management of severe asthma attacks.
- Magnesium sulfate is effective in decreasing the risk that pre-eclampsia progresses to eclampsia.[7] IV magnesium sulfate is used to prevent and treat seizures of eclampsia. It reduces the systolic blood pressure but doesnt alter the diastolic blood pressure, so the blood perfusion to the foetus isnt compromised. It is also commonly used for eclampsia where compared to diazepam or phenytoin it results in better outcomes.[8][9]
- In those who are at risk of a preterm birth. A systematic review suggested that intravenous magnesium sulfate before birth could reduce the risk of cerebral palsy and motor dysfunction in preterm infants by 30%.[10]
- Magnesium sulfate has been used as an experimental treatment of Irukandji syndrome caused by envenomation by certain species of Irukandji jellyfish, but the efficacy of this treatment remains unproven.[11]
- Solutions of sulfate salts such as Epsom salt may be given as first aid for barium chloride poisoning.[12][not in citation given]
An overdose of magnesium causes hypermagnesemia.
Pregnancy
Magnesium sulfate was once used as a tocolytic,[13][14] but meta-analyses have failed to support it as an anti-contraction medication.[15][16] Usage for prolonged periods (more than five to seven days) may result in health problems for the baby.[17]
In those at risk of an early delivery, magnesium sulfate appears to decrease the risk of cerebral palsy.[18][19] It is unclear if it helps those who are born at term.[20]
Bath salts and Flotation Tanks
Magnesium sulfate is used in bath salts, particularly in flotation therapy, where high concentrations raise the bath water's specific gravity, effectively making the body more buoyant. Traditionally, it is also used to prepare foot baths, intended to soothe sore feet. The reason for the inclusion of the salt is partially cosmetic: the increase in ionic strength prevents some of the temporary skin wrinkling (partial maceration) which is caused by prolonged immersion of extremities in pure water. Magnesium and sulfate ions are naturally present in some mineral waters.[21] The claimed health benefits of Epsom Salt baths have not been proven.[22]
Agriculture
In gardening and other agriculture, magnesium sulfate is used to correct a magnesium or sulfur deficiency in soil; magnesium is an essential element in the chlorophyll molecule, and sulfur is another important micronutrient.[23] It is most commonly applied to potted plants, or to magnesium-hungry crops, such as potatoes, roses, tomatoes, lemon trees, carrots, and peppers. The advantage of magnesium sulfate over other magnesium soil amendments (such as dolomitic lime) is its high solubility, which also allows the option of foliar feeding. Solutions of magnesium sulfate are also nearly neutral, compared with alkaline salts of magnesium as found in limestone; therefore, the use of magnesium sulfate as a magnesium source for soil does not significantly change the soil pH.[24]
Food Preparation
Magnesium sulfate is used as a brewing salt in beer production to adjust the ion content of the brewing water and enhance enzyme action in the mash or promote a desired flavor profile in the beer.
It may also be used as a coagulant for making tofu.[25]
Chemistry
Anhydrous magnesium sulfate is commonly used as a desiccant in organic synthesis due to its affinity for water. During work-up, an organic phase is saturated with magnesium sulfate until it no longer forms clumps. The hydrated solid is then removed with filtration or decantation. Other inorganic sulfate salts such as sodium sulfate and calcium sulfate may also be used in the same way.
Marine use
Magnesium sulfate heptahydrate is also used to maintain the magnesium concentration in marine aquaria which contain large amounts of stony corals, as it is slowly depleted in their calcification process. In a magnesium-deficient marine aquarium, calcium and alkalinity concentrations are very difficult to control because not enough magnesium is present to stabilize these ions in the saltwater and prevent their spontaneous precipitation into calcium carbonate.[26]
Physical properties
Magnesium sulfate is highly soluble in water. The anhydrous form is strongly hygroscopic, and can be used as a desiccant. It is the primary substance that causes the absorption of sound in seawater[27] (acoustic energy is converted to thermal energy). Absorption is strongly dependent on frequency: lower frequencies are less absorbed by the salt, so that the sound travels much farther in the ocean. Boric acid also contributes to absorption, but the most abundant salt in seawater, sodium chloride, has negligible sound absorption.
Hydrates
Almost all known mineralogical forms of MgSO4 occur as hydrates. Epsomite is the natural analogue of "Epsom salt". Another heptahydrate, the copper-containing mineral alpersite (Mg,Cu)SO4·7H2O,[28] was recently recognized. Both are, however, not the highest known hydrates of MgSO4, due to the recent terrestrial find of meridianiite, MgSO4·11H2O, which is thought to also occur on Mars. Hexahydrite is the next lower (6) hydrate. Three next lower hydrates — pentahydrite (5), starkeyite (4) and especially sanderite (2) — are more rarely found. Kieserite is a monohydrate and is common among evaporitic deposits. Anhydrous magnesium sulfate was reported from some burning coal dumps, but was never treated as a mineral.
The pH of hydrates is average 6.0 (5.5 to 6.5). Magnesium hydrates have water of crystallization.[29]
Manufacturing
The heptahydrate can be prepared by neutralizing sulfuric acid with magnesium carbonate or oxide, but it is usually obtained directly from natural sources.
Anhydrous magnesium sulfate is prepared only by the dehydration of a hydrate.
Occurrence
Magnesium sulfates are common minerals in geological environments. Their occurrence is mostly connected with supergene processes. Some of them are also important constituents of evaporitic potassium-magnesium (K-Mg) salts deposits.
Bright spots observed by the Dawn Spacecraft in Occator Crater on the dwarf planet Ceres are most consistent with reflected light from magnesium sulfate hexahydrate.[30]
References
- ^ Industrial Inorganic Chemistry, Karl Heinz Büchel, Hans-Heinrich Moretto, Dietmar Werner, John Wiley & Sons, 2d edition, 2000, ISBN 978-3-527-61333-5
- ^ "Quick Cures/Quack Cures: Is Epsom Worth Its Salt?". Wall Street Journal. April 9, 2012.
- ^ "WHO Model List of Essential Medicines" (PDF). World Health Organization. April 2015. Retrieved 14 December 2015.
- ^ "Pharmaceutical Information – Magnesium Sulfate". RxMed. Retrieved 2009-07-06.
- ^ "CPR and First Aid: Antiarrhythmic Drugs During and Immediately After Cardiac Arrest (section)". American Heart Association. Retrieved 29 August 2016.
Previous ACLS guidelines addressed the use of magnesium in cardiac arrest with polymorphic ventricular tachycardia (ie, torsades de pointes) or suspected hypomagnesemia, and this has not been reevaluated in the 2015 Guidelines Update. These previous guidelines recommended defibrillation for termination of polymorphic VT (ie, torsades de pointes), followed by consideration of intravenous magnesium sulfate when secondary to a long QT interval.
- ^ a b Blitz M, Blitz S, Hughes R, Diner B, Beasley R, Knopp J, Rowe BH. Aerosolized magnesium sulfate for acute asthma: a systematic review. Chest 2005;128:337-44. doi:10.1378/chest.128.1.337 PMID 16002955.
- ^ Duley, L; Gülmezoglu, AM; Henderson-Smart, DJ; Chou, D (Nov 10, 2010). "Magnesium sulphate and other anticonvulsants for women with pre-eclampsia.". The Cochrane database of systematic reviews (11): CD000025. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD000025.pub2. PMID 21069663.
- ^ Duley, L; Henderson-Smart, DJ; Walker, GJ; Chou, D (Dec 8, 2010). "Magnesium sulphate versus diazepam for eclampsia.". The Cochrane database of systematic reviews (12): CD000127. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD000127.pub2. PMID 21154341.
- ^ Duley, L; Henderson-Smart, DJ; Chou, D (Oct 6, 2010). "Magnesium sulphate versus phenytoin for eclampsia.". The Cochrane database of systematic reviews (10): CD000128. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD000128.pub2. PMID 20927719.
- ^ Doyle, LW; Crowther, CA; Middleton, P; Marret, S (Jun 2009). "Antenatal magnesium sulfate and neurologic outcome in preterm infants: a systematic review.". Obstetrics and gynecology. 113 (6): 1327–33. doi:10.1097/AOG.0b013e3181a60495. PMID 19461430.
- ^ Corkeron M (2003). "Magnesium infusion to treat Irukandji syndrome". Med J Aust. 178 (8): 411. PMID 12697017.
- ^ "BARIUM CHLORIDE DIHYDRATE 4. First Aid Measures". Jtbaker.com. Retrieved 2009-07-06.
- ^ "Magnesium sulfate for preterm labor". Webmd.com. 2007-01-19. Retrieved 2009-07-06.
- ^ Lewis DF (September 2005). "Magnesium sulfate: the first-line tocolytic". Obstet. Gynecol. Clin. North Am. 32 (3): 485–500. doi:10.1016/j.ogc.2005.03.002. PMID 16125045.
- ^ Simhan HN, Caritis SN (2007). "Prevention of Preterm Delivery". New England Journal of Medicine. 357 (5): 477–487. doi:10.1056/NEJMra050435. PMID 17671256.
- ^ Nanda, K; Grimes, DA (2006). "Magnesium sulfate tocolysis: Time to quit". Obstetrics and Gynecology. 108 (4): 986–989. doi:10.1097/01.AOG.0000236445.18265.93. PMID 17012463.
- ^ "Magnesium Sulfate: Drug Safety Communication – Recommendation Against Prolonged Use in Pre-term Labor". FDA. Retrieved 2 June 2013.
- ^ Doyle, LW; Crowther, CA; Middleton, P; Marret, S; Rouse, D (Jan 21, 2009). "Magnesium sulphate for women at risk of preterm birth for neuroprotection of the fetus.". The Cochrane database of systematic reviews (1): CD004661. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD004661.pub3. PMID 19160238.
- ^ Wolf, HT; Hegaard, HK; Greisen, G; Huusom, L; Hedegaard, M (Feb 2012). "Treatment with magnesium sulphate in pre-term birth: a systematic review and meta-analysis of observational studies.". Journal of obstetrics and gynaecology : the journal of the Institute of Obstetrics and Gynaecology. 32 (2): 135–40. doi:10.3109/01443615.2011.638999. PMID 22296422.
- ^ Nguyen, TM; Crowther, CA; Wilkinson, D; Bain, E (Feb 28, 2013). "Magnesium sulphate for women at term for neuroprotection of the fetus.". The Cochrane database of systematic reviews. 2: CD009395. doi:10.1002/14651858.cd009395.pub2. PMID 23450601.
- ^ "Bath - Hot Springs". Retrieved 16 October 2016.
- ^ Ingraham, Paul. "Does Epsom Salt Work? The science of Epsom salt bathing for recovery from muscle pain, soreness, or injury". Pain Science. Retrieved 29 August 2016.
- ^ Reece, J. B., & Campbell, N. A. (2011). Campbell biology. (9th ed., p. 791). Boston: Benjamin Cummings
- ^ "Pubchem: magnesium sulfate".
- ^ US The present invention relates to a novel process for producing packed tofu, particularly a process for producing long-life packed tofu from sterilized soybean milk. 6042851, Matsuura, Masaru; Masaoki Sasaki & Jun Sasakib et al., "Process for producing packed tofu", published 28 Mar 2000
- ^ "Do-It-Yourself Magnesium Supplements for the Reef Aquarium". Reefkeeping. 2006. Retrieved 2008-03-14.
- ^ "Underlying physics and mechanisms for the absorption of sound in seawater". Resource.npl.co.uk. Retrieved 2009-07-06.
- ^ Peterson, Ronald C.; Hammarstrom, Jane M.; Seal, II, Robert R (Feb 2006). "Alpersite (Mg,Cu)SO4·7H2O, a new mineral of the melanterite group, and cuprian pentahydrite: Their occurrence within mine waste". American Mineralogist. 91 (2–3): 261–269. doi:10.2138/am.2006.1911.
- ^ Lucia Odochian "Study of the nature of the crystallization water in some magnesium hydrates by thermal methods," J. of Thermal Analysis and Calorimetry, Volume 45, Number 6, December, 1995. doi:10.1007/BF02547437
- ^ M. C. De Sanctis; E. Ammannito; A. Raponi; S. Marchi; T. B. McCord; H. Y. McSween; F. Capaccioni; M. T. Capria; F. G. Carrozzo; M. Ciarniello; A. Longobardo; F. Tosi; S. Fonte; M. Formisano; A. Frigeri; M. Giardino; G. Magni; E. Palomba; D. Turrini; F. Zambon; J.-P. Combe; W. Feldman; R. Jaumann; L. A. McFadden; C. M. Pieters (2015). "Ammoniated phyllosilicates with a likely outer Solar System origin on (1) Ceres". Nature. 528: 241–244. doi:10.1038/nature16172.
External links
- International Chemical Safety Cards – Magnesium Sulfate
|
Magnesium compounds
|
|
- MgB2
- MgBr2
- MgCO3
- MgC2O4
- MgC6H6O7
- MgC14H10O4
- MgCl2
- Mg(ClO4)2
- MgF2
- MgH2
- Mg(HCO3)2
- MgI2
- Mg(NO3)2
- MgO
- MgO2
- Mg(OH)2
- MgPo
- MgS
- MgSO3
- MgSO4
- MgU2O7
- Mg2Al3
- Mg2Si
- Mg2SiO4
- Mg2Si3O8
- Mg3N2
- Mg3(PO4)2
- Mg2(CrO4)2
|
|
Drugs for constipation (laxatives and cathartics) (A06)
|
|
| Stool softeners |
|
|
| Stimulant laxatives |
- Bisacodyl
- Bisoxatin
- Cascara
- Castor oil
- Dantron
- Oxyphenisatine
- Phenolphthalein
- Senna glycosides
- Sodium picosulfate
|
|
| Bulk-forming laxatives |
- Dietary fiber
- Ethulose
- Ispaghula
- Linseed
- Methylcellulose
- Polycarbophil calcium
- Sterculia
- Triticum
|
|
| Lubricant laxatives |
- Liquid paraffin
- Mineral oil
- White petrolatum (petroleum jelly)
|
|
| Osmotic laxatives |
- Lactitol
- Lactulose
- Laminarid
- Magnesium carbonate
- Magnesium citrate
- Magnesium hydroxide (milk of magnesia)
- Magnesium oxide
- Magnesium peroxide
- Magnesium sulfate
- Mannitol
- Pentaerythritol
- Polyethylene glycol (macrogol)
- Sodium phosphate
- Sodium sulfate
- Sodium tartrate
- Sorbitol
|
|
| Enemas |
- Bisacodyl
- Dantron
- Glycerol
- Oil
- Sodium laurilsulfate
- Sodium lauryl sulfoacetate
- Sodium phosphate
- Sorbitol
|
|
| Opioid antagonists |
- Alvimopan
- Methylnaltrexone bromide
- Naloxegol
- Naloxone (Oxycodone/naloxone)
|
|
| Others |
- Linaclotide
- Lubiprostone
- Oxyphenisatine
- Prucalopride
- Tegaserod
- Ulimorelin
|
|
Mineral supplements (A12)
|
|
| Major |
| Calcium |
- β-hydroxy-β-methylbutyrate
- carbonate
- chloride
- +cholecalciferol
- citrate
- glubionate
- glucoheptonate
- gluconate#
- glycerylphosphate
- hydroxyapatite
- lactate gluconate
- lactate
- pangamate
- phosphate
|
|
| Magnesium |
- aspartate
- chloride
- citrate
- gluconate
- glycinate
- lactate
- levulinate
- malate
- orotate
- oxide
- pidolate
- sulfate
- taurate
|
|
| Phosphorus |
- adenosine triphosphate disodium
- hydroxyapatite
- monosodium phosphate
|
|
| Potassium |
- bicarbonate
- bitartrate
- chloride
- citrate
- gluconate
|
|
| Sodium |
|
|
| Sulfur |
- L-cysteine
- L-cystine
- L-glutathione
- L-methionine
- methylsulfonylmethane
- N-acetyl-L-cysteine
- R-α-lipoic acid
- S-adenosyl methionine
- taurine
|
|
|
| Trace |
| Copper |
|
|
| Iodine |
|
|
| Iron |
- (II) fumarate
- (II) sulfate
|
|
| Selenium |
|
|
| Zinc |
- acetate
- L-aspartate
- L-carnosine
- gluconate
- oxide
- proteinate
- sulfate
|
|
|
| Ultratrace |
| Chromium |
- (III) picolinate
- (III) chloride
|
|
| Fluorine |
- fluoride#
- monofluorophosphate
|
|
| Lithium |
- aspartate
- carbonate
- orotate
|
|
| Vanadium |
|
|
|
- #WHO-EM
- ‡Withdrawn from market
- Clinical trials:
- †Phase III
- §Never to phase III
|
|
Other hematological agents
|
|
Antianemic
preparations
(B03) |
| Erythropoietins |
- Darbepoetin alfa
- Methoxy polyethylene glycol-epoetin beta
- Peginesatide
|
|
| Iron supplements |
- Ferrous ascorbate
- Ferrous aspartate
- Ferrous carbonate
- Ferrous chloride
- Ferrous fumarate
- Ferrous gluconate
- Ferrous glycine sulfate
- Ferrous iodine
- Ferrous succinate
- Ferrous sulfate
- Ferrous tartrate
- Iron sucrose
- Sodium ferric gluconate complex
|
|
|
Blood substitutes and
perfusion solutions (B05) |
- Dextran
- Gelatin agents
- Hemoglobin crosfumaril
- Hemoglobin raffimer
- Hydroxyethyl starch
- Icodextrin
- Mannitol
- Serum albumin
- Sorbitol
|
|
| Enzymes (B06AA) |
- Bromelain
- Chymotrypsin
- Deoxyribonuclease
- Fibrinolysin
- Hyaluronidase
- Streptokinase
- Trypsin
|
|
Drugs used i hereditary
angioedema (B06AC) |
- C1-inhibitor
- Conestat alfa
- Ecallantide
- Icatibant
|
|
Antiarrhythmic agents (C01B)
|
|
| Channel blockers |
|
class I
(Na+ channel blockers)
|
|
class Ia (Phase 0→ and Phase 3→)
|
- Ajmaline
- Disopyramide
- Hydroquinidine
- Lorajmine
- Prajmaline
- Procainamide#
- Quinidine#
- Sparteine
|
|
|
class Ib (Phase 3←)
|
- IV (Lidocaine#)
- enteral (Aprindine
- Mexiletine
- Tocainide)
|
|
|
class Ic (Phase 0→)
|
- Encainide‡
- Ethacizine
- Flecainide
- Indecainide‡
- Lorcainide
- Moracizine‡
- Propafenone
|
|
|
|
class III
(Phase 3→, K+ channel blockers)
|
- Amiodarone
- Bretylium
- Bunaftine
- Celivarone†
- Dofetilide
- Dronedarone
- E-4031†
- Ibutilide
- Nifekalant
- Sotalol
- Tedisamil
- Vernakalant
|
|
|
class IV
(Phase 4→, Ca2+ channel blockers)
|
|
|
|
Receptor agonists
and antagonists |
|
class II
(Phase 4→, β blockers)
|
- Nadolol
- Pindolol
- Propranolol
- cardioselective (Acebutolol
- Atenolol
- Esmolol
- Metoprolol)
|
|
|
A1 agonist
|
- Adenosine
- Benzodiazepines
- Barbiturates
|
|
|
M2
|
- muscarinic antagonist: Atropine
- Disopyramide
- Quinidine
muscarinic agonist: Digoxin
|
|
|
α receptors
|
- Amiodarone
- Bretylium
- Quinidine
- Verapamil
|
|
|
| Ion transporters |
|
|
- #WHO-EM
- ‡Withdrawn from market
- Clinical trials:
- †Phase III
- §Never to phase III
|
|
Other dermatological preparations (D11)
|
|
| Anti-seborrheics |
- Antiandrogens
- Bicalutamide
- Cyproterone acetate
- Flutamide
- Spironolactone
- Antifungals
- Bifonazole
- Cetrimonium bromide (cetrimide)
- Ciclopirox olamine (ciclopirox)
- Climbazole
- Clotrimazole
- Ketoconazole
- Miconazole
- Piroctone olamine
- Selenium disulfide (selenium sulfide)
- Xenysalate
- Zinc pyrithione (pyrithione zinc)
- Antihistamines
- Calcineurin inhibitors
- Cyclosporin
- Pimecrolimus
- Tacrolimus
- Isotretinoin
- Keratolytics
- Coal tar
- Resorcinol
- Salicylic acid
- Sulfur
- Urea (urea-containing cream)
- Lithium salts
- Lithium gluconate
- Lithium succinate
- Topical corticosteroids (e.g., hydrocortisone)
|
|
| Skin lightening |
- Hydroquinone
- Mequinol
- Monobenzone
|
|
| Skin darkening |
- Afamelanotide
- Melanotan II
|
|
| Anti-inflammatories |
- Oxaceprol
- Gamolenic acid
- Pimecrolimus
- Tacrolimus
- Alitretinoin
|
|
| Baldness treatments |
- 5α-Reductase inhibitors
- Alfatradiol
- Finasteride
- Dutasteride
- Saw palmetto extract
- Antiandrogens
- Bicalutamide
- Cyproterone acetate
- Flutamide
- Spironolactone
- Topilutamide (fluridil)
- Potassium channel openers
|
|
| Hair growth inhibitors |
- 5α-Reductase inhibitors
- Antiandrogens
- Bicalutamide
- Cyproterone acetate
- Flutamide
- Spironolactone
- Eflornithine
|
|
| Others |
- Androgens (e.g., testosterone)
- Brimonidine
- Calcium gluconate
- Estrogens (e.g., estradiol)
- Hyaluronic acid
- Magnesium sulfate
- Pregnenolone acetate
- Progestogens (e.g., progesterone)
- Povidone-iodine
- Tiratricol
|
|
Tocolytics/labor repressants (G02CA)
|
|
| β2 adrenoreceptor agonists |
- Buphenine
- Fenoterol
- Hexoprenaline
- Ritodrine
- Terbutaline
|
|
| Oxytocin antagonists |
|
|
| NSAIDs |
|
|
| Calcium channel blockers |
|
|
| Myosin inhibitors |
|
|
Diagnostic agents (V04)
|
|
| Digestive system |
|
Diabetes
|
|
|
|
Fat absorption
|
|
|
|
Bile duct patency
|
- Ceruletide
- Magnesium sulfate
- Sincalide
- Sorbitol
|
|
|
Liver functional capacity
|
- Galactose
- Sulfobromophthalein
|
|
|
Gastric secretion
|
- Betazole
- Caffeine and sodium benzoate
- Cation exchange resins
- Histamine phosphate
- Methylthioninium chloride
- Pentagastrin
|
|
|
Exocrine pancreatic function
|
- Bentiromide
- Pancreozymin
- Secretin
|
|
|
| Endocrine system |
|
Pituitary function
|
- cortisol
- GH
- Pralmorelin
- Sermorelin
- Somatorelin
|
|
|
Thyroid function
|
|
|
|
Fertility disturbances
|
|
|
|
| Tuberculosis |
|
|
| Renal function |
- Alsactide
- Aminohippuric acid
- Indigo carmine
- Inulin and other polyfructosans
- Phenolsulfonphthalein
|
|
Salts and esters of the sulfate ion |
| H2SO4 |
|
|
|
He |
| Li2SO4 |
BeSO4 |
B |
esters
ROSO3−
(RO)2SO2 |
(NH4)2SO4
N2H6SO4
(NH3OH)2SO4 |
O |
F |
Ne |
Na2SO4
NaHSO4 |
MgSO4 |
Al2(SO4)3
Al2SO4(OAc)4 |
Si |
P |
SO42− |
Cl |
Ar |
K2SO4
KHSO4 |
CaSO4 |
Sc2(SO4)3 |
Ti(SO4)2
TiOSO4 |
V2(SO4)3
VOSO4 |
CrSO4
Cr2(SO4)3 |
MnSO4 |
FeSO4
Fe2(SO4)3 |
CoSO4,
Co2(SO4)3 |
NiSO4 |
CuSO4 |
ZnSO4 |
Ga2(SO4)3 |
Ge |
As |
Se |
Br |
Kr |
RbHSO4
Rb2SO4 |
SrSO4 |
Y2(SO4)3 |
Zr(SO4)2 |
Nb |
Mo |
Tc |
Ru |
Rh |
PdSO4 |
Ag2SO4 |
CdSO4 |
In2(SO4)3 |
SnSO4 |
Sb2(SO4)3 |
Te |
I |
Xe |
| Cs2SO4 |
BaSO4 |
|
Hf |
Ta |
W |
Re |
Os |
Ir |
Pt |
Au |
Hg2SO4,
HgSO4 |
Tl2SO4 |
PbSO4 |
Bi2(SO4)3 |
Po |
At |
Rn |
| Fr |
Ra |
|
Rf |
Db |
Sg |
Bh |
Hs |
Mt |
Ds |
Rg |
Cn |
Nh |
Fl |
Mc |
Lv |
Ts |
Og |
|
↓ |
|
|
| La |
Ce2(SO4)3
Ce(SO4)2 |
Pr2(SO4)3 |
Nd |
Pm |
Sm |
Eu |
Gd |
Tb |
Dy |
Ho |
Er |
Tm |
Yb2(SO4)3 |
Lu |
| Ac |
Th |
Pa |
U(SO4)2
UO2SO4 |
Np |
Pu |
Am |
Cm |
Bk |
Cf |
Es |
Fm |
Md |
No |
Lr |
